Integration of GEMLCA and the P-GRADE portal.

Determination of Pesticide Minimum Residue Limits in Essential OilsReport No 3A report for the Rural Industries Research andDevelopment CorporationBy Professor R. C. Menary & Ms S. M. GarlandJune 2004RIRDC Publication No 04/023RIRDC Project No UT-23A© 2004 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.All rights reserved.ISBN 0642 58733 7ISSN 1440-6845‘Determination of pesticide minimum residue limits in essential oils’, Report No 3Publication No 04/023Project no.UT-23AThe views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the author and not necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report.This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.Researcher Contact DetailsProfessor R. C. Menary & Ms S. M. GarlandSchool of Agricultural ScienceUniversity of TasmaniaGPO Box 252-54HobartTasmania 7001AustraliaPhone: (03) 6226 2723Fax: (03) 6226 7609Email: r.menary@.auIn submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form.RIRDC Contact DetailsRural Industries Research and Development CorporationLevel 1, AMA House42 Macquarie StreetBARTON ACT 2600PO Box 4776KINGSTON ACT 2604Phone: 02 6272 4819Fax: 02 6272 5877Email: rirdc@.auWebsite: .auPublished in June 2004Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint.FOREWORDInternational regulatory authorities are standardising the levels of pesticide residues present in products on the world market which are considered acceptable. The analytical methods to be used to confirm residue levels are also being standardised. To constructively participate in these processes, Australia must have a research base capable of constructively contributing to the establishment of methodologies and must be in a position to assess the levels of contamination within our own products.Methods for the analysis for pesticide residues rarely deal with their detection in the matrix of essential oils. This project is designed to develop and validate analytical methods and apply that methodology to monitor pesticide levels in oils produced from commercial harvests. This will provide an overview of the levels of pesticide residues we can expect in our produce when normal pesticide management programs are adhered to.The proposal to produce a manual which deals with the specific problems associated with detection of pesticide residues in essential oils is intended to benefit the essential oil industry throughout Australia and may prove useful to other horticultural products.This report is the third in a series of four project reports presented to RIRDC on this subject. It is accompanied by a technical manual detailing methodologies appropriate to the analysis for pesticide residues in essential oils.This project was part funded from RIRDC Core Funds which are provided by the Australian Government. Funding was also provided by Essential Oils of Tasmania and Natural Plant Extracts Cooperative Society Ltd.This report, an addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 1000 research publications, forms part of our Essential Oils and Plant Extracts R&D program, which aims for an Australian essential oils and plant extracts industry that has established international leadership in production, value adding and marketing.Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our website:•downloads at .au/fullreports/index.html•purchases at .au/eshopSimon HearnManaging DirectorRural Industries Research and Development CorporationAcknowledgementsOur gratitude and recognition is extended to Dr. Noel Davies (Central Science Laboratories, University of Tasmania) who provided considerable expertise in establishing procedures for chromatography mass spectrometry.The contribution to extraction methodologies and experimental work-up of Mr Garth Oliver, Research Assistant, cannot be underestimated and we gratefully acknowledge his enthusiasm and novel approaches.Financial and ‘in kind’ support was provided by Essential Oils Industry of Tasmania, (EOT).AbbreviationsADI Average Daily IntakeAGAL Australian Government Analytical Laboratoriesingredientai activeAPCI Atmospheric Pressure Chemical IonisationBAP Best Agricultural PracticesenergyCE collisionDETA DiethylenetriamineECD Electron Capture DetectorionisationESI ElectrosprayFPD Flame Photometric DetectionChromatographyGC GasResolutionHR HighChromatographyLC LiquidLC MSMS Liquid Chromatography with detection monitoring the fragments of Mass Selected ionsMRL Maximum Residue LimitSpectrometryMS MassNRA National Registration AuthorityR.S.D. Relative Standard DeviationSFE Supercritical Fluid ExtractionSIM Single Ion MonitoringSPE Solid Phase ExtractionTIC Total Ion ChromatogramContents FOREWORD (III)ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (IV)ABBREVIATIONS (V)CONTENTS (VI)EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (VII)1. INTRODUCTION (1)1.1B ACKGROUND TO THE P ROJECT (1)1.2O BJECTIVES (2)1.3M ETHODOLOGY (2)2. EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOLS & DETAILED RESULTS (3)2.1M ETHOD D EVELOPMENT (3)2.2M ONITORING OF H ARVESTS (42)2.3P RODUCTION OF M ANUAL (46)3. CONCLUSIONS (47)IMPLICATIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS (50)BIBLIOGRAPHY (50)Executive SummaryThe main objective of this project was to continue method development for the detection of pesticide residues in essential oils, to apply those methodologies to screen oils produced by major growers in the industry and to produce a manual to consolidate and coordinate the results of the research. Method development focussed on the effectiveness of clean-up techniques, validation of existing techniques, the assessment of the application of gas chromatography (GC) with detection using electron capture detectors (ECD), flame photometric detectors (FPD) and high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ion trap mass selective (MS) detection.The capacity of disposable C18 cartridges to separate components of boronia oil was found to be limited with the majority of boronia components being eluted on the solvent front, with little to no separation achieved. The cartridges were useful, however, in establishing the likely interaction of reverse phases (RP) C18 columns with components of essential oils, using polar mobile phases . The loading of large amounts of oil onto RP HPLC columns presents the risk of permanently contaminating the bonded phases. The lack of retention of components on disposable SPE C18 cartridges, despite the highly polar mobile phase, presented a good indication that essential oils would not accumulate on HPLC RP columns.The removal of non-polar essential oil components by solvent partitioning of distilled oils was minimal, with the recovery of pesticides equivalent to that recorded for the essential oil components. However application of this technique was of advantage in the analysis of solvent extracted essential oils such as those produced from boronia and blackcurrant.ECD was found to be successful in the detection of terbacil, bromacil, haloxyfop ester, propiconazole, tebuconazole and difenaconzole. However, analysis of pesticide residues in essential oils by application of GC ECD is not sufficiently sensitive to allow for a definitive identification of any contaminant. As a screen, ECD will only be effective in establishing that, in the absence of a peak eluting with the correct retention time, no gross contamination of pesticide residues in an essential oil has occurred . In the situation where a peak is recorded with the correct elution characteristics, and which is enhanced when the sample is fortified with the target analyte, a second means of contaminant identification would be required. ECD, then, can only be used to rule out significant contamination and could not in itself be adequate for a positive identification of pesticide contamination.Benchtop GC daughter, daughter mass spectrometry (MSMS) was assessed and was not considered practical for the detection of pesticide residues within the matrix of essential oils without comprehensive clean-up methodologies. The elution of all components into the mass spectrometer would quickly lead to detector contamination.Method validation for the detection of 6 common pesticides in boronia oil using GC high resolution mass spectrometry was completed. An analytical technique for the detection of monocrotophos in essential oils was developed using LC with detection by MSMS. The methodology included an aqueous extraction step which removed many essential oil components from the sample.Further method development of LC MSMS included the assessment of electrospray ionisation (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (APCI. For the chemicals trialed, ESI has limited application. No response was recorded for some of the most commonly used pesticides in the essential oil industry, such as linuron, oxyflurofen, and bromacil. Overall, there was very little difference between the sensitivity for ESI and APCI. However, APCI was slightly more sensitive for the commonly used pesticides, tebuconazole and propiconazole, and showed a response, though poor, to linuron and oxyflurofen. In addition, APCI was the preferred ionisation method for the following reasons,♦APCI uses less nitrogen gas compared to ESI, making overnight runs less costly;♦APCI does not have the high back pressure associated with ionisation by ESI such that APCI can be run in conjunction with UV-VIS without risk of fracturing the cell, which is pressure sensitive. Analytes that ionised in the negative APCI mode were incorporated into a separate screen which included bromacil, terbacil, and the esters of the fluazifop and haloxyfop acids. Further work using APCI in the positive mode formed the basis for the inclusion of monocrotophos, pirimicarb, propazine and difenaconazole into the standard screen already established. Acephate, carbaryl, dimethoate, ethofumesate and pendimethalin all required further work for enhanced ionisation and / or improved elution profiles. Negative ionisation mode for APCI gave improved characteristics for dicamba, procymidone, MCPA and mecoprop.The thirteen pesticides included in this general screen were monocrotophos, simazine, cyanazine, pirimicarb, propazine, sethoxydim, prometryb, tebuconazole, propiconazole, , difenoconazole and the esters of fluroxypyr, fluazifop and haloxyfop.. Bromacil and terbacil were not included as both require negative ionisation and elute within the same time window as simazine, which requires positive ionisation. Cycling the MS between the two modes was not practical.The method validation was tested against three oils, peppermint, parsley and fennel.Detection limits ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 mgkg-1 within the matrix of the essential oils, with a linear relationship established between pesticide concentration and peak height (r2 greater than 0.997) and repeatabilities, as described by the relative standard deviation (r.s.d), ranging from 3 to 19%. The type of oil analysed had minimal effect on the response function as expressed by slope of the standard curve.The pesticides which have an carboxylic acid moiety such as fluazifop, haloxyfop and fluroxypyr, present several complications in any analytical method development. The commercial preparations usually have the carboxylic acid in the ester form, which is hydrolysed to the active acidic form on contact with soil and vegetation. In addition, the esters may be present in several forms, such as the ethoxy ethyl or butyl esters. Detection using ESI was tested. Preliminary results indicate that ESI is unsuitable for haloxyfop and fluroxypyr ester. Fluazifop possessed good ionisation characteristics using ESI, with responses approximately thirty times that recorded for haxloyfop. Poor chromatography and response necessitated improved mobile phase and the effect of pH on elution characteristics was considered the most critical parameter. The inclusion of acetic acid improved peak resolution.The LC MSMS method for the detection of dicamba, fluroxypyr, MCPA, mecoprop and haloxyfop in peppermint and fennel distilled oils underwent the validation process. Detection limits ranged from 0.01 to 0.1 mgkg-1Extraction protocols and LC MSMS methods for the detection of paraquat and diquat were developed. ESI produced excellent responses for both paraquat and diquat, after some modifications of the mobile phase. Extraction methodology using aqueous phases were developed. Extraction with carbonate buffer proved to be the most effective in terms of recovery and robustness. A total ion chromatogram of the LC run of an aqueous extract of essential oil was recorded and detection using a photodiode array detector confirmed that very little essential oil matrix was co-extracted. The low background noise indicated that samples could be introduced directly into the MS. This presented a most efficient and rapid way for analysis of paraquat and diquat, avoiding the need for specialised columns or modifiers to be included in the mobile phase to instigate ion exchange.The adsorbtion of paraquat and diquat onto glass and other surfaces was reduced by the inclusion of diethylenetriamine (DETA). DETA preferentially accumulates on the surfaces of sample containers, competitively binding to the adsorption sites. All glassware used in the paraquat diquat analysis were washed in a 5% solution of 0.1M DETA, DETA was included in all standard curve preparations, oils were extracted with aqueous DETA and the mobile phase was changed to 50:50 DETA / methanol. The stainless steel tubing on the switching valve was replaced with teflon, further improvingreproducibility. Method validation was undertaken of the analysis of paraquat and diquat using the protocols established. The relationship between analyte concentration and peak area was not linear at low concentrations, with adsorption more pronounced for paraquat, such that the response for this analyte was half that seen for diquat and the 0.1 mgkg-1 level.The development of a method for the detection of the dithiocarbamate, mancozeb was commenced. Disodium N, N'-ethylenebis(dithiocarbamate) was synthesised as a standard for the derivatised final analytical product. An LC method, with detection using MSMS, was successfully completed. The inclusion of a phase transfer reagent, tetrabutylammonium hyrdrogen sulfate, required in the derivatisation step, contaminated the LC MSMS system, such that any signal from the target analyte was masked. Alternatives to the phase transfer reagent are now being investigated.Monitoring of harvests were undertaken for the years spanning 1998 to 2001. Screens were conducted covering a range of solvent extracted and distilled oils. Residues tested for included tebuconazole, simazine, terbacil, bromacil, sethoxydim, prometryn, oxyflurofen, pirimicarb, difenaconazole, the herbicides with acidic moieties and paraquat and diquat. Problems continued for residues of propiconazole in boronia in the 1998 / 1999 year with levels to 1 mgkg-1 still being detected. Prometryn residues were detected in a large number of samples of parsley oil.Finally the information gleaned over years of research was collated into a manual designed to allow intending analysts to determine methodologies and equipment most suited to the type of the pesticide of interest and the applicability of analytical equipment generally available.1. Introduction1.1 Background to the ProjectResearch undertaken by the Horticultural Research Group at the University of Tasmania, into pesticide residues in essential oils has been ongoing for several years and has dealt with the problems specific to the analysis of residues within the matrix of essential oils. Analytical methods for pesticides have been developed exploiting the high degree of specificity and selectivity afforded by high resolution gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Standard curves, reproducibility and detection limits were established for each. Chemicals, otherwise not amenable to gas chromatography, were derivatised and incorporated into a separate screen to cover pesticides with acidic moieties.Research has been conducted into low resolution GC mass selective detectors (MSD and GC ECD. Low resolution GC MSD achieved detection to levels of 1 mgkg-1 in boronia oil, whilst analysis using GC ECD require a clean-up step to effectively detect halogenated chemicals below 1mgkg-1.Dithane (mancozeb) residues were digested using acidified stannous chloride and the carbon disulphide generated from this reaction analysed by GC coupled to FPD in the sulphur mode.Field trials in peppermint crops were established in accordance with the guidelines published by the National Registration Authority (NRA), monitoring the dissipation of Tilt and Folicur residues in peppermint leaves and the co-distillation of these residues with hydro-distilled peppermint oils were assessed.Development of extraction protocols, analytical methods, harvest monitoring and field trials were continued and were detailed in a subsequent report. Solvent-based extractions and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) was found to have limited application in the clean-up of essential oilsIn conjunction with Essential Oils of Tasmania (EOT), the contamination risk, associated with the introduction of a range of herbicides, was assessed through a series of field trials. This required analytical method development to detect residues in boronia flowers, leaf and oil. The methodology for a further nine pesticides was successful applied. Detection limits for these chemicals ranged from 0.002 mgkg-1 to 0.1 mgkg-1. In addition, methods were developed to analyse for herbicides with active ingredients (ai) whose structure contained acidic functional groups. Two methods of pesticide application were trialed. Directed sprays refer to those directed on the stems and leaves of weeds at the base of boronia trees throughout the trial plot. Cover sprays were applied over the entire canopy. For all herbicides for which significant residues were detected, it was evident that cover sprays resulted in contamination levels ten times those occurring as a result of directed spraying in some instances. Chloropropham, terbacil and simazine presented potentially serious residue problems, with translocation of the chemical from vegetative material to the flower clearly evident.Directed spray applications of diuron and dimethenamid presented only low residue levels in extracted flowers with adequate control of weeds. Oxyflurofen and the mixture of bromacil and diuron (Krovar) presented only low levels of residues when used as a directed spray and were effective as both post and pre-emergent herbicides. Only very low levels of residues of both sethoxydim and norflurazon were detected in boronia oil produced in crops treated with directed spray applications. Sethoxydim was effective as a cover spray for grasses whilst norflurazon showed potential as herbicide to be used in combination with other chemicals such as diuron, paraquat and diquat. Little contamination of boronia oils by herbicides with acidic moieties was found. This advantage, however, appears to be offset by the relatively poor weed control. Both pendimethalin and haloxyfop showed good weed control. Both, however, present problems with chemical residues in boronia oil and should only be used as a directed sprayThe stability of tebuconazole, monocrotophos and propiconazole in boronia under standard storage conditions was investigated. Field trials of tebuconazole and propiconazole were established in commercial boronia crops and the dissipation of both were monitored over time. The amount of pesticide detected in the oils was related to that originally present in the flowers from which the oils were produced.Experiments were conducted to determine whether the accumulation of terbacil residues in peppermint was retarding plant vigour. The level recorded in the peppermint leaves were comparatively low. Itis unlikely that terbacil carry over is the cause for the lack of vigour in young peppermint plants.Boronia oils produced in 1996, 1997 and 1998 were screened for pesticides using the analytical methods developed. High levels of residues of propiconazole were shown to persist in crops harvested up until 1998. Field trials have shown that propiconazole residues should not present problems if the fungicide is used as recommended by the manufacturers.1.2 Objectives♦Provide the industry, including the Standards Association of Australia Committee CH21, with a concise practical reference, immediately relevant to the Australian essential oil industry♦Facilitate the transfer of technology from a research base to practical application in routine monitoring programs♦Continue the development of analytical methods for the detection of metabolites of the active ingredients of pesticide in essential oils.♦Validate the methods developed.♦Provide industry with data supporting assurances of quality for all exported products.♦Provide a benchmark from which Australia may negotiate the setting of a realistic maximum residue limit (MRL)♦Determine whether the rate of uptake is relative to the concentration of active ingredient on the leaf surface may establish the minimum application rates for effective pest control.1.3 MethodologyThree approaches were used to achieve the objectives set out above.♦Continue the development and validation of analytical methods for the detection of pesticide residues in essential oils. Analytical methods were developed using gas chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry (GC HR MS), GC ECD, GC FPD and high pressure liquid chromatography with detection using MSMS.♦Provide industry with data supporting assurances of quality for all exported products.♦Coordinate research results into a comprehensive manual outlining practical approaches to the development of analytical proceduresOne aspect of the commissioning of this project was to provide a cost effective analytical resource to assess the degree of the pesticide contamination already occurring in the essential oils industry using standard pesticide regimens. Oil samples from annual harvests were analysed for the presence of pesticide residues. Data from preceding years were collated to determine the progress or otherwise, in the application of best agricultural practice (BAP).2. Experimental Protocols & Detailed ResultsThe experimental conditions and results are presented under the following headings:♦Method Development♦Monitoring of Commercial Harvests♦Production of a Manual2.1 Method DevelopmentMethod development focussed on the effectiveness of clean-up techniques, validation of existing techniques, the assessment of the application of GC ECD and FPD and high pressure liquid chromatography with ion trap MS, MS detection.2.1.1 Clean-up Methodologies2.1.1.i. Application of Disposable SPE cartridges in the clean-up of pesticide residues in essentialoilsLiterature reviews provided limited information with regards to the separation of contaminants within essential oils. The retention characteristics of disposable C18 cartridges were trialed.Experiment 1;Aim : To assess the capacity of disposable C18 cartridges to the separation of boronia oil components. Experimental : Boronia concrete (49.8 mg) was dissolved in 0.5 mL of acetone and 0.4 mL of chloroform was added. 1mg of octadecane was added as an internal standard. A C18 Sep-Pak Classic cartridge (short body) was pre- conditioned with 1.25 mL of methanol, which was passed through the column at 7.5 mLmin-1, followed by 1.25 mL of acetone, at the same flow rate. The boronia samplewas then applied to the column at 2 mLmin-1 flow and eluted with 1.25 mL of acetone / chloroform (5/ 4) and then eluted with a further 2.5 mL of chloroform. 5 fractions of 25 drops each were collected. The fractions were analysed by GC FID using the following parametersAnalytical parameters6890PackardHewlettGCcolumn: Hewlett Packard 5MS 30m, i.d 0.32µmcarrier gas instrument grade nitrogeninjection volume: 1µL (split)injector temp: 250°Cdetector temp: 280°Cinital temp: 50°C (3 min), 10°Cmin-1 to 270°C (7 mins)head pressure : 10psi.Results : Table 1 record the percentage volatiles detected in the fractions collectedFraction 1 2 3 4 5 % components eluting 18 67 13 2636%monoterpenes 15%sesquiquiterpenes 33 65 2%high M.W components 1 43 47 9Table 1. Percentage volatiles eluting from SPE C18 cartridgesDiscussion : The majority of boronia components eluted on the solvent front, effecting minimal separation. This area of SPE clean-up of essential oils requires a wide ranging investigation, varying parameters such as cartridge type and polarity of mobile phase.Experiment 2.Aim : For the development of methods using LC MSMS without clean-up steps, the potential for oil components to accumulate on the reverse phase (RP) column must be assessed. The retention of essential oil components on SPE C18 cartridges, using the same mobile phase as that to be used in theLC system, would provide a good indication as to the risk of contamination of the LC columns withoil components.Experimental: Parsley oil (20-30 mg) was weighed into a GC vial. 200 µL of a 10 µgmL-1 solution (equivalent to 100mgkg-1 in oil) of each of sethoxydim, simazine, terbacil, prometryn, tebuconazoleand propiconazole were used to spike the oil, which was then dissolved in 1.0 mL of acetonitrile. The solution was then slowly introduced to the C18 cartridge (Waters Sep Pac 'classic' C18 #51910) using a disposable luer lock, 10 mL syringe, under constant manual pressure, and eluted with 9 mLs of acetonitrile. Ten, 1 mL fractions were collected and transferred to GC vials. 1mg of octadecane was added to each vial and the samples were analysed by GC FID under the conditions described in experiment 1.The experiment was repeated using C18 cartridges which had been pre-conditioned with distilled waterfor 15 mins. Again, parsley oil, spiked with pesticides was eluted with acetonitrile and 5 x 1 mL fractions collected.Results: The majority of oil components and pesticides were eluted from the C18 cartridge in the firsttwo fractions. Little to no separation of the target pesticides from the oil matrix was achieved. Table2 lists the distribution of essential oil components in the fractions collected.Fraction 1 2 3 4 5 % components eluting 18 67 13 2663%monoterpenes 15%sesquiquiterpenes 33 65 2%high M.W components 1 43 47 9water conditioned% components eluting 35 56 8 12%monoterpenes 3068%sesquiquiterpenes 60 39 1 0%high M.W components 0 50 42 7Table 2. Percentage volatiles eluting for SPE C18 cartridgesFigure 1 shows a histogram of the percentage distribution of components from the oil in each of the four fractions.Figure 1. Histogram of the percentage of volatiles of distilled oils in each of four fraction elutedon SPE C18 cartridges (non-preconditioned)Figure 2. Histogram of the percentage of volatiles of distilled oils in each of four fraction elutedon SPE C18 cartridges (preconditioned)Discussion : The chemical properties of many of the target pesticides, including polarity, solubility in organic solvents and chromatographic behaviour, are similar to the majority of essential oil components. This precludes the effective separation of analytes from such matrices through the use of standard techniques, where the major focus is pre-concentration of pesticide residues from water or water based vegetative material. However, this experiment served to provide a good indication that under HPLC conditions, where a reverse phase C18 column is used in conjunction with acetonitrile / water based mobile phases, essential oil components do not remain on the column.。

MANAGING CULTURAL INTEGRATION IN CROSS-BORDER MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONSDaniel R.Denison,Bryan Adkins andAshley M.GuidrozABSTRACTCross-border M&A has become one of the leading approaches forfirms to gain access to global markets.Yet there has been little progress in the research literature exploring the role that culture may play in the success of these ventures.Poor culture-fit has often been cited as one reason why M&A has not produced the outcomes organizations hoped for(Cart-wright&Schoenberg,2006).Cross-border M&A has the added chal-lenges of having to deal with both national and organizational culture differences.In this chapter we review the literature on cultural integration in cross-border M&A and provide a framework designed to help manage the integration process throughout the M&A lifecycle.This framework presents culture assessment and integration as a crucial component to reducing poor culture-fit as a barrier to M&A success.Mergers and acquisitions(M&A)have become a central part of most corporate growth strategies,and an increasing portion of that M&A activity now spans national borders.Indeed,beyond a certain scale,one might say that all M&A is now cross-border M&A.For example,even a merger Advances in Global Leadership,Volume6,95–115Copyright r2011by Emerald Group Publishing LimitedAll rights of reproduction in any form reservedISSN:1535-1203/doi:10.1108/S1535-1203(2011)000000600895between two large American corporations such as HP and EDS requires an integration plan that affects operations in many countries.Furthermore,the success of the merger depends not only on the integration of operations at the center where the national culture is presumably the same,but also on the integration process in many locations around the world where the national cultures differ from that in the center.Despite this trend,relatively little research has focused directly on cross-border M&A,and even less has addressed the topic of cultural integration in cross-border deals.This chapter explores these issues by first reviewing the existing literature on cross-border M&A,and then presenting a framework that highlights some of the important dynamics in the cultural integration process.This analysis is then used to pose both a set of research questions for future study and a set of practical recommendations for managing cultural integration in future cross-border mergers.UNDERSTANDING CROSS-BORDERMERGERS AND ACQUISITIONSCross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&A)are a large component of global foreign direct investment (FDI)activities (United Nations Con-ference on Trade and Development [UNCTAD],2006).Cross-border M&As are often used as a means for gaining entry into a foreign market,a method for engaging in a dynamic learning process,or a value-creating strategy (Shimizu,Hitt,Vaidyanath,&Pisanto,2004).Although there are many similarities between cross-border M&As and within-border M&As,the international scope poses additional challenges to the cultural integration process (Hofstede,1980;Shimizu et al.,2004).Acquiring companies outside of one’s own country carries what Zaheer (1995)called a ‘‘liability of foreignness ’’–the costs incurred by a firm operating in a foreign market in addition to what a local firm would incur.Cross-border M&As also have the added challenge of double-layered acculturation where national culture must also be integrated in addition to organizational culture (Barkema,Bell,&Pennings,1996).Despite these challenges,cross-border M&As continue to be a popular business strategy.The financial value of M&A activity has steadily increased from the late 20th century and into the present decade.Global FDI activity peaked at US $1.7trillion during the fiscal year of 2008,with cross-border M&As accounting for US $707billion (UNCTAD,2010).DANIEL R.DENISON ET AL.96Managing Cultural Integration97 One challenge inherent within the M&A literature that we reviewed for this chapter is the fragmentation of the research across disciplines.Researchers in finance,strategy,organizational behavior,and human resources have all studied M&A from different perspectives.Eachfield has produced a considerable amount of research delineating the factors that lead to the success or failure of M&A.Poor culture-fit has been an oft-cited reason by researchers from many different disciplines,albeit without much statistical evidence(Cartwright&Schoenberg,2006).In recent years,researchers have begun to develop more comprehensive assessments of the role of organiza-tional culture in the M&A process(Cartwright&Schoenberg,2006;Stahl& Voigt,2008).One review concludes that the study of culture in M&A is still in its infancy and that current research is too inconsistent to support clear conclusions about the positive or negative role that culture can play during M&A(Teerikangas&Very,2006).These authors make several propositions about the culture literature in the M&Afield and conclude that(i)culture is a multilevel variable that includes organizational,industrial,functional, national,occupational,and professional cultures;(ii)these cultures are interconnected and present a dynamic challenge to organizations in the M&A process;and(iii)the quality of thefirm’s integration strategy will influence the effect that culture has onfirm performance(Teerikangas&Very,2006).They conclude their paper stating that‘‘instead of asking if‘yes or no’cultural differences impact the performance of M&A,researchers should focus on ‘how’do they impact the performance of M&A’’(Teerikangas&Very,2006, p.46).We agree that culture does play a key role in the M&A process and that more research needs to be conducted to understand‘‘how’’cultural integration effects M&A performance.We also contend that the outcomes could be improved if culture is positioned as a central component of the M&A process from the beginning.To help illustrate the multilevel nature of the cross-border cultural integration process,consider the example of the merger between Finnish Merita Bank and Swedish Nordbanken described by Piekkari,Vaara, Tienari,and Santti(2005).This merger experienced many cultural integration challenges due to the decision to adopt Swedish as the corporate language.This decision had a disintegrating and fragmenting effect among employees,particularly because it disadvantaged those Finnish employees who did not speak Swedish.This decision negatively impacted performance appraisals,language training and management development,and career paths and promotion of native Finnish speaking employees who could not operate as well in the Swedish-language environment(Piekkari et al.,2005). The authors write that the‘‘chosen corporate language is likely to send animplicit symbolic message regarding the division of power between the merging parties’’(Piekkari et al.,2005,p.331).In this situation,the decision to adopt Swedish as the corporate language sent an implicit signal that the needs of Finnish employees were not at the forefront of managements’attention.This also struck a deep chord with Finnish employees,since Finland was ruled by Sweden for nearly 500years,up until 1809;and,thus there is a long history of the Swedish business elite requiring Finns to speak Swedish in order to survive economically.The Finnish–Swedish merger also brings to mind the importance of communication with employees,particularly those employed at lower levels or within front-line positions (Budhwar,Varma,Katou,&Narayan,2009).Pioch (2007)and Larsson and Lubatkin’s (2001)case studies of United States,United Kingdom,and Swedish cross-border M&As highlight the importance of low-level employee integration.As an example,Pioch (2007)discovered that a management-imposed corporate culture was not well-received by all employees within a UK-based retailer that was acquired by a larger international corporation.Employees consented to the company values,but overall cultural integration was not achieved (Pioch,2007).Larsson and Lubatkin (2001)also observed similar findings in their study of 50cross-border and domestic M&As in the United States and Sweden.They stress that integration should include a balance of company sponsored socialization activities,such as introduction programs,training,cross visits,retreats,and celebrations,as well as allowing for employee autonomy to create a joint organizational culture (Larsson &Lubatkin,2001).Several additional themes emerge from the research literature that are of particular interest for cross-border M&A.These themes include (i)the firm’s previous experience,in M&A activity in general,and in their previous business activity within the target country;(ii)the similarity in national culture between the host and target company;and (iii)the integration strategies adopted during the M&A process.These variables can all impact the success of cross-border M&As.Experience CountsResearchers have shown that both prior experience in M&A activity and prior experience within the target country can increase the frequency and success of subsequent cross-border M&A activities (Barkema et al.,1996;Finkelstein &Haleblian,2002;Haleblian &Finkelstein,1999;Vermeulen &Barkema,2001;Very &Schweiger,2001).Using organizational learning DANIEL R.DENISON ET AL.98Managing Cultural Integration99 theory as a framework(Levitt&March,1988),Collins,Holcomb,Certo, Hitt,and Lester(2009)reasoned that asfirms engage in M&A activity, either domestically or internationally,they learn a great deal about what is needed to make an M&A successful and use that experience to pursue additional international M&A ing a sample of Fortune500firms, they found that prior domestic and international acquisitions influenced the likelihood of acquisitions in foreign markets by US-basedfirms.They also found that prior international experience and prior experience within the target country were stronger predictors of subsequent international acquisitions,generally,and acquisitions within a target country,specifically (Collins et al.,2009).Similar patterns have also been observed in the Chinese business market;equity joint ventures(EJVs),which were once the primary vehicle for foreignfirms to enter the Chinese market,have decreased over the years,giving rise to more M&A activity(Xia,Tan,& Tan,2008).Nonetheless,firms entering into EJVs in China learned a great deal about how to conduct business within that marketplace,making it more likely thatfirms would engage in M&As for their subsequent business ventures.Thus,previous M&A experience preparesfirms for the challenges involved in making a merger work.Firms that already have specific experience within a target country will already be familiar with the legal and regulatory requirements of that country,for example,and will not be held back by their learning curve.Which is More Important:Similarities or Differences?A second line of research unique to cross-border M&As in particular is understanding the effect of differences in national culture.Cultural familiarity theory argues thatfirms are less likely to invest in organizations in culturally distant countries,and subsequently have poorer performance postintegration(Lee,Shenkar,&Li,2008;Li&Guisinger,1991;Shenkar, 2001).The resource-based view of thefirm,in contrast,hypothesizes exactly the opposite:that more culturally distant M&As will actually be more successful because the cultural differences enhance potential synergies between the two partners(Chakrabarti,Mukherjee,&Jayaraman,2009). The research on this issue,however,has been inconclusive.Datta and Puia (1995)found that cultural distance had a negative effect on subsequent shareholder wealth of the acquiringfirm,whereas Chakrabarti and colleagues(2009)found a positive effect of cultural distance onfirm performance36months after integration.Slangen(2006)argues that it is notthe distance between the cultures that impacts performance but the level of integration that the firms seek to achieve.For example,using a sample of Dutch acquisitions across 30countries,Slangen (2006)found that higher levels of integration negatively impacted firm performance as cultural distance increased.Understanding the Choices for Integration StrategyThis research on the cultural distance between countries reminds us that these cultural differences need to be viewed in the context of a more general approach to integration.For this,we look to the classic typology developed by Mirvis and Marks (1992).They viewed integration in terms of the degree of change required by the acquiring firm and the acquired firm.This typology distinguishes ‘‘stand alone’’mergers that require little change by either firm,from ‘‘absorption’’mergers that require fundamental change in the acquired firm,but little change in the acquiring firm,from ‘‘reverse acquisitions’’that require a high degree of change in the acquiring firm as they adopt the ways of the acquired firm.Finally,they distinguish these from ‘‘best of both’’mergers requiring substantial changes in both firms,and ‘‘transformations’’that require more fundamental change for both firms (Fig.1).Mirvis and Marks go on to elaborate the options for integration outlined in Fig.2.As two firms go from being separate entities in a holding companyBest of Both Reverse AcquisitionStand Alone Absorption Transformation Degree of Change in Acquiring Company Degree ofChange inAcquiredCompanyLowLow HighHighFig.1.Different Types of Mergers.Source:Mirvis and Marks (1992).DANIEL R.DENISON ET AL.100with little interdependence to being fully merged and consolidated,they have series of intermediate choices.Like the typology in Fig.1,this framework helps to clarify two points:First,this framework makes it clear that there are many different approaches to choose in the integration process.The degree of integration and the speed of integration are,in most cases,well within the control of the leaders of the acquiring firm.The biggest problems often come when the choices,and their consequences,are not understood clearly from the outset.Mergers that began as ‘‘absorptions’’but turned into ‘‘reverse mergers’’as they unfolded are likely to encounter problems.Or,mergers that were presented in the beginning as a ‘‘merger of equals’’in order to disguise the fact that one (or both)firms was trying to domi-nate have generated some spectacular failures.Making a clear choice,with full understanding of the consequences,and then clearly communi-cating this throughout the organization seems to be a prerequisite for success.Second,the Mirvis and Marks framework also poses a key dilemma in planning the integration process in any merger:Integration requires a lot of resources.But,at the same time,the creation of new dynamic capabilities requires integration.Thus,combining two organizations into one holding StructureManagement ImplicationsDecentralizedPlanning & MonitoringAutonomy ofLine Management Centralized Planning & Monitoring Coordination of Line Management Integrated Operations and Controls Cooperation of Line ManagementCorporateFunctions Production or Marketing Companywide IntegrationFig.2.How Much Integration?Source:Mirvis and Marks (1992).Managing Cultural Integration 101company requires minimal resources.But,in turn,it can also not be expected to generate any new dynamic capabilities.A full transformation with integrated operational control has the potential to create many new dynamic capabilities,but it will not be cheap!This dilemma is compounded when a merger spans national boundaries.The added complexity of national differences adds a third dimension of cultural distance to the Mirvis and Marks matrix presented in Fig.1and underscores the point that the quality and quantity of organizational resources that can be devoted to integrating an acquisition will be a key determinant of its success.How much complexity is the acquiring organization capable of managing?In addition to these basic integration strategy decisions,it is also important to consider the integration process itself.Integration is a multistage process.In the next section,we consider the role that organizational culture can play during each of these stages,and how cross-border M&As in particular can add both increased opportunity and increased complexity.MANAGING THE CULTURAL INTEGRATIONPROCESS IN MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONSA number of approaches have been proposed for managing postmerger integration across borders.Quah and Young (2005),for example,prescribe a five-year timeline that divides postacquisition activity into four phases,beginning with very slow absorption for the first year postacquisition and accelerating until the two firms are fully integrated.Similarly,our model in Fig.3views integration as a multistage process in which organizational culture plays an important role at each stage.Considering cultural issues early in the M&A process can increase the likelihood of a positive outcome.A crucial,and often overlooked first step,is to begin the M&A process with an understanding of how M&A activity fits with the culture and growth strategy of the organization.Beginning here ensures that cultural issues remain on the table through the acquisition and integration process rather than emerging toward the end when an integrated and unified organization is desired.Growth StrategyThe starting point in managing the cultural integration process is to consider the role of M&A in the organization’s growth strategy.Researchers often DANIEL R.DENISON ET AL.102consider the M&A event itself in isolation,rather than considering that the merger may be just one part of a larger growth strategy (Barkema &Schijven,2008;Kusewitt,1985;Salter &Weinhold,1979).Thus,the key to success is not to consider the merger in isolation,but rather to consider the M&A activity within the broader context of the evolution of the organization.Culture is often not considered until later in the M&A process,once the deal is complete.However,because ‘‘culture clashes’’are often blamed for the failure of M&As,it is important that organizations have a clear understanding of their own culture at the beginning of this process when M&A is a primary component of their growth strategy.Having insight into the level of clarity and alignment that exists within one’s own firmregarding Fig.3.A Process for Cultural Integration in Mergers and Acquisitions.Managing Cultural Integration 103mission and strategy,customer needs,internal processes,and expected behaviors and practices,for example,allows for a better assessment of cultural fit as potential targets are considered.This activity can also be beneficial in identifying the cultural traits that the organization would like to retain or develop moving forward,as they seek out organizations that might fit within their growth strategy.Assessing the organization’s cross-border capabilities for managing cultural complexity is a particularly important part of this process.A broad-based assessment of the knowledge and capabilities required to move effectively into a new region can help identify both opportunities and limitations.Assessing a firm’s existing culture as part of the growth strategy process should also include an assessment of the capability of the leadership and their ability to manage cultural complexity.Kavanagh and Ashkanasy (2006)evaluated the effect of leadership and change management strategy on M&A integration in three organizations and found that managers responsible for driving the merger process were not equipped with the necessary change management skills to ensure success.M&As are not isolated business activities (Kusewitt,1985;Salter &Weinhold,1979),and sophisticated change management skills are needed as well as a clearly communicated vision from the leadership in the firm (Kavanagh &Ashkanasy,2006;Waldman &Javidan,2009).Henkel’s 2006acquisition of Dial provides a helpful example of an acquisition that fits in well with a carefully considered growth strategy that took into consideration the cultural evolution of the corporation.Henkel,the leading German consumer products firm,has been on a decade-long transformation moving from a dominant German and European perspective with a strong base in the chemical industry to a global consumer products firm capable of managing brands that compete head-to-head with firms like Unilever and Procter &Gamble.The $2.9billion acquisition of the American icon Dial was a key step in the globalization of their home care and personal products businesses.This acquisition also gave Henkel a much stronger base in North America,with 25%of their sales now coming from the United States of America.In addition,this acquisition also gave greater global exposure to many of the established Dial brands.Potential TargetsWhen considering a range of potential M&A targets,a firm will typically gather an array of data and information.Depending on the specific growth DANIEL R.DENISON ET AL.104Managing Cultural Integration105 strategy an M&A target might support,that information may include opportunities to quickly expand product lines or move into new geographies or perhaps to eliminate a competitive threat.As information is collected regarding the potential target’s operations,it is also important to consider the expected degree of integration that the merger or acquisition will require.Will it be a holding company that is allowed a great deal of operating independence and thus less intensive cultural integration?Is it being absorbed into the acquiringfirm in a way that will require significant change for the acquiredfirm?Which parts of the acquiring organization will be most influenced by the acquisition?Will the merger or acquisition require the transformation of the cultures of allfirms involved?Other factors to consider for the success of cross-border M&As include thefirm’s previous business experience outside the borders of their country. Previous experience within a foreign environment,either through partner-ships,joint ventures,or M&As,has been shown to increase the likelihood and success of later M&A activity(Barkema et al.,1996;Finkelstein& Haleblian,2002;Haleblian&Finkelstein,1999;Vermeulen&Barkema, 2001;Very&Schweiger,2001).By the same token,the acquiredfirm’s experience counts,too,both with regard to M&A in general,and in regard to their experience with the national culture of the acquiringfirm.Firms with previous joint venture activity in China,for example,had already moved up the learning curve on how to conduct business within that country and were more likely to engage in successful M&A activity within China for their subsequent business ventures(Xia et al.,2008).Identifying potential targets might include,for example,compiling all of the foreign locations thefirm has worked within and evaluating which of those markets would be best to target.Due DiligenceDuring the due diligence period,a targetfirm has been identified and leaders of the respectivefirms begin sharingfinancial and legal information to guide the decision regarding the potential benefits and liabilities of the merger. This is an opportune time to investigate the culture of the target organization and identify similarities and differences between the twofirms.During the due diligence phase of Twentieth Century Advisors acquisition of Benham Capital Management Group,for example,the twofirms exchanged corporate values statements that revealed that they both shared some of the same guiding principles(Marks&Mirvis,2001).This made the subsequent integration ofthe two firms much easier as they already had shared perceptions on corporate values and behavior.Thus,the due diligence phase is a critical stage in the M&A process,and a time when cultural due diligence should be central within the overall due diligence process.Including human resource or organizational development experts with-in the M&A team is crucial to ensuring that cultural assessment is not overlooked (Marks &Mirvis,2001).Harding and Rouse (2007)recommend that all organizations take proactive steps to evaluate the culture of organizations they are considering acquiring and suggest that M&A teams either conduct interviews or use a cultural assessment tool to gather information.Developing a detailed understanding of how the leaders and employees in the firms develop strategies and goals,engage with the marketplace,and reward behaviors will offer critical insights regarding the potential synergies and areas of conflict that might arise during the cultural integration effort.Due diligence with respect to the cross-border manage-ment capabilities of both firms is particularly important at this stage.As another example,during the due diligence phase of Dow Chemical’s 1999acquisition of Union Carbide,the 25-person integration team did an assessment of their perceptions of the culture of both organizations.They also did a careful comparison of the perceptions of the Dow members of the integration team with the Carbide members of the integration team.The convergence of the perspectives of these two halves of the integration team was taken as a clear indication that the integration team had reached a consensus regarding the strengths and challenges of the two parts of their future organization.Cross-border acquisitions often have a way of turning from ‘‘absorption’’to ‘‘reverse acquisition’’in the acquired firm’s home country as the merger unfolds.The view from HQ may regard ownership as the most important aspect of control,or may see the adoption of global processes and procedures as the most important objective,and may not appreciate the realities of the business on the ground,and the importance of these activities for building the corporation’s presence and brand in the new marketplace.It is extremely important for these potential dynamics to be anticipated by the integration team.Cultural IntegrationLarsson and Finkelstein’s (1999)case study research provides some of the earliest documentation on the importance of postacquisition integration to DANIEL R.DENISON ET AL.106Managing Cultural Integration107 the success of a merger.In their analysis,integration was found to be the single most important predictor of synergy realization in the M&As they studied.Interestingly enough,theirfindings seem to apply equally well to both within-country and to cross-border mergers.They hypothesized that cross-border M&As would negatively affect organizational integration, positively impact the potential for combination in the merger,but increase employee resistance.The results,however,showed no relationship between cross-border M&As and increased employee resistance or a decrease in organizational integration,but did show a positive relationship with combination potential,a precursor to positive synergy.Thus,integration seems equally important for both within-border and cross-border M&As, but cross-border M&As do seem to provide increased opportunities for expanding new market access or promoting complementary globalization synergies.As mentioned previously,the decision to adopt Swedish as the company language in the Merita Bank–Nordbanken merger had long-lasting effects on Finnish employees(Piekkari et al.,2005).But national culture does not always have to be a barrier to integration.Slangen(2006) argues that national culture only hinders M&A success when acquisition companies are too tightly integrated into the acquirer.More research is needed in this area,but the growth strategy of thefirm will largely influence the integration strategy that is adopted.There are a number of factors that can affect postacquisition integration. Epstein(2004)suggests that successful integrations includefive components: a coherent integration strategy,a strong integration team,frequent communication,speed in implementation,and measurement alignment across all departments to gauge success.Provided that some culture data has been collected during the due diligence phase,this information can be used by leaders and integration teams to create clarity and alignment among the employees regarding direction,processes,and expected behavior.Leader-ship team alignment is also important to assure that common messages and priorities are communicated,and that relationship-building activities and role-clarity efforts are implemented.If the due diligence phase does not include a detailed examination of the respective cultures,the period just after closing and prior to the integration activities should be used to gather important data about how the respective organizations operate.That data highlights the differences and possible synergies of thefirms and is used to proactively facilitate the culture integration process.As an example,Fig.4includes an analysis of our culture data from a merger in the petrochemical industry.1The acquiringfirm,in this case,is an American petrochemicalfirm that has acquired a German speciality。

产品碳足迹及中和核算指南英文回答：Carbon Footprint and Neutralization Accounting Guide.Introduction.In the face of the escalating climate crisis, organizations are increasingly recognizing the importance of understanding and mitigating their environmental impact. Carbon footprinting and neutralization accounting provide a comprehensive framework for quantifying and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with an organization's activities. This guide outlines the principles, methodologies, and best practices for developing and implementing a robust carbon footprint and neutralization accounting program.1. Establishing a Carbon Footprint.The first step towards carbon footprinting is establishing an accurate baseline of an organization's GHG emissions. This involves identifying all relevant emission sources and quantifying their contributions usingrecognized industry standards and methodologies, such asthe Greenhouse Gas Protocol (GHG Protocol). Key emission sources include:Scope 1: Direct emissions from owned or controlled sources (e.g., fuel combustion, industrial processes)。

Optimization Techniques for Implementing Parallel Skeletonsin Distributed EnvironmentsM.Aldinucci,M.Danelutto {aldinuc,marcod }@di.unipi.it UNIPI Dept.of Computer Science –University of Pisa Largo B.Pontecorvo 3,Pisa,Italy J.D¨u nnweber,S.Gorlatch {duennweb,gorlatch }@math.uni-muenster.de WWU MuensterDept.of Computer Science –University of M¨u nsterEinsteinstr.62,M¨u nster,Germany CoreGRID Technical Report Number TR-0001January 21,2005Institute on Programming ModelCoreGRID -Network of ExcellenceURL:Legacy Code Support for Production GridsT.Kiss*,G.Terstyanszky*,G.Kecskemeti*,Sz.Illes*,T.Delaittre*,S.Winter*,P .Kacsuk**,G.Sipos***Centre of Parallel Computing,University of Westminster,115New Cavendish Street,London W1W 6UW United Kingdom e-mail:gemlca-discuss@ **MTA SZTAKI1111Kende u.13Budapest,Hungary CoreGRID Technical Report Number TR-00116th June 2005Institute on Problem Solving Environment,Tools and GRID Systems CoreGRID -Network of ExcellenceURL: CoreGRID is a Network of Excellence funded by the European Commission under the Sixth Framework ProgrammeProject no.FP6-004265Legacy Code Support for Production GridsT.Kiss*,G.Terstyanszky*,G.Kecskemeti*,Sz.Illes*,T.Delaittre*,S.Winter*,P.Kacsuk**,G.Sipos***Centre of Parallel Computing,University of Westminster,115New Cavendish Street,London W1W6UW United Kingdome-mail:gemlca-discuss@**MTA SZTAKI1111Kende u.13Budapest,HungaryCoreGRID TR-00116th June2005AbstractIn order to improve reliability and to deal with the high complexity of existing middleware solutions,todays production Grid systems restrict the services to be deployed on their resources.On the other hand end-users requirea wide range of value added services to fully utilize these resources.This paper describes a solution how legacy codesupport is offered as third party service for production Grids.The introduced solution,based on the Grid ExecutionManagement for Legacy Code Architecture(GEMLCA),do not require the deployment of additional applications onthe Grid resources,or any extra effort from Grid system administrators.The implemented solution was successfullyconnected to and demonstrated on the UK National Grid Service.1IntroductionThe vision of Grid computing is to enable anyone to offer resources to be utilised by others via the network.This orig-inal aim,however,has not been fulfilled so far.Todays production Grid systems,like the EGEE Grid,the NorduGrid or the UK National Grid Service(NGS)apply very strict rules towards service providers,hence restricting the number of sites and resources in the Grid.The reason for this is the very high complexity to install and maintain existing Grid middleware solutions.In a production Grid environment strong guarantees are needed that system administrators keep the resources up and running.In order to offer reliable service only a limited range of software is allowed to be deployed on the resources.On the other hand these Grid systems aim to serve a large and diverse user community with different needs and goals.These users require a wide range of tools in order to make it easier to create and run Grid-enabled applications. As system administrators are reluctant to install any software on the production Grid that could compromise reliability, the only way to make these utilities available for users is to offer them as third-party services.These services are running on external resources,maintained by external organisations,and they are not integral part of the production Grid system.However,users can freely select and utilise these additional services based on their requirements and experience with the service.This previously described scenario was utilised to connect GEMLCA(Grid Execution Management for Legacy Code Architecture)[11]to the UK National Grid Service.GEMLCA enables legacy code programs written in any source language(Fortran,C,Java,etc.)to be easily deployed as a Grid Service without significant user effort.A This research work is carried out under the FP6Network of Excellence CoreGRID funded by the European Commission(Contract IST-2002-004265).user-level understanding,describing the necessary input and output parameters and environmental values such as the number of processors or the job manager used,is all that is required to port the legacy application binary onto the Grid.GEMLCA does not require any modification of,or even access to,the original source code.The architecture is also integrated with the P-GRADE portal and workflow[13]solutions to offer a user friendly interface,and create complex applications including legacy and non-legacy components.In order to connect GEMLCA to the NGS two main tasks have been completed:•First,a portal server has been set up at University of Westminster running the P-GRADE Grid portal and offering access to the NGS resources for authenticated and authorised users.With the help of their Grid certificates and NGS accounts portal users can utilise NGS resources in a much more convenient and user-friendly way than previously.•Second,the GEMLCA architecture has been redesigned in order to support the third-party service provider scenario.There is no need to install GEMLCA on any NGS resource.The architecture is deployed centrally on the portal server but still offers the same legacy code functionally as the original solution:users can easily deploy legacy applications as Grid services,can access these services from the portal interface,and can create, execute and visualise complex Grid workflows.This paper describes two different scenarios how GEMLCA is redesigned in order to support a production Grid system.Thefirst scenario supports the traditional job submission like task execution,and the second offers the legacy codes as pre-deployed services on the appropriate resources.In both cases GEMLCA runs on an external server, and neither compromise the reliability of the production Grid system,nor requires extra effort from the Grid system administrators.The service is transparent from the Grid operators point of view but offers essential functionality for the end-users.2The UK National Grid ServiceThe National Grid Service(NGS)is the UK production Grid operated by the Grid Operation Support Centre(GOSC). It offers a stable highly-available production quality Grid service to the UK research community providing compute and storage resources for users.The core NGS infrastructure consists of four cluster nodes at Cambridge,CCLRC-RAL,Leeds and Manchester,and two national High Performance Computing(HPC)services:HPCx and CSAR.NGS provides compute resources for compute Grid through compute clusters at Leeds and Oxford,and storage resources for data Grid through data clusters at CCLRC-RAL and Manchester.This core NGS infrastructure has recently been extended with two further Grid nodes at Bristol and Cardiff,and will be further extended by incorporating UK e-Science Centres through separate Service Level Agreements(SLA).NGS is based on GT2middleware.Its security is built on Globus Grid Security Infrastructure(GSI)[14],which supports authentication,authorization and single sign-on.NGS uses GridFTP to transfer input and outputfiles to and from nodes,and Storage Resource Broker(RSB)[6]with OGSA-DAI[3]to provide access to data on NGS nodes. It uses the Globus Monitoring and Discovery Service(MDS)[7]to handle information of NGS nodes.Ganglia[12], Grid Integration Test Script(GITS)[4]and Nagios[2]are used to monitor both the NGS and its nodes.Nagios checks nodes and services while GITS monitors communication among NGS nodes.Ganglia collects and processes information provided by Nagios and GITS in order to generate NGS-level view.NGS uses a centralised user registration ers have to obtain certificates and open accounts to be able to use any NGS service.The certificates are issued by the UK Core Programme Certification Authority(e-Science certificate)or by other CAs.NGS accounts are allocated from a central pool of generic user accounts to enable users to register with all NGS nodes at the same er management is based on Virtual Organisation Membership Service (VOMS)[1].VOMS supports central management of user registration and authorisation taking into consideration local policies on resource access and usage.3Grid Execution Management for Legacy Code ArchitectureThe Grid computing environment requires special Grid enabled applications capable of utilising the underlying Grid middleware and infrastructure.Most Grid projects so far have either developed new applications from scratch,orsignificantly re-engineered existing ones in order to be run on their platforms.However,as the Grid becomes com-monplace in both scientific and industrial settings,the demand for porting a vast legacy of applications onto the new platform will panies and institutions can ill afford to throw such applications away for the sake of a new technology,and there is a clear business imperative for them to be migrated onto the Grid with the least possible effort and cost.The Grid Execution Management for Legacy Code Architecture(GEMLCA)enables legacy code programs written in any source language(Fortran,C,Java,etc.)to be easily deployed as a Grid Service without significant user effort.In this chapter the original GEMLCA architecture is outlined.This architecture has been modified,as described in chapters4and5,in order to create a centralised version for production Grids.GEMLCA represents a general architecture for deploying legacy applications as Grid services without re-engineering the code or even requiring access to the sourcefiles.The high-level GEMLCA conceptual architecture is represented on Figure1.As shown in thefigure,there are four basic components in the architecture:1.The Compute Server is a single or multiple processor computing system on which several legacy codes arealready implemented and available.The goal of GEMLCA is to turn these legacy codes into Grid services that can be accessed by Grid users.2.The Grid Host Environment implements a service-oriented OGSA-based Grid layer,such as GT3or GT4.Thislayer is a pre-requisite for connecting the Compute Server into an OGSA-built Grid.3.The GEMLCA Resource layer provides a set of Grid services which expose legacy codes as Grid services.4.The fourth component is the GEMLCA Client that can be installed on any client machine through which a userwould like to access the GEMLCA resources.Figure1:GEMLCA Conceptual ArchitectureThe novelty of the GEMLCA concept compared to other similar solutions like[10]or[5]is that it requires minimal effort from both Compute Server administrators and end-users of the Grid.The Compute Server administrator should install the GEMLCA Resource layer on top of an available OGSA layer(GT3/GT4).It is also their task to deploy existing legacy applications on the Compute Servers as Grid services,and to make them accessible for the whole Grid community.End-users do not have to do any installation or deployment work if a GEMLCA portal is available for the Grid and they only need those legacy code services that were previously deployed by the Compute Server administrators.In such a case end-users can immediately use all these legacy code services-provided they have access to the GEMLCA Grid resources.If they would like to deploy legacy code services on GEMLCA Grid resources they can do so,but these services cannot be accessed by other Grid users.As a last resort,if no GEMLCA portal is available for the Grid,a user must install the GEMLCA Client on their client machine.However,since it requires some IT skills to do this,it is recommended that a GEMLCA portal is installed on every Grid where GEMLCA Grid resources are deployed.The deployment of a GEMLCA legacy code service assumes that the legacy application runs in its native environ-ment on a Compute Server.It is the task of the GEMLCA Resource layer to present the legacy application as a Grid service to the user,to communicate with the Grid client and to hide the legacy nature of the application.The deploy-ment process of a GEMLCA legacy code service requires only a user-level understanding of the legacy application, i.e.,to know what the parameters of the legacy code are and what kind of environment is needed to run the code(e.g. multiprocessor environment with n processors).The deployment defines the execution environment and the parameter set for the legacy application in an XML-based Legacy Code Interface Description(LCID)file that should be stored in a pre-defined location.Thisfile is used by the GEMLCA Resource layer to handle the legacy application as a Grid service.GEMLCA provides the capability to convert legacy codes into Grid services just by describing the legacy param-eters and environment values in the XML-based LCIDfile.However,an end-user without specialist computing skills still requires a user-friendly Web interface(portal)to access the GEMLCA functionalities:to deploy,execute and retrieve results from legacy applications.Instead of developing a new custom Grid portal,GEMLCA was integrated with the workflow-oriented P-GRADE Grid portal extending its functionalities with new portlets.Following this integration,end-users can easily construct workflow applications built from legacy code services running on different GEMLCA Grid resources.The workflow manager of the portal contacts the selected GEMLCA Resources,passes them the actual parameter values of the legacy code,and then it is the task of the GEMLCA Resource to execute the legacy code with the actual parameter values.The other important task of the GEMLCA Resource is to deliver the results of the legacy code service back to the portal.The overall structure of the GEMLCA Grid with the Grid portal is shown in Figure2.Figure2:GEMLCA with Grid Portal4Connecting GEMLCA to the NGSTwo different scenarios were identified in order to execute legacy code applications on NGS sites.In each scenario both GEMLCA and the P-GRADE portal are installed on the Parsifal cluster of the University of Westminster.As a result,there is no need to deploy any GEMLCA or P-GRADE portal code on the NGS resources.scenario1:legacy codes are stored in a central repository and GEMLCA submits these codes as jobs to NGS sites, scenario2:legacy codes are installed on NGS sites and executed through GEMLCA.The two scenarios are supporting different user needs,and each of them increases the usability of the NGS in different ways for end-users.The GEMLCA research team has implemented thefirst scenario in May2005,and currently working on the implementation of the second scenario.This chapter briefly describes these two different scenarios,and the next chapter explains in detail the design and implementation aspects of thefirst already implemented solution.As the design and implementation of the second scenario is currently work is progress,its detailed description will be the subject of a future publication.4.1Scenario1:Legacy Code Repository for NGSThere are several legacy applications that would be useful for users within the NGS community.These applications were developed by different institutions and currently not available for other members of the community.According to this scenario legacy codes can be uploaded into a central repository and made available for authorised users through a Grid portal.The solution extends the usability of NGS as users can submit not only their own applications but can also utilise other legacy codes stored in the repository.Users can access the central repository,managed by GEMLCA,through the P-GRADE portal and upload their applications into this repository.After uploading legacy applications users with valid certificates and existing NGS accounts can select and execute legacy codes through the P-GRADE portal on different NGS sites.In this scenario the binary codes of legacy applications are transferred from the GEMLCA server to the NGS sites,and executed as jobs.Figure3:Scenario1-Legacy Code Repository for NGS4.2Scenario2:Pre-deployed Legacy Code ServicesThis solution extends the NGS Grid towards the service-oriented Grid ers cannot only submit and execute jobs on the resources but can also access legacy applications deployed on NGS and include these in their workflows. This scenario is the logical extension of the original GEMLCA concept in order to use it with NGS.In this scenario the legacy codes are already deployed on the NGS sites and only parameters(input or output)are submitted.Users contact the central GEMLCA resource through the P-GRADE portal,and can access the legacy codes that are deployed on the NGS sites.In this scenario the NGS system administrators have full control of legacy codes that they deploy on their own resources.Figure4:Scenario2Pre-Deployed Legacy Code on NGS Sites5Legacy Code Repository for the NGS5.1Design objectivesThe currently implemented solution that enables users to deploy,browse and execute legacy code applications on the NGS sites is based on scenario1,as described in the previous chapter.This solution utilises the original GEMLCA architecture with the necessary modifications in order to execute the tasks on the NGS resources.The primary aims of the solution are the following:•The owners of legacy applications can publish their codes in the central repository making it available for other authorised users within the UK e-Science community.The publication is not different from the original method used in GEMLCA,and it is supported by the administration Grid portlet of the P-GRADE portal,as described in[9].After publication the code is available for other non-computer specialist end-users.•Authorised users can browse the repository,select the necessary legacy codes,set their input parameters,and can even create workflows from compatible components.These workflows can then be mapped onto the NGS resources,submitted and the execution visualised.•The deployment of a new legacy application requires some high level understanding of the code(like name and types input and output parameters)and its execution environment(e.g.supported job managers,maximum number of processors).However,once the code is deployed end-users with no Grid specific knowledge can easily execute it,and analyse the results using the portal interface.As GEMLCA is integrated with the P-GRADE Grid portal,NGS users have two different options in order to execute their applications.They can submit their own code directly,without the described publication process,using the original facilities offered by the portal.This solution is suggested if the execution is only on an ad-hoc basis when the publication puts too much overhead on the process.However,if they would like to make their code available for a larger community,and would like make the execution simple enough for any end-user,they can publish the code with GEMLCA in the repository.In order to execute a legacy code on an NGS site,users should have a valid user certificate,for example an e-Science certificate,an NGS account and also an account for the P-GRADE portal running at Westminster.After logging in the portal they download their user certificate from an appropriate myProxy server.The legacy code,submitted to the NGS site,utilise this certificate to authenticate users.Portal Legacy code deployer Legacy code executor Placeand input Portal Legacy code deployer Legacy code executor script”filesOriginal GEMLCAGEMLCA NGS Figure 5:Comparison of the Original and the NGS GEMLCA Concept5.2Implementation of the SolutionTo fulfil these objectives some modifications and extensions of the original GEMLCA architecture were necessary.Figure 5compares the original and the extended GEMLCA architectures.As it is shown in the figure,an additional layer,representing the remote NGS resource where the code is executed,appears.The deployment of a legacy code is not different from the original GEMLCA concept;however,the execution has changed significantly in the NGS version.To transfer the executable and the input parameters to the NGS site,and to instruct the remote GT2GRAM to execute the jobs,required the modification of the GEMLCA architecture,including the development of a special script that interfaces with Condor G.The major challenge when connecting GEMLCA to the NGS was that NGS sites use Globus Toolkit version 2(GT2),however the current GEMLCA implementations are based on service-oriented Grid middleware,namely GT3and GT4.The interfacing between the different middleware platforms is supported by a script,called NGS script,that provides additional functionality required for executing legacy codes on NGS sites.Legacy codes and input files are stored in the central repository but executed on the remote NGS sites.To execute the code on a remote site first the NGS script,executed as a GEMLCA legacy code,instructs the portal to copy the binary and input files from the central repository to the NGS site.Next,the NGS script,using Condor-G,submits the legacy code as a job to the remote site.The other major part of the architecture where modifications were required is the config.xml file and its relatedJava classes.GEMLCA uses an XML-based descriptionfile,called config.xml,in order to describe the environmental parameters of the legacy code.Thisfile had to be extended and modified in order to take into consideration a second-level job manager,namely the job manager used on the remote NGS site.The config.xml should also notify the GEMLCA resource that it has to submit the NGS script instead of a legacy code to GT4MMJFS(Master Managed Job Factory Service)when the user wants to execute the code on an NGS site.The implementation of these changes also required the modification of the GEMLCA core layer.In order to utilise the new GEMLCA NGS solution:1.The owner of the legacy application deploys the code as a GEMLCA legacy code in the central repository.2.The end-user selects and executes the appropriate legacy applications on the NGS sites.As the deployment process is virtually identical to the one used by the original GEMLCA solution here we con-centrate on the second step,the code execution.The following steps are performed by GEMLCA when executing a legacy code on the NGS sites(Fig.6):1.The user selects the appropriate legacy codes from the portal,defines inputfiles and parameters,and submits an“execute a legacy code on an NGS site”request.2.The GEMLCA portal transfers the inputfiles to the NGS site.3.The GEMLCA portal forwards the users request to a GEMLCA Resource.4.The GEMLCA resource creates and submits the NGS script as a GEMLCA job to the MMJFS.5.The MMJFS starts the NGS script.6.Condor-G contacts the remote GT2GRAM,sends the binary of the legacy code and its parameters to the NGSsite,and submits the legacy code as a job to the NGS site job manager.Figure6:Execution of Legacy Codes on an NGS SiteWhen the job has been completed on the NGS site the results are transferred from the NGS site to the user in the same way.6Results-Traffic simulation on the NGSA working prototype of the described solution has been implemented and tested creating and executing a traffic simu-lation workflow on the different NGS resources.The workflow consists of three types of components:1.The Manhattan legacy code is an application to generate inputs for the MadCity simulator:a road networkfileand a turnfile.The MadCity road networkfile is a sequence of numbers,representing a road topology of a road network.The MadCity turnfile describes the junction manoeuvres available in a given road network.Traffic light details are also included in thisfile.2.MadCity[8]is a discrete-time microscopic traffic simulator that simulates traffic on a road network at the levelof individual vehicles behaviour on roads and at junctions.After completing the simulation,a macroscopic trace file,representing the total dynamic behaviour of vehicles throughout the simulation run,is created.3.Finally a traffic density analyser compares the traffic congestion of several runs of the simulator on a givennetwork,with different initial road traffic conditions specified as input parameters.The component presents the results of the analysis graphically.Each of these applications was published in the central repository at Westminster as GEMLCA legacy code.The publication was done using the administration portlet of the GEMLCA P-GRADE portal.During this process the type of input and output parameters,and environmental values,like job managers and maximum number of processors used for parallel execution,were set.Once published the codes are ready to be used by end-users even with very limited computing knowledge.Figure7shows the workflow graph and the execution of the different components on NGS resources:•Job0is a road network generator mapped at Leeds,•jobs1and2are traffic simulators running parallel at Leeds and Oxford,respectively,•finally,job3is a traffic density analyser executed at Leeds.Figure7:Workflow Graph and Visualisation of its Execution on NGS ResourcesWhen creating the workflow the end-user selected the appropriate application from the repository,set input param-eters and mapped the execution to the available NGS resources.During execution the NGS script run,contacted the remote GT2GRAM,and instructed the portal to pass executa-bles and input parameters to the remote site.Whenfinishing the execution the outputfiles were transferred back to Westminster and were made available for the user.7Conclusion and Future WorkThe implemented solution successfully demonstrated that additional services,like legacy code support,run and main-tained by third party service providers can be added to production Grid systems.The major advantage of this solution is that the reliability of the core Grid infrastructure is not compromised,and no additional effort is required from Grid system administrators.On the other hand,utilizing these services the usability of these Grids can be significantly improved.Utilising and re-engineering the GEMLCA legacy code solution two different scenarios were identified to provide legacy code support for the UK NGS.Thefirst,providing a legacy code repository functionality,and allowing the submission of legacy applications as jobs to NGS resources was successfully implemented and demonstrated.The final production version of this architecture and its official release for NGS users is scheduled for June2005.The second scenario,that extends the NGS with pre-deployed legacy code services,is currently in the design phase.Challenges are identified concerning its implementation,especially the creation and management of virtual organizations that could utilize these pre-deployed services.References[1]R.Alfieri,R.Cecchini,V.Ciaschini,L.dellAgnello,A.Frohner,A.Gianoli,K.Lorentey,,and F.Spata.V oms,an authorization system for virtual organizations.af.infn.it/voms/VOMS-Santiago.pdf. [2]S.Andreozzi,S.Fantinel,D.Rebatto,L.Vaccarossa,and G.Tortone.A monitoring tool for a grid operationcenter.In CHEP2003,La Jolla,California,March2003.[3]Mario Antonioletti,Malcolm Atkinson,Rob Baxter,Andrew Borley,Neil P Chue,Hong,Brian Collins,NeilHardman,Ally Hume,Alan Knox,Mike Jackson,Amy Krause,Simon Laws,James Magowan,Norman W Paton,Dave Pearson,Tom Sugden,Paul Watson,and Martin Westhead.The design and implementation of grid database services in ogsa-dai.Concurrency and Computation:Practice and Experience,17:357–376,2005. [4]David Baker,Mark Baker,Hong Ong,and Helen Xiang.Integration and operational monitoring tools for theemerging uk e-science grid infrastructure.In Proceedings of the UK e-Science All Hands Meeting(AHM2004), East Midlands Conference Centre,Nottingham,2004.[5]B.Balis,M.Bubak,and M.Wegiel.A solution for adapting legacy code as web services.In V.Getov andT.Kiellmann,editors,Component Models and Systems for Grid Applications,pages57–75.Springer,2005.ISBN0-387-23351-2.[6]C.Baru,Moore R,A.Rajasekar,and M.Wan.The sdsc storage resource broker.In Proc.CASCON’98Confer-ence,November1998.[7]Karl Czajkowski,Steven Fitzgerald,Ian Foster,and Carl Kesselman.Grid information services for distributedresource sharing.In Proceedings of the Tenth IEEE International Symposium on High-Performance Distributed Computing(HPDC-10),/research/papers/MDS-HPDC.pdf.[8]A.Gourgoulis,G.Terstyansky,P.Kacsuk,and S.C.Winter.Creating scalable traffic simulation on clusters.In PDP2004.Conference Proceedings of the12th Euromicro Conference on Parallel,Distributed and Network based Processing,La Coruna,Spain,February2004.[9]A.Goyeneche,T.Kiss,G.Terstyanszky,G.Kecskemeti,T.Delaitre,P.Kacsuk,and S.C.Winter.Experienceswith deploying legacy code applications as grid services using gemlca.In P.M.A.Sloot,A.G.Hoekstra,T.Priol,。

全面剖析碳达峰与碳中和的内涵-定义、两者的关联及达成方式英文版Comprehensive Analysis of the Meaning of Carbon Peaking and Carbon Neutrality - Definitions, Their Connection, and Achievement MethodsCarbon peaking and carbon neutrality have become important concepts in the global effort to combat climate change.Definition:Carbon peaking refers to the point in time when a country's or region's carbon emissions reach their maximum level before starting to decline. On the other hand, carbon neutrality, also known as net-zero emissions, means that the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere is balanced by the amount removed or offset.Connection:The connection between carbon peaking and carbon neutrality lies in the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon peaking marks the first step towards achieving carbon neutrality, as it signifies the beginning of a downward trend in emissions. Both concepts are crucial in the transition to a low-carbon economy and the mitigation of climate change.Achievement Methods:There are several ways to achieve carbon peaking and carbon neutrality. Some strategies include transitioning to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, implementing carbon capture and storage technologies, promoting sustainable land use practices, and investing in nature-based solutions. Additionally, carbon pricing mechanisms, such as carbon taxes or cap-and-trade systems, can incentivize businesses and individuals to reduce their emissions.In conclusion, understanding the definitions, connection, and achievement methods of carbon peaking and carbon neutrality is essential in addressing the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change on a global scale.。

Unit 2 Classification of MaterialsSolid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates. In addition, there are three other groups of important engineering materials —composites, semiconductors, and biomaterials.译文：译文：固体材料被便利的分为三个基本的类型：金属，陶瓷和聚合物。

固体材料被便利的分为三个基本的类型：金属，陶瓷和聚合物。

固体材料被便利的分为三个基本的类型：金属，陶瓷和聚合物。

这个分类是首先基于这个分类是首先基于化学组成和原子结构来分的，化学组成和原子结构来分的，大多数材料落在明显的一个类别里面，大多数材料落在明显的一个类别里面，大多数材料落在明显的一个类别里面，尽管有许多中间品。

尽管有许多中间品。

除此之外，此之外， 有三类其他重要的工程材料－复合材料，半导体材料和生物材料。

有三类其他重要的工程材料－复合材料，半导体材料和生物材料。

Composites consist of combinations of two or more different materials, whereas semiconductors are utilized because of their unusual electrical characteristics; biomaterials are implanted into the human body. A brief explanation of the material types and representative characteristics is offered next.译文：复合材料由两种或者两种以上不同的材料组成，然而半导体由于它们非同寻常的电学性质而得到使用；生物材料被移植进入人类的身体中。

应用地球化学元素丰度数据手册迟清华鄢明才编著地质出版社·北京·1内容提要本书汇编了国内外不同研究者提出的火成岩、沉积岩、变质岩、土壤、水系沉积物、泛滥平原沉积物、浅海沉积物和大陆地壳的化学组成与元素丰度，同时列出了勘查地球化学和环境地球化学研究中常用的中国主要地球化学标准物质的标准值，所提供内容均为地球化学工作者所必须了解的各种重要地质介质的地球化学基础数据。

本书供从事地球化学、岩石学、勘查地球化学、生态环境与农业地球化学、地质样品分析测试、矿产勘查、基础地质等领域的研究者阅读，也可供地球科学其它领域的研究者使用。

图书在版编目（CIP）数据应用地球化学元素丰度数据手册/迟清华，鄢明才编著. －北京：地质出版社，2007.12ISBN 978－7－116－05536－0Ⅰ. 应… Ⅱ. ①迟…②鄢…Ⅲ. 地球化学丰度－化学元素－数据－手册Ⅳ. P595－62中国版本图书馆CIP数据核字（2007）第185917号责任编辑：王永奉陈军中责任校对：李玫出版发行：地质出版社社址邮编：北京市海淀区学院路31号，100083电话：（010）82324508（邮购部）网址：电子邮箱：zbs@传真：（010）82310759印刷：北京地大彩印厂开本：889mm×1194mm 1/16印张：10.25字数：260千字印数：1－3000册版次：2007年12月北京第1版•第1次印刷定价：28.00元书号：ISBN 978－7－116－05536－0（如对本书有建议或意见，敬请致电本社；如本社有印装问题，本社负责调换）2关于应用地球化学元素丰度数据手册（代序）地球化学元素丰度数据，即地壳五个圈内多种元素在各种介质、各种尺度内含量的统计数据。

它是应用地球化学研究解决资源与环境问题上重要的资料。

将这些数据资料汇编在一起将使研究人员节省不少查找文献的劳动与时间。

这本小册子就是按照这样的想法编汇的。

• 732 •安徽医药Anhui Medical and Pharmaceutical Journal 2019 Apr，23(4)的进行和长期储存。

所制备的载鲣鱼肽海藻酸钙微球具有肠溶特性，预测在口服后能够在胃中保护所包载鲣鱼肽的活性，在小肠中能够形成较高的鲣鱼肽浓度，从而有利于吸收。

通过顶空进样G C-M S对挥发性异味物质分析，所制备的海藻酸钙微球可在冲泡过程中掩盖80S的异味。

本研究通过将鲣鱼肽原料粉末制备成海藻酸钙微球，解决了原料吸湿性强、在胃中易失活和感官刺激大的缺点，为后续制剂工艺提供了较好的制剂中间体，也为海洋来源活性肽保健食品制剂的开发提供了新的思路。

参考文献+1, G A R D N E R ML. Absorption of amino acids and peptides from a complex mixture in the isolated small intestine of the rat[J] •Jour­nal of Physiology, 1975,253(1) ：233-256.[2]宗杰，邵琪，张红芹，等.喷雾干燥条件对骨痹颗粒复方水提液喷干粉吸湿性能的影响及其机制研究[J].中国中药杂志，2014，39 (4) ：663-668.[3]贾敏，宋玲钰，刘丽娜，等.降胆固醇花生多肽无糖饮料的研制[J].食品科技，2017，42( 1$ :126-130.[4]尚校兰，张春丹，张兰，等.银耳黄瓜饮料的研制及超高压灭菌对其品质的影响[J].食品与发酵工业，2016,42 (11 $ :162-166.[5]张悦，张溪桐，王冰，等.鸦胆子油胃内滞留海藻酸钙凝胶微球的制备及处方工艺考察[J].中药材，2014,37 ( 11 $:2077-2081.[6]宋群亮，张平•中药微球制剂研究进展[J]•安黴医药，2005,9(2) :87-88.[7]梁明，田仁德，饶荣，等.胶原蛋白微球大鼠小肠吸收行为研究[J].医药导报，2015,34(11) :1417-1422.[8]DANIAL E N，E L N A S H A R M M M，A W A D GEA. Immobilized i n u l i-nase on grafted alginate beads prepared by the one-step and thetwo-stepsmethods [ J ]•Ind Eng Chem Res，2010，49 (7 ):3120-3125.[9] GHOTBI M，Z E N O O Z I A N M S，ROOZBEHNASIRAII L Survival off r ee and microencapsulated Lb. rhamnosus LC705 in simulatedg a s t r i c and int e s t i n a l juice [J ]. International Journal of Biosci-ences，2015，6 (3 ) :330-337.[10]赖永忠，季彦鎏.气相动态顶空进样-气相色谱-质谱法同时分析饮用水源水中57种挥发性有机物[J] •岩矿测试，2012,31(5) :877气83.[11 ]SELIMOGLU S M，ELIBOL M. Alginate as an immobilization mate­r i a l f o r M A b production via encapsulated hybri(doma cells[J].Crit­i c a l reviews in biotechnology，2010，30(2) :145-159.[12]左琴华，何留民，施云峰，等.两种不同优化方法对静电液滴法制备单分散海藻酸钙微球工艺的比较[J] •材料导报，2012,26(2):101气06，124.[13] T A K K A S，A C A R T R K F. Calcium alginate microparticles f o r o r a ladministration:I:Effect of sodium alginate type on drug releaseand drug entrapment efficiency [J].Journal of Microencapsulation，1999,16(3) :275-290.[14]于海燕，汪丽，何兰兰，等.基于嗅觉指纹信息的黄酒酒龄和产地鉴别[J] •现代食品科技，2014(9) :258气64.[15]冯倩倩，胡飞，李平凡.S P M E气C-M S分析罗非鱼体中挥发性风味成分[J].食品工业科技，2012,33(6) :67气0.[16] Q U Q，T A O N P，G U S f Characterization of the key odor-activecompounds i n steamed meat of Coilia ectenes from Yangtze Riverby GC-MS-O[ J]. European Food Research & Technology，2014，238(2) :237-245.[17]李健隽.面积归一化法分析混合气体中各组分含量[J].计量与测试技术，2012,39(4) :86,88.(收稿日期:2017-12-04，修回日期:2019-02-11)校对诀要◊编读往来！为保证作者文稿刊出准确无误，责编会将编辑的文稿发回作者，要做好这份刊前稿样的核校，作者的操作诀要是！（1)必须回答编者提出的问题（将有批注或文字提问）+详核文题、作者姓名和单位名称（邮编）&科室。

The Chemistry of Green Synthesis andCatalysisIntroductionThe modern world is facing many environmental problems caused by human activities. Environmental pollution, climate change, and depletion of natural resources are the major concerns. To address these issues, scientists are exploring ways to develop sustainable technologies and practices. The field of green chemistry aims to reduce the environmental impact of chemical processes by minimizing waste, using renewable resources, and reducing toxic substances. Green synthesis and catalysis are two important subfields of green chemistry, which have great potential for sustainable development.What is Green Synthesis?Green synthesis refers to the development of chemical reactions that are environmentally benign and sustainable. It involves using renewable resources, reducing the use of hazardous chemicals, and minimizing waste. Green synthesis is important because traditional chemical processes are often resource-intensive, produce large amounts of waste, and use toxic solvents, which can have adverse effects on human health and the environment.Green synthesis can be achieved by several methods, including using bio-based feedstocks, replacing hazardous solvents with benign ones, using microwave or ultrasound-assisted reactions, and using catalysts. Catalysts are an important tool in green synthesis, as they often allow the reaction to proceed more efficiently and with fewer environmental impacts.What is Catalysis?Catalysis is the process of accelerating a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst. A catalyst works by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur. It does not affect the thermodynamics of the reaction and is notconsumed in the reaction. Therefore, catalysts can be used repeatedly to speed up reactions without being depleted.Catalysis plays a crucial role in many industrial processes, including the production of fuels, polymers, and pharmaceuticals. However, traditional catalytic processes often use high temperatures and pressures, require toxic solvents, and produce hazardous waste. This is where green catalysis comes in.What is Green Catalysis?Green catalysis is a branch of green chemistry that focuses on developing sustainable catalysts and catalytic processes. Its goal is to reduce the environmental impact of catalytic reactions by using renewable resources, minimizing waste and toxicity, and improving efficiency.Green catalysis has many benefits over traditional catalysis. For example, it can reduce energy consumption and therefore lower greenhouse gas emissions. It can also use non-toxic and renewable resources, which can reduce the environmental impact of the reaction. In addition, green catalysis often uses less hazardous solvents, which improves the safety of the reaction for workers and reduces the risk of contaminated waste.Green Synthesis and Catalysis in ActionThere are many examples of green synthesis and catalysis being used in industrial processes. For example, the production of biodiesel is a green synthesis process that uses vegetable oil or animal fat as a renewable feedstock. The reaction is catalyzed by sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, which are both inexpensive and non-toxic catalysts.Another example is the production of pharmaceuticals using enzyme catalysis. Enzymes are biocatalysts that work under mild conditions of temperature and pressure and produce little or no waste. Their use in the production of pharmaceuticals can reduce the environmental impact of the process and improve the safety for workers.ConclusionGreen synthesis and catalysis are two important subfields of green chemistry that have great potential for sustainable development. By using renewable resources, minimizing waste and toxicity, and improving efficiency, these processes can reduce the environmental impact of chemical reactions. Green synthesis and catalysis are already being used in many industrial processes, and their use is likely to increase in the future as the demand for sustainable technologies and practices grows.。

In the era of globalization,the integration of technology with the international community has become a crucial aspect for the development and progress of any nation. Here is a detailed English essay on the topic of connecting with international technology.Title:Bridging the Gap:Integrating with International TechnologyIn the contemporary world,where the pace of technological advancement is exponential, it is imperative for countries to align their technological capabilities with global standards. The process of integrating with international technology not only fosters innovation but also opens up new avenues for economic growth and societal development.The Importance of International Technological Integration1.Enhancing Competitiveness:By adopting and adapting to international technologies,a nation can enhance its competitiveness in the global market.This is particularly important for industries that rely heavily on cuttingedge technology to maintain their edge.2.Access to Advanced Technologies:Integration allows countries to access advanced technologies that may not be available domestically.This can lead to improvements in various sectors,including healthcare,education,and manufacturing.3.Knowledge Transfer:Collaboration with international entities facilitates the transfer of knowledge and expertise.This exchange can lead to the development of local capabilities and the creation of a skilled workforce.4.Innovation and Creativity:Exposure to diverse technological approaches and methodologies stimulates innovation and creativity.It encourages the local tech community to think beyond traditional boundaries and explore new possibilities.5.Economic Benefits:The integration of international technology often results in increased productivity and efficiency,which can boost economic growth and create new job opportunities.Challenges in Integration1.Cultural and Language Barriers:One of the primary challenges in integrating with international technology is overcoming cultural and language differences.These barriers can hinder effective communication and collaboration.2.Intellectual Property Rights:Navigating the complex landscape of intellectual property rights can be a significant hurdle.It is essential to respect and adhere to international laws and agreements to avoid disputes.3.Technological Infrastructure:Developing the necessary infrastructure to support advanced technologies can be a considerable challenge,especially for developing countries with limited resources.4.Security Concerns:With the integration of international technology comes the risk of cyber threats and data breaches.It is crucial to implement robust security measures to protect sensitive information.Strategies for Successful Integration1.Policy and Regulatory Frameworks:Governments should establish clear policies and regulatory frameworks that encourage and facilitate the integration of international technology.2.Investment in Research and Development:A strong focus on research and development can help in creating indigenous technologies that can compete on the global stage.cation and Training:Investing in education and training programs can equip the workforce with the necessary skills to adapt to and work with international technologies.4.PublicPrivate Partnerships:Collaborative efforts between the public and private sectors can lead to the development of innovative solutions and the sharing of resources.5.International Collaboration:Engaging in international partnerships and alliances can provide access to new technologies and markets,fostering a global network of technological exchange.ConclusionThe integration of international technology is a multifaceted process that requires strategic planning,investment,and a commitment to overcoming challenges.By embracing this integration,nations can not only enhance their technological capabilities but also contribute to the global technological ecosystem,fostering a more interconnected and advanced world.。

刘邑君 高伟＊LIU Yi-jun，GAO Wei ＊麦克哈格的整体性规划思想研究——以伍德兰兹社区生态规划项目为例Mcharg’s Idea of Integrative Design: an Ecological Planning of Woodlands Community, Texas, the USA摘要：以经典案例——伍德兰兹社区生态规划思路为例，探讨麦克哈格(Ian McHarg)的整体性设计思想。

研究以规划文本中的“生态清单”作为研究对象，凝练麦克哈格的整体性思想，并结合其提出的规划设计框架，总结出适用于当今风景园林规划设计的场地生态因子及其对应指标的整体性框架，揭示了麦克哈格的规划设计智慧——在规划设计中需要从整体性思想的角度考虑场地的全要素，其中包括生态因子之间与设计要素之间的互动耦合关系，才能得出与真实世界中的复杂性问题相匹配的规划设计方案。

关键词：生态规划设计；生态因子；整体性设计思想；麦克哈格；伍德兰兹中图分类号：TU986文献标志码：A文章编号：1671-2641(2020)05-0081-06收稿日期：2020-07-15修回日期：2020-09-09Abstract: This paper introduces a classic case (Woodlands Community, Texas, the USA) to explore the integrative idea of McHarg. The study takes the “ecological inventory ” in the planning text as a research object, condenses McHarg ’s integrity thinking, and combined the planning and design framework proposed by McHarg, summarizes the overall framework of site ecological factors and their corresponding to current landscape garden planning and design. The research illustrates the wisdom of McHarg ’s planning and design: in the design of the plan, it is necessary to consider all the indicators of site from the perspective of integrity thinking, including the interactive coupling relationship between various ecological factors and each design indicators, which can be transformed planning and design solutions to match the complexity of the real world.Key words: Ecological planning and design; Ecological factor; The idea of integrative design; Ian McHarg; The Woodlands1研究背景麦克哈格创立的生态规划方法以及其中蕴含的生态智慧是影响当代风景园林学科发展的重要学术思想。

《化工英语》试题班级：姓名：成绩：Ⅰ.Translate the following phrases：1.consist of a central nucleus2.of the nine possibilities3. service to a class of material4.take appropriate measuresprise the entire universe6.in highly pure forms7.in large amount8.have the advantage of9.of many types 10. in certain cases 11.由温度决定12.极其危险13.欺骗某人14.合金元素15.均匀度16.溶解于水17.印刷品18.在适当的时间19.证明其身份20.相对大小Ⅱ.Choose the best answers：1.T he number of the neutrons is generally to the number of protons.A. acquaintB. alikeC. resembleD. communicate2.C oke mainly of carbon.A. grow upB. residenceC. made upD. consists3.S ome elements carbon , oxygen , aluminum , iron , copper , nitrogen , and gold are familiar to you.A. such asB. asC. withD. all of4.T he names of many elements are derived Latin or Greek terms that usually describe one of their properties.A. withB. fromC. inD. for5.U nless stated , water will be understood as the solvent.A. in thisB. otherC. in the other wayD. on the6.T hree nine possibilities will be illustrated many times in the laboratory.A. intoB. inC. fromD. between7.To speed up reaction process the temperature of reactants would require a lot of heat energy.A. by raisingB. in raisingC. by risingD.in rising8.T he overall reaction in the presence of a catalyst is if the catalyst were not there.A. faster thanB. as fast asC. more slow thanD. much slow than9.P ipe are many types.A. ofB. forC. onD. in10.What is the smallest diameter of pipes?A. 3.4 inchesB. 3 or 4 inchesC. 34 inchesD. 7inchesIII.Tell whether the following statements are true or false：( )1. Less than 50 percent of pipe-lines are gas line.( )2. According to the auther , piping includes pipes , valves and some other components. ( )3. The complicated steps of metabolism are helped along by enzymes.( )4. Many chemical processes would not be feasible without catalysts.( )5. Solutions are classified in four days.( )6. The number of proton determines the atomic number of an neutron.( )7. Some elements in nuclear explosions and nuclear research have been produced in generally large amounts.( )8. The mass of an electron in comparison with either a proton or a neutron is very small. ( )9. Oxygen is the mainly element in the human body.( )10. The chemical theory regarded the solvent as an inert medium.IV.Translate the following sentences into English:1.温度的增高造成了压力的增高。

Control of male germ-celldevelopment in flowering plantsMohan B.Singh and Prem L.Bhalla*SummaryPlant reproduction is vital for species survival,and is also central to the production of food for human consumption.Seeds result from the successful fertilization of male and female gametes,but our understanding of the develop-ment,differentiation of gamete lineages and fertilization processes in higher plants is limited.Germ cells in animals diverge from somatic cells early in embryo development,whereas plants have distinct vegetative and reproductive phases in which gametes are formed from somatic cells after the plant has made the transition to flowering and the formation of the reproductive organs.Recently,novel insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying male germ-line initiation and male gamete development in plants have been obtained.Transcrip-tional repression of male germ-line genes in non-male germ-line cells have been identified as a key mechanism for spatial and temporal control of male germ-line development.This review focuses on molecular events controlling male germ-line development especially,on the nature and regulation of gene expression programs operating in male gametes of flowering plants.BioEssays 29:1124–1132,2007.ß2007Wiley Periodicals,Inc.IntroductionMost of the grains and seeds that form the world staple food supply are the result of successful functioning of male and female gametes during fertilization.Despite the importance of plant reproduction,our understanding of the development,differentiation and fertilization processes of gamete lineages in higher plants is limited.Most studies in recent decades have investigated the reproductive development of the anther and ovule (1–5)within the context of androecium and gynoecium,and can be regarded as early sexual organ differentiation stages of the flower ,which,except for a few cells,is largely a sporophytic and thus somatic lineage.In contrast,this paper focuses on reviewing progress towards understanding the molecular basis of male germ-line initiation and male gamete development in flowering plants.The germ-line cells in most animals diverge from somatic cells during early embryo development and remain as a distinct stem cell population throughout the life of the animal (Fig.1A).In contrast,plants exhibit distinct vegetative and reproductive phases,and the male germ line in plants originates in flowers from the cells of a previous somatic lineage (Fig.1B,Fig.2).Cell-cycle decisions in plant anther tissues from mitosis to meiosis initiate a complicated cascade of development processes that leads to the formation of four haploid microspores from a single diploid microspore mother cell (Fig.2).The male germ line is initiated from the haploid microspore via asymmetric division,following which the smaller generative cell,which defines the male germ-cell lineage becomes wholly encased within the much larger vegetative cell to form a unique ‘‘cell-within-a-cell structure’’.The generative cell subsequently divides to produce two sperm cells (Fig.3).In some plants,such as Arabidopsis and rice,the division of generative cell to produce two sperm cells takes place during pollen maturation in the anther ,whereas in other plants,such as tobacco and lily ,this division occurs after pollination,inside the pollen tube (Fig.3).During pollen germination,the wall of the vegetative cell extends to produce a pollen tube via tip elongation and,by this mechanism,the two sperm cells are ultimately delivered to the embryo sac.Asymmetric division of the microspore is essential for establishing the male germ line,since experimental manipu-lations of division lead to the failure of generative cell formation.(6)Moreover,Arabidopsis pollen mutants (such as gem1and gem2and scp)that show defects in asymmetric division of the microspores show failure of male gamete transmission (7–10)indicating that the male germ-line initiation pathway that leads to the formation of generative and sperm cells is decisively dependent on asymmetric division of the haploid e of colchicine as a microtubulePlant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory ,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Integrative Legume Research,Faculty of Land and Food Resources,The University of Melbourne,Australia.*Correspondence to:Prem L.Bhalla,Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory ,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Integrative Legume Research,Faculty of Land and Food Resources,The University of Melbourne,Parkville,Victoria 3010,Australia.E-mail:premlb@.au DOI 10.1002/bies.20660Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley .com).1124BioEssays 29.11BioEssays 29:1124–1132,ß2007Wiley Periodicals,Inc.Abbreviations:EST ,expressed sequence tags;GC,generative cell;GFP ,green florescent protein;GRSF ,germ-line-restrictive silencing factor;GUS,b -glucuronidase;LGC1,lily generative-cell-specific 1;SC,sperm cells;VC,vegetative cell.disruptive drug (6)and identification of GEM1/MOR1as a microtubule-associated protein also indicated that the cell cytoskeleton appears to play a key role in establishing the division plane for asymmetric cell division.(7,10,11)Despite these advances in our knowledge,the key intrinsic molecular determinants that control asymmetric polarity division and the founding of male germ line have not been identified.It appears that the key intrinsic steps that specify asymmetric division ofthe microspore and subsequent determination of the cell fate are determined by the haploid genome in a cell-autonomous manner ,since microspores removed from their anther niche and cultured in artificial media are capable of sperm cell formation in vitro.(12)In contrast to the significant understanding of the molecular genetic basis of male gamete development and fertilization in animals,most of the mechanisms underlying themolecularFigure 1.Outline of the landmark stages in the formation of germ lines in animals and plants.A:An early embryo formed from a zygote that results from the fusion of male and female gametes generates not only all the parts of animal body (somatic cells)but also demarcates germ cells for the next generation.Note pre-meiosis establishment of germ lines and the continuous production of functional male gametes is dependent on germ-line stem cells during the adult life of an animal.B:Seeds resulting from double fertilization in higher plants have well-developed embryos.Seed germination results in a fully developed plant at the vegetative stage.The transition to the flowering stage initiates the formation of the reproductive organs,followed by gametes.Origin of gametes from gametophyte is a post-meiotic event.Gamete development within a reproductive organ is not a continuousprocess.Figure 2.Male germ-line development in plants.A:Lily flower showing the male reproductive anther organ (yellow).B:Diagrammatic representation of early anther showing microsporocytes (2n)within the developing anther .C:Microsporocyte undergoing meiosis resulting in the formation of a tetrad of haploid microspores (n)(D ).E:A microspore.F:Early bicellular pollen.Asymmetric division within a microspore results in the formation of a larger vegetative cell (VC)and a smaller generative cell (GC).G:Mature bicellular pollen.BioEssays 29.111125basis of flowering-plant germ-cell specification,differentiation and gamete interactions remain unknown.However ,with the availability of new molecular biology and genetic tools,there has been exciting progress in recent years towards the understanding of flowering plant gamete development.There-fore,this review will focus on molecular and genetic control of male germ-line development in plants and in particular on the nature and regulation of gene expression programs operating in the male gametes.Transcriptome-based approaches toinvestigating male germ-line developmentUntil recently little information was available regarding the gene expression programs underpinning flowering plant male germ-line initiation and male gamete development.This lack of knowledge was mainly attributable to the inaccessibility of generative and sperm cells due to their encasement within the male gametophyte.Moreover ,this important area remained neglected because of a long-held view in the literature that the condensed state of the chromatin and the very small amount of cytoplasm relative to the nucleus probably reflected the transcriptionally quiescent nature of generative and sperm cells.The development of novel protocols to isolate generative and sperm cells (13,14)eventually led to dawn of molecular era in plant gamete research.These gamete isolation protocols provided opportunities to address several outstanding ques-tions such as whether these cells are transcriptionally active and have protein synthesis machinery that is independent ofthe outer vegetative cell.(15–17)The presence of translatable mRNA in generative and sperm cells was initially confirmed by metabolic labelling experiments.(18–20)This observation led to the construction of cDNA libraries from isolated generative and sperm cells and the identification of male gamete-specific genes in flowering plants.(21,22)Currently ,transcriptome data are available for Arabidopsis pollen (23–25)as well as EST data from maize sperm cell (22)and lily generative cell.(26)Transcriptional profiling of Arabidopsis pollen using an Affymetrix 8K chip showed that the tran-scriptome of pollen is clearly distinct from that of vegetative tissues.(23)Out of 7,792annotated genes,992were shown to be pollen expressed and 40%of these pollen-expressed genes were found to be pollen specific.Subsequent use of ATH1genome arrays identified 13,977male gametophyte-expressed transcripts of which 9.7%(1355)were male gametophytic specific (24)while use of same ATH1chip by different investigators identified 6,587genes to be expressed in pollen.(25)While RNA prepared using total Arabidopsis pollen contains contributions from both vegetative and sperm cells,it is worth noting that due to very small size of the latter ,the Arabidopsis pollen transcriptome is likely to highly biased towards reporting genes expressed in much larger vegetative cells.Hence,transcriptome data for isolated sperm cells would be desirable to gain insight into molecular events governing sperm cell development and function.Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS)has been used to isolate maize (Zea mays )sperm cells.(22)Isolated maize sperm cells were usedtoFigure 3.Formation of sperm cells.Bicellular pollen showing a smaller generative cell (GC)and a larger vegetative cell.Mature pollen in plants such as lily is released from the anther at this stage for pollination.In plants such as Arabidopsis and rice,the pollen undergoes further division whereby the generative cell divides mitotically to produce two sperm cells (SC).Tricellular pollen is released from the anther for pollination,whereas bicellular pollen undergoes a second mitotic division during pollen tube elongation while growing through female reproductive tissues.1126BioEssays 29.11prepare cDNA library and5,093ESTs sequences have been obtained.Several transcripts encoding proteins similar to hypothetical Arabidopsis proteins were identified in the sperm cells of mature pollen.Analysis of886expressed sequence tags(ESTs)from lily generative cells revealed the presence of 637non-redundant genes,(26)nearly61%of which repre-sented novel genes and hence targets for investigating male germ-line-specific functions.The identification of several transcripts present specifically in the generative and sperm cells indicated that despite their condensed chromatin organization,these male germ cells have their own genetic program.(27–29)Sequencing of re-presentative sets of cDNAs revealed classes of genes that are developmentally regulated in the male germ-line cells,includ-ing(a)genes that are shared with somatic cells but are upregulated in the male germ line,(b)germ-cell-specific gene variants and(c)genes that are exclusively expressed in male germ line cells.(26,30)Genes that are shared with somatic cells but are upregulated in plant male germ-line cells include those involved in the DNA repair pathway.(31)A plant homologue of the human nucleotide excision repair gene ERCC1was found to be upregulated several-fold in lily generative cells compared to pollen vegetative cells and plant somatic cells.In plants, the germ line is not set aside early in embryo development, with germ cells instead originating from cells of a previous somatic lineage.Thus,plant germ-line cells can carry several mutations that accumulate during somatic growth.It has been proposed that a stringent haploid selection process during gametophyte development filters out most of the deleterious mutations.However,the fully developed male pollen game-tophyte is exposed to solar UV radiation and other environ-mental mutagens after being released from the anther. Upregulation of DNA repair genes in the male germ line most likely protects germ-line DNA from heritable mutations resulting from DNA damage.Other genes that are upregulated in generative cells include a cluster of genes related to the cell-cycle-progression pathway.(26,30)Genes encoding ubiquitin-pathway-related proteins such as polyubiquitin,proteasome subunit,ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme,Skp1and Ring box protein were found to be highly upregulated in the generative cells.(30)Ubiquitin-pathway-related genes have been found to be active in Plumbago species and maize sperm cells.(22,28)The ubiquitin system has also been shown to play an essential role in male gameto-genesis in mice and humans.(32,33)The high level of expression of ubiquitin-pathway-related genes in generative cells suggests that the ubiquitin proteolysis system plays a critical role in the male gametogenesis of higher plants.In addition to the normal complement of histones present in plant somatic cells and pollen vegetative cell,the male germ-line cell possesses cell-specific variants of histones H3and H2B.(26,27,29,30,34–37)Comparison of lily generative cell ESTs with maize sperm cell ESTs indicated an overlap(168out of637lily ESTs)in male gamete gene expression in generative and sperm cells in these plant species while comparison with Arabidopsis male gametophyte-specific transcripts(24)indicated that129lily generative cell ESTs showed significant similarity to Arabi-dopsis male gametophyte-specific genes.In addition,micro-array studies showed unique gene expression profile of lily generative cells;(30)83%(356transcripts out of430genes) of the transcripts were enriched in generative cells.A high percentage of cell-specific transcripts in generative cell,a distinctive feature,is unique to these male gametic cells. Further,a significant overlap in the expressed genes among lily generative-cell ESTs,maize sperm-cell ESTs and Arabidopsis pollen-specific transcriptome is apparent throughout all functional role categories.(26)This comparative approach has been successful in maize to identify germ-line-specific promoters GEX1,GEX2in Arabidopsis.(38)Further, these genome-wide and expressed genes data sets could be useful in identifying conserved male-gamete-specific genes and formulating hypothesis about their potential cellular functions.Genes that are vital for male gamete development and for controlling gamete interactions are likely to include those that encode proteins that are exclusively expressed in germ-line cells.Several transcripts in lily generative cells that encode proteins that are similar to proteins classified as hypothetical in the Arabidopsis databases appear to be specific to the male germ line in mature pollen.The first such identified gene from a generative cell cDNA library was LGC1(lily generative cell-specific1;accession no.AF110779),which encodes a small protein of128amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 13.8kDa.(21)The presence of a hydrophobic domain exhibiting the characteristics of a GPI anchor suggests that this protein is located on the surface of the cell membrane of the male germ cell,and this has been confirmed by immunolocalization experiments,with expression analysis showing that LGC1is expressed specifically in the generative and sperm cells of lily.(21,26,30)We recently found that LGC1was represented by11out of886sequenced lily generative cell ESTs.(26) The initial identification of male germ-line-specific genes in lily and subsequent investigation of their functions via disrupting the expression of their homologues in the model plant Arabidopsis has turned out be a highly successful strategy for determining the male gamete proteins that are critical to development and fertilization of higher plants.Mori et al.(39)used isolated lily generative cells to identify a higher plant homologue of GlsA,which is a chaperone-like protein essential for gonidia formation in Volvox.(40)Using degenerate PCR primers,the authors reported amplification of cDNA from lily generative cell RNA that was highly similar to Volvox counterparts.Immunolocalization analysis revealed the co-localization of this putative chaperone protein withBioEssays29.111127a-tubulin,suggesting that this plays an important role in the morphogenesis of the generative cell by stabilizing cytoske-letal structures.Further differential display experiments performed in the same laboratory to compare the gene expression patterns of unicellular microspores,bicellular pollen and isolated gener-ative cells led to the identification of a novel generative-cell-specific protein(GCS1)from lily generative cells.(41)GCS1 possesses a carboxy(C)-terminal transmembrane domain and is localized to the surface of generative and sperm cells, suggesting its role in gamete interactions.A GCS1homologue is also present in Arabidopsis.The failure of gamete fusion leading to male sterility in Arabidopsis plants possessing a mutation in the GCS1locus suggests that this gene-encoded function is essential for fertilization.It was further proposed that GCS1is anchored on the surface of sperm cells via its C-terminal transmembrane domain.The presence of LGC1on the surface of lily male germ cells and the conservation of LGC1homologues in Arabidopsis and rice suggest that this protein is a key player in the gamete interactions of flowering plants.Other lily genes reported to be represented in the lily generative cell EST library,particularly those showing homology in Arabidopsis,represent a unique starting point for investigating the repertoire of proteins involved in male gamete differentiation.Although these tran-scriptomic approaches are providing valuable insight into the portions of flowering-plant genomes that are expressed in male germ-line cells,they do not provide information on which of the mRNAs are actually translated and when this occurs. Whether there is a temporal disconnection between mRNA transcription and translation to proteins in male germ cells is unclear.Whether certain mRNAs are sequestered in ribonu-cleoprotein particles and stored prior to being translated also remains to be addressed.It should be noted that pollen generative cells that have already undergone dehydration as part of the maturation process contain abundant and diverse mRNAs,even when protein synthesis is not active.Since transcriptional profiling of generative and sperm cells has been based on cells isolated from mature desiccated pollen,it is suggested that these RNAs will be translated following re-hydration of the pollen on the stigma surface following pollina-tion.An integrative transcriptomic approach is likely to identify the most-relevant male-germ-cell-expressed proteins. Genetic approaches for unravellingthe male-germ-cell genes critical tomale-germ-cell differentiationSeveral genetic segregation screening studies of the genes expressed in haploid male gametophyte have been performed using Arabidopsis as a model system.The genetic lesions in most of the mutants identified via such screenings are in genes expressed in the larger cell of the pollen,whose knockout induces aberrations in pollen development that lead to male sterility.(8,42–47).Since pollen has a haploid genome,any mutation in the genes that are essential for general cellular functions is likely to lead to the termination of development.For example,mutations in pollen-expressed genes that are involved in sucrose transport,membrane trafficking or cation transport showed a sterility phenotype.(48)Genetic compen-sation due to gene redundancy is also another shortcoming of the genetic approach,since gene redundancy is a normal phenomenon in plants and is considered to be responsible for the absence of phenotypes in the majority of single loss-of-function mutants.(49)These limitations question the ability to identify genes that are expressed only in the male germ cells of pollen.The screening for such mutants has to be limited to a subset in which pollen development and tube growth are normal,but where there is still no transmission of the male genome to the next generation.Arabidopsis mutants duo1and duo2are two such identified mutants,in which the pollen morphology appears normal but where blocked generative cell division results in the formation of bicellular pollen at an-thesis.(50)It is worth mentioning here that these mutants were not identified by segregation screen,but in a direct morpho-logical screen for germ-line defects.In duo2mutant specifi-cally generative cell mitosis at pro-metaphase was blocked.(52) DUO,which was subsequently identified by map-based cloning,encodes a novel R2R3-MYB transcription factor that is expressed specifically in the male germ line.(51)The DUO1 protein was reportedly localized to the nucleus of generative and sperm cells,with a proposed function of promoting generative cell by activating specific targets such as cyclin genes.The mitotic division of generative cell also fails in Arabidopsis mutant cdc2a,(52,53)in which only one sperm cell (rather than two)is produced.The viable mutant pollen can only fertilize one cell in the embryo sac.Intriguingly,the single gamete fertilizes only the egg cell.The serine/threonine protein kinase cdc2is a key regulator of the cell cycle,acting through cyclin-dependent phosphorylation.Another Arabidopsis mutant has been described in which the generative cell divides normally and sperm cells that are delivered to the embryo sac fail to fuse with either the egg cell or the central cell.(42,45,54)It was also confirmed that the absence of fertilization in HAP2mutants was not due to a defect in sperm development or to migration of sperm within the pollen tube.HAP2was found to be allelic to GCS1.(41) HAP2encodes a705-amino-acid membrane protein with a histidine-rich C terminus.This protein is not similar to genes of known function and has no obvious functional motifs.Database searches have revealed that HAP2homo-logues are present in other flowering plants.HAP2is specifically expressed in sperm cells,as confirmed by reporter gene analysis in transgenic Arabidopsis plants.Thus,these data suggest that unique molecules are involved in gamete function.1128BioEssays29.11Chromatin remodelling and malegerm-cell-specific histone variantsAs soon as asymmetric cell division of a microspore leads to the formation of two unequal cells,it becomes apparent that the chromatin of the generative nucleus is much more condensed than that of the vegetative nucleus.(55)This condensed nature of the chromatin is also retained in sperm nuclei.This characteristic of higher plants is also present in animals,(56)with the condensation of male chromatin in animal sperm cells being mediated by the exchange of somatic histones with transition proteins,followed by protamines or sperm-specific histones that are,in turn,replaced by somatic histones provided by the egg cell following fertilization. Proteins similar to protamines have been reported in the motile sperm cells of lower plants,(57)but these proteins are not conserved in higher plants.A biochemical approach to comparing chromatin proteins from vegetative and generative cell nuclei in lily and testing the comparative mobility of these proteins on two-dimensional electrophoresis gels revealed that at least five nuclear basic proteins were either specific to or enriched in generative cell nuclei.(34)Two of these proteins were identified as variants of histones H3and H2B,and were designated gH3and gH2B,respectively.Immunocytochem-ical staining of these histone variants showed that they were not only present in generative cells but also in the two sperm cells formed by the division of the generative nucleus.(35) The first study to investigate the expressed genes repre-sented in cDNA libraries constructed from isolated gene-rative cells revealed an abundance of transcripts encoding histone variants.(58)At least five cell-specific histone H3 variants are expressed in lily male germ cells.(31)In histone variants gcH3and leH3,the lysine at position9is substituted by methionine.Despite sharing conserved structural features with centromeric histone H3,the germ-line-specific variant form gH3is distributed throughout the chromatin.In addition, the methylation pattern of lily histones associated with male germ-line cell appears to differ from that observed in somatic cells.In Arabidopsis,one histone H3gene,At1g19890,is expressed specifically in germ cells.(27)In contrast to lily germ-line histone variants,the amino acid sequence of this Arabidopsis variant is highly conserved in somatic histones.It is notable that histone genes are highly conserved in plants, and the only histones that show significant sequence variations are in those variants expressed in male germ-line cells.There exists the tantalizing possibility of a causal relationship between the expression of histone variants and the differential condensation and/or differential gene expres-sion programming in male germ cells of higher plants.Further experiments involving either ectopic expression of germ-line variants in somatic cells or individual knockout mutants exhibiting disrupted function of germ-line-specific genes are required to address these outstanding questions.Transcriptional regulation of malegerm-line-specific gene expressionMolecular studies are beginning to elucidate the regulators of germ-line-specific gene expression,which is essential to understanding the gene circuits underpinning male germ-cell differentiation.Transcriptome analyses have revealed that a significant number of flowering-plant genes are transcribed exclusively in the male germ line.(27,30,54,58,59)What is the nature of transcriptional regulation programs that control the cell specificity of male germ-cell-specific genes?The identi-fication of LGC1as the first-identified male germ-line cell-specific transcript expressed under the control of generative/ sperm cell promoter provided a unique model system in which to investigate the underlying transcriptional regulatory mechanisms.Use of the LGC1-GFP reporter gene construct in transient transformation experiments of lily pollen revealed the gen-erative cell-specific expression of LGC1,(60)while stable transformation of a heterologous plant,tobacco with LGC1-GUS,showed the generative cell-specific expression of a reporter gene in the generative cells of transgenic tobacco, indicating that the transcriptional factors required to control the specificity of expression of LGC1promoter are conserved in male germ-line cells.The strict generative cell specificity of LGC1promoter was confirmed by obtaining transgenic plants carrying the LGC1promoter fused with the DT/A cytotoxin gene.(60)Such plants showed specific ablation of pollen grains containing DT/A expression in the generative cells.Deletion analysis of the LGC1promoter showed the presence of a43bp nucleotide regulatory silencer element whose excision from the promoter led to a constitutive pattern of expression of truncated promoter in all the plant tissues tested.Gel retardation assays showed that nuclear extracts of lily petal cells contain a protein that specifically interacts with the LGC1 silencer sequence.(60)The gene encoding this repressor protein was recently cloned by southwestern blotting of a lily petal cDNA expression library.(61)GRSF(Germline Restrictive Silencer Factor)is a novel24-kDa DNA-binding repressor protein encoded by a gene expressed ubiquitously in plant tissues with the exception of generative cells.Immunolocali-zation showed that GRSF is present in the nuclei of uninucleate microspores and pollen vegetative cells but is absent in the generative cell nucleus.Chromatin immunopre-cipitation assays showed that GRSF interacts with a specific domain in promoter region of LGC1and with the male germ-line-specific histone gcH3.Promoter mutagenesis experi-ments led to the identification of a conserved8-bp motif in the LGC1and gH3promoters.This sequence motif is likely to be core-binding site for GRSF.These data show that the male germ-cell-specific gene expression of LGC1and other coordinately expressed genes might be controlled by GRSF by repressing their expression in other plant cells.The promoter region of the Arabidopsis male germ-line-specificBioEssays29.111129。

grain coalescence 英语English: Grain coalescence is a critical phenomenon in the realm of materials science and engineering, particularly within the context of metal solidification processes. It refers to the merging of two or more adjacent grains, which share a common crystallographic orientation, resulting in the formation of larger grains. This process plays a pivotal role in determining the microstructural evolution and ultimately, the mechanical, thermal, and corrosion properties of the final product. Understanding grain coalescence mechanisms and their controlling factors is therefore essential for optimizing manufacturing processes and designing materials with desired characteristics.中文：晶粒合并是材料科学与工程领域中一个至关重要的现象，特别是在金属凝固过程的背景下。

它指两个或多个相邻晶粒，由于具有相同的晶体学取向而相互融合，形成更大的晶粒。

这一过程在决定最终产品微观结构演化及最终力学、热学和腐蚀性能方面起着关键作用。

Chapter 1Downstream processing(DSP)：The isolation and purification of a biotechnological product to a form suitable for its intended use. The separation and purification of products synthesized by bioprocesses:Biotechnology：the use of cultured microorganisms, animal cells, and plant cells to produce products useful to humans.Modern biotechnology：Built on genetic engineering to produce commercial products or processes.Chapter 2Coagulation：the chemical alteration of the colloidal particles to make them stick together凝聚值：表示电解质的凝聚能力，使胶粒发生凝聚作用的最小电解质浓度m mol/L. Flocculation: a process whereby particles are aggregated into clusters.Filtration separates solid from a liquid by forcing the liquid through a filter medium.滤浆（feed/ slurry）：悬浮液过滤介质(filter medium) ：多孔物质滤液(filtrate)：通过过滤介质的液体滤饼(filter cake)：被截留的固体物质Conventional or dead-end filtration: the fluid flows perpendicular to the medium which result in a cake of solids depositing on the filter medium.Crossflow filtration:The fluid flows parallel to the medium to minimize buildup to solids on the medium.Centrifugation is a process that involves the use of the centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures.分离因数（Z）：离心力与重力的比值。

核安全导则HAD 103/12《核动力厂老化管理》［1］规定：“核动力厂寿期内的设计、建造、调试、运行（包括延寿运行和长期停堆）和退役各阶段都应考虑老化管理”，核电厂老化管理应基于“核动力厂通用运行经验和具体核动力厂特有运行经验”。

国内外的相关经验表明，在新建核电厂设计、运行核电厂日常老化管理［2］、定期安全审查［3-4］和长寿期运行［5］/执照更新［6］/运行许可证延续［7］的申请和审评工作中，核电厂通用老化经验报告是不可或缺的、关键性的指导文件。

1国内外实践和现状鉴于核电厂通用老化经验的意义和作用，美国和国际原子能机构（International Atomic Ener⁃gy Agency ，简称IAEA ）积极推进核电厂通用老化经验报告的编制和应用。

1.1美国美国核管会（Nuclear Regulatory Commission ，简称NRC ）于20世纪初开始牵头组织美国核电营运单位、美国电力研究院（Electric Power Research In⁃stitute ，简称EPRI ）和美国核能研究所（NuclearEnergy Institute ，简称NEI ）等单位编制通用老化经验（Generic Aging Lessons Learned ，简称GALL ）报告［8］，最初的版本是在NUREG/CR-6490“Nucle⁃ar Power Plant Generic Aging Lessons Learned ”的基础上，于2001年发布的NUREG-1801（第0版），后续不断更新。

第2版后采用临时导则（Interim Staff Guidance ，简称ISG ）方式更新。

GALL 报告主要的升版情况见表1。

表1GALL 报告升版情况Table 1Reversion of GALL report版本发布时间升版主要内容及来源第0版2001.7NUREG/CR-6490第1版2005.9执照更新审查经验和公众意见反馈第2版2010.12执照更新审查经验和国内外运行经验反馈ISG2011～2016执照更新审查经验GALL 报告结合了美国核电厂运行期间的运核电厂通用老化经验报告分析与编制建议孙海涛，吴彩霞，马若群，高晨，凌礼恭，吕云鹤*（生态环境部核与辐射安全中心，北京100082）摘要：美国核管会编制发布的通用老化经验报告是美国核电厂运行执照更新的基石文件，对指导核电厂设计、运行和延寿，包括水化学管理、在役检查等老化管理工作具有重要意义。