考研 2 speech_sounds

2022年考研专业二考试真题及答案一、填空题每小题2分，共1题1、 By _____, we mean the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.2、The sound [k] can be descr ibed with “_____ velar stop/plosive”.3、 _____ is the degree of force used in producing syllable.4、 _____ involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of .the other. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain.5、 _____ concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.二、推断题每小题2分，共1题1、 Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.2、 Compound refers to the words hat consist of more than one lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form base form.3、Psycholinguistics, as an interdisciplinary study of language use, deals with the relationships between language and society.4、 The theory of conversational implicature was proposed by Laurence Horn.5、 Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation.三、辨析题每小题2分，共1题1、 What is articulatory phonetics?2、 Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below.a. high-mid front unrounded vowelb. voiceless alveolar stop3、 The following is an ambiguous sentence in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate it?Flying planes can be dangerous.4、 For each of the underlined constructions or word groups, please state whether it is headed or non-headed and name the type of constructions.a. Ducks quack.b. I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.5、 What does cohesion refer to? Can you give an example?四、简答题每小题2分，共1题1、Can you mention any typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?2、 What is your definition of loanblend? Can you give some examples?3、 How do you understand recreational function of language? Can you explain it by setting some examples?4、 What is Case Grammar? What makes it unique from other types of grammar?5、 Chomsky held the view that the corpus could never be a useful tool for the linguists. What do you think about Chomsky’s criticism and the revival of corpus linguistics? 参考答案：【一、填空题】1Duality2voiceless3stress4metaphor5Perlocutionary act 【二、推断题】1对2对3错4错5对【三、辨析题】1The study of the production of speech sounds or the study of how speech sounds are produced.2a.[e]; b.[t]3The ambiguity comes from “flying planes”. It can be deciphe red as the “planes that are flying” or “to fly planes”.4a. non-headed, independent clause; b. headed (damaged), adjective group5Cohesion refers to the relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that defines it as a text. The cohesivedevices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, reference, and so on. In the following example, the cohesive device is “Reference”, it refers back to the door: He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.【四、简答题】1Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近好吗？正忙呢？2Loanblend is a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. For example, the first parts of the words coconut and China-town came from Spanish and Chinese respectively, but the second parts are of the English origin.3No one could deny the use of language for the hearty joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting. In the Latin and Islamic worlds as well as some areas of China, there is widespread use of verbal dueling, in which one singer begins a song of usually few lines and challenges his opponent to continue the correct or provide a rejoinder in a similar rhythm performed for the sheer joy of playing on languag e. If you observe a children’s play, you will find the power of sound Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game. Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its ownsake. For instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty.4Case grammar is a type of generative approach that stresses the semantic relationship of elements in a sentence. This grammar takes the verb as the most important part of the sentence, marking the relationships between the verb with various noun phrases as “cases”. Fillmore’s argument is based on the assumptions that syntax should be central in the determination of case and that covert categories are important. The various ways in which cases occur in simple sentences define sentence types and verb types of a language. Case grammar shows clear semantic relevance of notions such as agency, causation, location, advantage to someone, etc. There are easily identifiable across languages, arid are held by many psychologists to play an important part in child language acquisition.5Chomsky held the view that the corpus cold never be a useful tool for the linguists, as the linguist must seek to model language competence rather than performance. Second, the only way to account for a grammar of a language is by description of its rules--not by enumeration of its sentences. Third, language is not a finite construct. However, it was the wonder of computer that heralded the revival of corpus linguistics. The computer has the ability to searchfor a particular word, sequence of words, or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also retrieve all examples of a particular word, usually in context, which is further aid to the linguist. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered. We may then be interested in sorting the data in some way, for example, alphabetically on words occurring in the immediate context of the word.。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第二章：语音您所查看的帖子来源于考研加油站考研论坛() Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative以下内容跟帖回复才能看到==============================Key:I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme neveroccur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.。

Chapter 2 ExercisesI. Define the following terms.1. Phonetics: The study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s language.2. Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.3. Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.4. Auditory phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds.5. V oiceless: When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.6. V oiced: Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.7. Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.8. Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols and the diacritics.9. IPA: A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonic transcription, its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sound.10. V owels: The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.11. Consonants: The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.12. Phonology: The study of sound system - the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.13. Phoneme: the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.14. Allophone: Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.15. Phone: A phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. It is a speech sound we use when speaking a language.16. Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.17. Suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level or the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation and tone.II. Indicate the following statements true or false.1. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing.( T )2. The unlimited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. ( F )3. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )4. Only highly trained phoneticians can produce the same speech sounds. ( F )5. The vowel [e] can be described as front, semi-open and unrounded. ( F )6. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )7. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in all human languages form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. ( F )8. Phoneticians found that a dark [l] often occurs at the end of a word after a vowel or before a consonant and a clear [l] often occurs after a consonant. ( F )9. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. (T)10. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )11. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal [ ] never occurs in initial position in English nor in Chinese. ( F )12. Nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, that is, it does not distinguish meaning. (T)III. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word.1.The natural or primary medium of human language is ______ for some obvious reasons.(sound)2. ______ and _____ are the two media by natural languages as vehicles for communication.( speech; writing )3. Phonetics looks at sounds from _(three)_____ distinct, but related point of view.4. Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established and until recently the most highly developed is _____ . (articulatory phonetics )5. ______ phoneticians try to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues.( Acoustic)6. _____ is made up of continuous bursts of sounds. (Speech)7. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities. They are ______________ ____________ and _____________. (the pharyngeal cavity, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity)8. The first point where sound modification may occur is _____. (glottis)9. V owels may be distinguished as10. If, in making a vowel sound, the organs of speech remain in one position without moving to another, the result is a __________. If the organs of speech start in the position for one vowel and then immediately glide to the position of another, the result is a __________. (monophthong; diphthong)11. All English sound except [m], [n],[ ] are made with the palate _____. (raised)12. IPA indicates _____ ______ ______. (International Phonetic Alphabet)13. An initial classification will divide the speech sounds into two broad categories: _____ and _____. (vowels, consonants)14. The basic unit in phonology is ______. (phoneme)15. Conventionally, a phoneme is put in _____ while phones are put in _____. (slashes, square brackets)16. An aspirated [p]; an unaspirated [p] and an unreleased [p] are ______ of the /p/ _____. (allophones; phoneme)17. The allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in _____ distribution. (complementary)18. In English, there are two kinds of stress. They are ______ and _______. (word stress; sentence stress)19. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as ________. (intonation)20. English has 4 basic types of intonations, they are _____, _____, _____, _____.(the falling tone; the rising tone; the fall – rise tone; the rise – fall tone)IV. In each of the following Questions, there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question or best complete the sentence.1. The principal source of the modification of the air stream is _____.A. tongueB. palateC. teethD. velum2. The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the _____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords3. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide part, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be _____.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel4. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ______.A. [t] and [d]B. [k] and [g]C. [p] and [b]D. [ ] and [ ]5. _____ are sounds articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.A. palatalsB. dentalsC. alveolarD. velars6. The sounds [ ], [j] are the results of raising the front of the tongue towards the _____.A. hard palateB. soft palateC. uvulaD. velar7. When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly with the friction resulting from partial obstruction, the sounds thus produced are _____.A. affricatesB. fricativesC. liquidsD. alveolar8. In the case of vowel sounds, the _____ and the mouth cavities are changed by the shape and position of the tongue and lips.A. noseB. larynxC. pharynxD. uvular9. The phoneme is an abstract _______.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical10. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate ______.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. allomorphs(1. A 2. C 3. B 4. A 5. D 6.A7.A8. C 9. B 10. B)V. Answer the following questions in English.1. What is the difference between a monophthong and a diphthong?A monophthong is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for a period of time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a deliberate glide. The organs of speech starting in the position of one vowel and immediately moving in the direction of another vowel, for example: [i:], [i] are monophthongs and [ai], [ei] are diphthongs.2. What is a consonant? How are they generally classified?A consonant is a speech sound where the air stream from the lungs is either completely blocked, partially blocked or where the openings is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction. Consonants can be classified with reference to the manner of articulation, the place ofarticulation and absence of the vocal cord vibration.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?Broad transcription – one letter symbol for one sound. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the [l] in words like deaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild] and health [hel ].Narrow transcription – diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the differences between sounds. For example, the sound [l] in the above mentioned words differ slightly. The [l] in leaf [li:f], occurring before a vowel is called a clear [l] and the [l] in feel [fi:l] and build [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant is called a dark [l] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [~ ] is used to indicate that it is a dark [l]. Then in the sound combination [hel ] the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [ ], it is thus called a dental [l] and transcribed as [hel ] in narrow transcription.。

新视角研究生读说写2课后答案Unit oneVocabularyA 1.triggered 2.economically 3.minimum mitment 5.relieved 6.shrinking 7.enrollments 8. scarcely 9.sequence 10.strideB 1-5 ADBCB 6-10 ACACDCloze1.requires2.dimensional3.thoughtfully4.lines5. next6.summarize7.own8. notes9.out 10.refuse 11. front 12.content 13.act 14.value 15.accent 16.distracting 17.effort 18.advantage 19.forth 20. conclusionsTranslation[A] 1. 那位教授很可能在他唯一的学生缺席的情况下对着空空的教室讲了一课。

The professor might probably have delivered his lecture to the empty classroom in the absence of his solitary student.2. 现行的教育体制遭到了公众的批评，公众已经开始意识到这种体制给学生带来的危害。

The present educational system has been under attack from the public, who have begun to realize the harm the system has done to students.3. 老师告诉这些大四学生他每次都会点名，因为这门课是必须要听的。

The professor told those seniors that he would take attendance every time because attendance at this course was compulsory.4. 我真想参加你的乔迁聚会。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）学习指导前言其实我的这一个语言学学习指导系列本来没有想做得这么大的，最初只是我买了一本语言学教程的辅导资料，发现里面有的名词解释总结得很不错，所以就想整理一下各章的名词解释。

后来觉得既然是整理，光整理名词解释，还不如对知识点做一个较全面的学习指导材料。

结果就此一发而不可收，终于形成了现在的这一整套资料。

不明白是什么的朋友们可以参考考研论坛外语版的相关帖子。

本资料主要分为三部分，第一部分为各章节提纲笔记，第二部分为重点章节测试题，第三部分为测试题参考答案。

整理这一套资料真得很劳心费力，希望能够对大家有所帮助。

在考研论坛上，我所有的相关资料都设置了阅读权限和K币，一个是为了防止盗用，但更重要的不是为了限制什么，只是希望大家在能够很容易得到资料的同时，也能够想到要付出一些，将来考上研了以后能够回到这里，与后来的研友们分享一些所能够得到的信息，资源共享，信息交流，这才是考研论坛的本意。

也希望大家在以后复习语言学的时候，能够想到冰暖茶在这门课程上作的小小的努力，如果大家都能成功，我的努力就是值得的。

需要说明的是，我在整理资料的过程中，得到了ksguobw, lxm1000w, micronannan, 天使精灵（排名不分先后）等朋友的资源共享和大力协助，在此对他们以及一贯支持冰暖茶的朋友们表示感谢！由于水平有限，加之时间仓促，疏漏之处在所难免，欢迎各位读者批评指正。

冰暖茶2006年11月目录前言 (1)目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon………………………………………………………………………………14Chapter 4 Syntax………………………………………………………………………………21Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind………………………………………………………29Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society………………………………………………………35Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer……………………………………………………………49Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………53Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguist ics………………………………………59第二部分重点章节测试题……………………………………………………………………67Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology……………………………………………………………70Test Three Morphology…………………………………………………………………………73Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics……………………………………………………………………………79Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theor ies and Schools of Modern Linguistics………………………………………88第三部分测试题参考答案……………………………………………………………………91参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship totheir meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the s tudy of a language through the course of its history. E.g.a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence isstable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emic[These two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohong’s book, I can understand them better, bu t because they are vaguely mentioned in Hu’s book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. – icywarmtea]Being etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investiga tor’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Romanalphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English, [ ] are stops and [ ] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [ ] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes [ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [ ] is the only lateral in E nglish.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls ofthe pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network免费考研网。

A New Seaghsounds of spoken English≠letters of written English↓InternationalPhonetic Alphabet →IPAIPA is a standardized and internally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sounds. With minor modification it is now still used by phoneticians and linguists.The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005)only some of the sounds →units in the language system.study from various perspectives ↓PhoneticsPhonologyPhonetics -studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Articulatory Phonetics- the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic Phonetics- the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics - concerned with the perception of speech sounds.- the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Aim- discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.1- analyze an individual language, say English, in order to determine itsphonological structure, i.e. whichsound units are used and how they are put together.2- compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rulesthat underlie the use of sounds inthem, and3- ultimately discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of alllanguages.nasal cavityoral cavitypharyngealcavityThe three resonating cavitiesSpeech Organs 1.lips 2.teeth 3.teeth ridge (alveolar) 4.hard palate 5.soft palate (velum) 6.uvula 7.tip of the tongue 8.blade of the tongue 9.front of the tongue 10.back of the tongue11.vocal cords1 2 1 234 567 8 910 11MouthConsonants are produced ‘by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction’.By contrast, a vowel is produced without such ‘stricture’ so that ‘air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose’.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.Consonants - any place between the lips and the vocal folds.Bilabial双唇音*[w] tongue body raises to velum →labia-velar[f], [v]Upper teeth & Lower lip 唇齿音[ð], [θ]Tongue tip/blade & teeth 齿音[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l] , [ ]tongue tip/blade&alveolar ridge齿龈音[ſ],[3],([tſ],[d3])tongue tip&back of the alveolar ridge 后齿龈音[j][k], [g], [η], [w] [h] Palatal 硬腭音Velars 软腭音Glottal 声门音[ ] - 书[ u] [ ][ ] [ ] Retroflex 卷舌音Uvular 小舌音Pharyngeal喉音Place of Articulation Bilabial [p], [b], [m], [w] Labiodental [f], [v]Dental [ð], [θ]Alveolar [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], Post-alveolar [ſ], [3],Palatal [j]Velar [k], [g], [η], [w] Glottal [h]RetroflexUvularPharyngealComplete closure(articulators)→ airstreamcannot escapethrough themouth.1.Closing phasepression3.release [p], [b], [k], [g], [t], [d]爆破音（plosive）Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing air flow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce sounds -nasals. [m][n][η]鼻音air stream partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced [f], [v] [ð], [θ] [s], [z] [ſ], [3] [h]摩擦音one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed for turbulent air stream[w][j]无摩擦延续音（半元音）obstruction in the incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]边音塞擦音a stop followedimmediately by africativean articulator is set vibrating by the airstream [r] ( )颤音only one vibration is produced [ ]触音/闪音[p] [b] [f] [v] [m] Voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless labiodental fricative Voiced labiodental fricative Bilabial nasal。

Chapter 2：Speech soundI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21．A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular lan-guage are called s ____ rules.29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress ands_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another b y “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics 52. acoustic phonetics53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give ex-amples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing ?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels ?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics ?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not ?。