毕业设计中英文 (2)

英文The road (highway)The road is one kind of linear construction used for travel。

It is made of the roadbed，the road surface, the bridge, the culvert and the tunnel. In addition, it also has the crossing of lines, the protective project and the traffic engineering and the route facility。

The roadbed is the base of road surface, road shoulder，side slope, side ditch foundations. It is stone material structure, which is designed according to route's plane position .The roadbed, as the base of travel, must guarantee that it has the enough intensity and the stability that can prevent the water and other natural disaster from corroding.The road surface is the surface of road. It is single or complex structure built with mixture。

The road surface require being smooth，having enough intensity，good stability and anti—slippery function. The quality of road surface directly affects the safe, comfort and the traffic。

毕业设计英文作文范文Title: The Importance of the Graduation Project in Academic Development。

The graduation project holds a pivotal role in the academic journey of students. It serves as a culmination of years of learning, a platform to showcase acquired skills, and an opportunity to delve deep into a specific subject matter. In this essay, I will elaborate on the significance of the graduation project and its impact on academic development.Firstly, the graduation project fosters independent learning and critical thinking skills. Unlike regular coursework where the parameters are often well-defined, the graduation project requires students to identify a research question or a problem statement independently. This process necessitates thorough literature review, data collection, and analysis, thereby honing research and analytical abilities. Moreover, formulating hypotheses, designingexperiments, or proposing solutions demand creativethinking and problem-solving skills, which are essentialfor academic and professional success.Secondly, the graduation project encourages interdisciplinary learning and collaboration. Many projects involve aspects from various fields, prompting students to integrate knowledge acquired from different courses. This interdisciplinary approach not only enriches the project but also broadens students' perspectives, enabling them to appreciate the interconnectedness of different subjects. Furthermore, collaboration with peers, mentors, or industry professionals enhances teamwork, communication, and project management skills, which are indispensable in any academic or professional setting.Additionally, the graduation project cultivates resilience and perseverance. Research, by its nature, is fraught with challenges, setbacks, and uncertainties. Students encounter obstacles ranging from experimental failures to data inconsistencies, requiring them to adapt, troubleshoot, and persist in the face of adversity.Overcoming these hurdles instills resilience and fortitude, attributes that are invaluable not only in academia but also in life.Moreover, the graduation project offers a platform for personal and intellectual growth. It provides students with the autonomy to explore topics of their interest, delveinto uncharted territories, and push the boundaries of knowledge. This journey of self-discovery not only enhances academic curiosity but also fosters a sense of ownership and accomplishment. Furthermore, presenting findings, defending arguments, and receiving feedback during project evaluations contribute to the development of presentation, communication, and critical evaluation skills, which are essential for academic and professional success.In conclusion, the graduation project is a cornerstone of academic development, offering students a unique opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world problems, fostering independent learning, interdisciplinary collaboration, resilience, and personal growth. By engaging in this endeavor, students not only demonstrate theiracademic prowess but also equip themselves with essential skills and attributes for future endeavors. Therefore, the graduation project stands as a testament to the culmination of academic journey and the beginning of a new chapter in students' intellectual and professional pursuits.。

本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译毕业设计（论文）题目：电力系统检测与计算外文题目：The development of the single chipmicrocomputer译文题目：单片机技术的发展与应用学生姓名： XXX专业： XXX指导教师姓名： XXX评阅日期：单片机技术的发展与应用从无线电世界到单片机世界现代计算机技术的产业革命，将世界经济从资本经济带入到知识经济时代。

在电子世界领域，从 20 世纪中的无线电时代也进入到 21 世纪以计算机技术为中心的智能化现代电子系统时代。

现代电子系统的基本核心是嵌入式计算机系统(简称嵌入式系统)，而单片机是最典型、最广泛、最普及的嵌入式系统。

一、无线电世界造就了几代英才。

在 20 世纪五六十年代，最具代表的先进的电子技术就是无线电技术，包括无线电广播，收音，无线通信(电报)，业余无线电台，无线电定位，导航等遥测、遥控、遥信技术。

早期就是这些电子技术带领着许多青少年步入了奇妙的电子世界，无线电技术展示了当时科技生活美妙的前景。

电子科学开始形成了一门新兴学科。

无线电电子学，无线通信开始了电子世界的历程。

无线电技术不仅成为了当时先进科学技术的代表，而且从普及到专业的科学领域，吸引了广大青少年，并使他们从中找到了无穷的乐趣。

从床头的矿石收音机到超外差收音机；从无线电发报到业余无线电台；从电话，电铃到无线电操纵模型。

无线电技术成为当时青少年科普、科技教育最普及，最广泛的内容。

至今，许多老一辈的工程师、专家、教授当年都是无线电爱好者。

无线电技术的无穷乐趣，无线电技术的全面训练，从电子学基本原理，电子元器件基础到无线电遥控、遥测、遥信电子系统制作，培养出了几代科技英才。

二、从无线电时代到电子技术普及时代。

早期的无线电技术推动了电子技术的发展，其中最主要的是真空管电子技术向半导体电子技术的发展。

半导体电子技术使有源器件实现了微小型化和低成本，使无线电技术有了更大普及和创新，并大大地开阔了许多非无线电的控制领域。

英语专业毕业设计模板范文英文回答：Introduction.The English language is a global language, and it is essential for communication in many different fields. As an English major, I have studied the English language and its literature extensively. For my capstone project, I will be developing a new curriculum for teaching English as a second language (ESL). I believe that this curriculum will help ESL students to learn English effectively and efficiently.Literature Review.There is a large body of research on the teaching of ESL. Some of the most important findings from this research include the following:ESL students need to be exposed to authentic English materials.ESL students need to have opportunities to practice speaking and listening to English.ESL students need to be given feedback on their progress.ESL students need to be motivated to learn English.Curriculum Development.I have developed a new ESL curriculum that incorporates the findings from the research literature. This curriculum is designed to be used in a variety of settings, including schools, community colleges, and workplace training programs. The curriculum includes the following components:Authentic English materials.Opportunities for speaking and listening practice.Feedback on progress.Motivational activities.Assessment.I will assess the effectiveness of my curriculum by using a variety of methods, including:Student surveys.Teacher observations.Standardized tests.I believe that my ESL curriculum will be effective in helping ESL students to learn English. This curriculum is based on the latest research on the teaching of ESL, and it includes a variety of components that are essential for effective language learning.Conclusion.I am excited to implement my new ESL curriculum and to see the positive impact that it has on my students. Ibelieve that this curriculum will help ESL students to achieve their goals of learning English and becoming successful in their studies, careers, and personal lives.中文回答：引言。

毕业设计论文中英文翻译要求Graduation Thesis Translation RequirementsEnglish translation of Graduation Thesis:1. Accuracy: The English translation of the Graduation Thesis should accurately reflect the content and meaning of the original Chinese text. It should convey the same ideas and arguments as presented in the original text.2. Clarity: The translation should be clear and easy to understand. The language used should be appropriate and the sentences should be well-structured.3. Grammar and Syntax: The translation should follow the rules of English grammar and syntax. There should be no grammatical errors or awkward sentence constructions.4. Vocabulary: The translation should make use of appropriate vocabulary that is relevant to the topic of the Graduation Thesis. Technical terms and concepts should be accurately translated.5. Style: The translation should maintain the academic style and tone of the original Chinese text. It should use formal language and avoid colloquial or informal expressions.6. References: If the Graduation Thesis includes citations or references, the English translation should accurately reflectthese citations and references. The formatting of citations and references should follow the appropriate style guide.7. Proofreading: The English translation should be thoroughly proofread to ensure there are no spelling or punctuation errors. It should also be reviewed for any inconsistencies or inaccuracies.Minimum word count: The English translation of the Graduation Thesis should be at least 1200 words. This requirement ensures that the translation adequately captures the main points and arguments of the original text.It is important to note that there may be specific guidelines or requirements provided by your academic institution or supervisor for the translation of your Graduation Thesis. Please consult these guidelines and follow them accordingly.。

Bridge Waterway OpeningsIn a majority of cases the height and length of a bridge depend solely upon the amount of clear waterway opening that must be provided to accommodate the floodwaters of the stream. Actually, the problem goes beyond that of merely accommodating the floodwaters and requires prediction of the various magnitudes of floods for given time intervals. It would be impossible to state that some given magnitude is the maximum that will ever occur, and it is therefore impossible to design for the maximum, since it cannot be ascertained. It seems more logical to design for a predicted flood of some selected interval ---a flood magnitude that could reasonably be expected to occur once within a given number of years. For example, a bridge may be designed for a 50-year flood interval; that is, for a flood which is expected (according to the laws of probability) to occur on the average of one time in 50 years. Once this design flood frequency, or interval of expected occurrence, has been decided, the analysis to determine a magnitude is made. Whenever possible, this analysis is based upon gauged stream records. In areas and for streams where flood frequency and magnitude records are not available, an analysis can still be made. With data from gauged streams in the vicinity, regional flood frequencies can be worked out; with a correlation between the computed discharge for the ungauged stream and the regional flood frequency, a flood frequency curve can be computed for the stream in question. Highway CulvertsAny closed conduit used to conduct surface runoff from one side of a roadway to the other is referred to as a culvert. Culverts vary in size from large multiple installations used in lieu of a bridge to small circular or elliptical pipe, and their design varies in significance. Accepted practice treats conduits under the roadway as culverts. Although the unit cost of culverts is much less than that of bridges, they are far more numerous, normally averaging about eight to the mile, and represent a greater cost in highway. Statistics show that about 15 cents of the highway construction dollar goes to culverts, as compared with 10 cents for bridge. Culvert design then is equally as important as that of bridges or other phases of highway and should be treated accordingly.Municipal Storm DrainageIn urban and suburban areas, runoff waters are handled through a system of drainage structures referred to as storm sewers and their appurtenances. The drainage problem is increased in these areas primarily for two reasons: the impervious nature of the area creates a very high runoff; and there is little room for natural water courses. It is often necessary to collect the entire storm water into a system of pipes and transmit it over considerable distances before it can be loosed again as surface runoff. This collection and transmission further increase the problem, since all of the water must be collected with virtually no ponding, thus eliminating any natural storage; and though increased velocity the peak runoffs are reached more quickly. Also, the shorter times of peaks cause the system to be more sensitive to short-duration, high-intensity rainfall. Storm sewers, like culverts and bridges, are designed for storms of various intensity –return-period relationship, depending upon the economy and amount of ponding that can be tolerated.Airport DrainageThe problem of providing proper drainage facilities for airports is similar in many ways to that of highways and streets. However, because of the large and relatively flat surface involved the varying soil conditions, the absence of natural water courses and possible side ditches, and the greater concentration of discharge at the terminus of the construction area, some phases of the problem are more complex. For the average airport the overall area to be drained is relatively large and an extensive drainage system is required. The magnitude of such a system makes it even more imperative that sound engineeringprinciples based on all of the best available data be used to ensure the most economical design. Overdesign of facilities results in excessive money investment with no return, and underdesign can result in conditions hazardous to the air traffic using the airport.In other to ensure surfaces that are smooth, firm, stable, and reasonably free from flooding, it is necessary to provide a system which will do several things. It must collect and remove the surface water from the airport surface; intercept and remove surface water flowing toward the airport from adjacent areas; collect and remove any excessive subsurface water beneath the surface of the airport facilities and in many cases lower the ground-water table; and provide protection against erosion of the sloping areas. Ditches and Cut-slope DrainageA highway cross section normally includes one and often two ditches paralleling the roadway. Generally referred to as side ditches these serve to intercept the drainage from slopes and to conduct it to where it can be carried under the roadway or away from the highway section, depending upon the natural drainage. To a limited extent they also serve to conduct subsurface drainage from beneath the roadway to points where it can be carried away from the highway section.A second type of ditch, generally referred to as a crown ditch, is often used for the erosion protection of cut slopes. This ditch along the top of the cut slope serves to intercept surface runoff from the slopes above and conduct it to natural water courses on milder slopes, thus preventing the erosion that would be caused by permitting the runoff to spill down the cut faces.12 Construction techniquesThe decision of how a bridge should be built depends mainly on local conditions. These include cost of materials, available equipment, allowable construction time and environmental restriction. Since all these vary with location and time, the best construction technique for a given structure may also vary. Incremental launching or Push-out MethodIn this form of construction the deck is pushed across the span with hydraulic rams or winches. Decks of prestressed post-tensioned precast segments, steel or girders have been erected. Usually spans are limited to 50～60 m to avoid excessive deflection and cantilever stresses , although greater distances have been bridged by installing temporary support towers . Typically the method is most appropriate for long, multi-span bridges in the range 300 ~ 600 m ,but ,much shorter and longer bridges have been constructed . Unfortunately, this very economical mode of construction can only be applied when both the horizontal and vertical alignments of the deck are perfectly straight, or alternatively of constant radius. Where pushing involves a small downward grade (4% ~ 5%) then a braking system should be installed to prevent the deck slipping away uncontrolled and heavy bracing is then needed at the restraining piers.Bridge launching demands very careful surveying and setting out with continuous and precise checks made of deck deflections. A light aluminum or steel-launching nose forms the head of the deck to provide guidance over the pier. Special teflon or chrome-nickel steel plate bearings are used to reduce sliding friction to about 5% of the weight, thus slender piers would normally be supplemented with braced columns to avoid cracking and other damage. These columns would generally also support the temporary friction bearings and help steer the nose.In the case of precast construction, ideally segments should be cast on beds near the abutments and transferred by rail to the post-tensioning bed, the actual transport distance obviously being kept to the minimum. Usually a segment is cast against the face of the previously concerted unit to ensure a good fit when finally glued in place with an epoxy resin. If this procedure is not adopted , gaps of approximately 500mm shold be left between segments with the reinforcements running through andstressed together to form a complete unit , but when access or space on the embankment is at a premium it may be necessary to launch the deck intermittently to allow sections to be added progressively .The correponding prestressing arrangements , both for the temporary and permanent conditions would be more complicated and careful calculations needed at all positions .The pricipal advantage of the bridge-launching technique is the saving in falsework, especially for high decks. Segments can also be fabricated or precast in a protected environment using highly productive equipment. For concrete segment, typically two segment are laid each week (usually 10 ~ 30 m in length and perhaps 300 to 400 tonnes in weight) and after posttensioning incrementally launched at about 20 m per day depending upon the winching/jacking equipment.Balanced Cantiulever ConstructionDevelopment in box section and prestressed concrete led to short segment being assembled or cast in place on falsework to form a beam of full roadway width. Subsequently the method was refined virtually to eliminate the falsework by using a previously constructed section of the beam to provide the fixing for a subsequently cantilevered section. The principle is demonsrated step-by-step in the example shown in Fig.1.In the simple case illustrated, the bridge consists of three spans in the ratio 1:1:2. First the abutments and piers are constructed independently from the bridge superstructure. The segment immediately above each pier is then either cast in situ or placed as a precast unit .The deck is subsequently formed by adding sections symmetrically either side.Ideally sections either side should be placed simultaneously but this is usually impracticable and some inbalance will result from the extra segment weight, wind forces, construction plant and material. When the cantilever has reached both the abutment and centre span,work can begin from the other pier , and the remainder of the deck completed in a similar manner . Finally the two individual cantilevers are linked at the centre by a key segment to form a single span. The key is normally cast in situ.The procedure initially requires the first sections above the column and perhaps one or two each side to be erected conventionally either in situ concrete or precast and temporarily supported while steel tendons are threaded and post-tensioned . Subsequent pairs of section are added and held in place by post-tensioning followed by grouting of the ducts. During this phase only the cantilever tendons in the upper flange and webs are tensioned. Continuity tendons are stressed after the key section has been cast in place. The final gap left between the two half spans should be wide enough to enable the jacking equipment to be inserted. When the individual cantilevers are completed and the key section inserted the continuity tendons are anchored symmetrically about the centre of the span and serve to resist superimposed loads, live loads, redistribution of dead loads and cantilever prestressing forces.The earlier bridges were designed on the free cantilever principle with an expansion joint incorporated at the center .Unfortunately，settlements , deformations , concrete creep and prestress relaxation tended to produce deflection in each half span , disfiguring the general appearance of the bridge and causing discomfort to drivers .These effects coupled with the difficulties in designing a suitable joint led designers to choose a continuous connection, resulting in a more uniform distribution of the loads and reduced deflection. The natural movements were provided for at the bridge abutments using sliding bearings or in the case of long multi-span bridges, joints at about 500 m centres.Special Requirements in Advanced Construction TechniquesThere are three important areas that the engineering and construction team has to consider:(1) Stress analysis during construction: Because the loadings and support conditions of the bridge are different from the finished bridge, stresses in each construction stage must be calculated to ensurethe safety of the structure .For this purpose, realistic construction loads must be used and site personnel must be informed on all the loading limitations. Wind and temperature are usually significant for construction stage.(2) Camber: In order to obtain a bridge with the right elevation, the required camber of the bridge at each construction stage must be calculated. It is required that due consideration be given to creep and shrinkage of the concrete. This kind of the concrete. This kind of calculation, although cumbersome, has been simplified by the use of the compiters.(3) Quality control: This is important for any method construction, but it is more so for the complicated construction techniques. Curing of concrete, post-tensioning, joint preparation, etc. are detrimental to a successful structure. The site personnel must be made aware of the minimum concrete strengths required for post-tensioning, form removal, falsework removal, launching and other steps of operations.Generally speaking, these advanced construction techniques require more engineering work than the conventional falsework type construction, but the saving could be significant.大桥涵洞在大多数情况中桥梁的高度和跨度完全取决于河流的流量，桥梁的高度和跨度必须能够容纳最大洪水量.事实上，这不仅仅是洪水最大流量的问题,还需要在不同时间间隔预测不同程度的水灾。

1 . Introduction To Objects1.1The progress of abstractionAll programming languages provide abstractions. It can be argued that the complexity of the problems you’re able to solve is directly related to the kind and quality of abstraction。

By “kind” I mean，“What is it that you are abstracting?” Assembly language is a small abstraction of the underlying machine. Many so—called “imperative” languages that followed （such as FORTRAN，BASIC, and C) were abstractions of assembly language。

These languages are big improvements over assembly language，but their primary abstraction still requires you to think in terms of the structure of the computer rather than the structure of the problem you are trying to solve。

The programmer must establish the association between the machine model (in the “solution space，” which is the place where you’re modeling that problem, such as a computer) and the model of the problem that is actually being solved (in the “problem space,” which is the place where the problem exists). The effort required to perform this mapping, and the fact that it is extrinsic to the programming language，produces programs that are difficult to write and expensive to maintain，and as a side effect created the entire “programming methods” industry.The alter native to modeling the machine is to model the problem you’re trying to solve。

毕业典礼设计英语作文模板Graduation Ceremony Design。

A graduation ceremony is a significant event in thelife of every student. It marks the end of one chapter and the beginning of another. The design of a graduation ceremony plays a crucial role in making the event memorable and meaningful for the graduates, their families, and the faculty. In this article, we will discuss the key elements of a well-designed graduation ceremony and how they contribute to creating a memorable and meaningful experience for everyone involved.First and foremost, the venue of the graduation ceremony plays a crucial role in its design. The venue should be spacious enough to accommodate all the graduates, their families, and the faculty, while also providing a sense of grandeur and importance to the event. A large auditorium or a beautiful outdoor space can be ideal for hosting a graduation ceremony. The venue should also beeasily accessible and well-equipped with the necessary facilities to ensure the comfort and convenience of the attendees.The next important element of a well-designed graduation ceremony is the program. The program should be carefully planned to include all the essential components, such as the commencement speech, the presentation of diplomas, and the conferring of degrees. It should also allow for personal touches, such as speeches from valedictorians and musical performances by talented students. The program should be well-organized and flow smoothly to keep the audience engaged and create a sense of anticipation and excitement.Another crucial aspect of the graduation ceremony design is the decoration and aesthetics. The venue should be decorated in a way that reflects the significance of the event and creates a festive and celebratory atmosphere. The use of school colors, banners, and floral arrangements can add a touch of elegance and school spirit to the ceremony. The stage should be adorned with a backdrop that showcasesthe school's emblem or motto, and the seating area should be arranged in a way that allows for clear visibility and easy access for all attendees.In addition to the venue, program, and decoration, the choice of speakers and performers also plays a significant role in the design of a graduation ceremony. The commencement speech, in particular, should be delivered by a distinguished and inspiring individual who can offer valuable insights and words of wisdom to the graduates as they embark on their next journey. Similarly, musical performances and other artistic presentations can add depth and emotion to the ceremony, making it a truly memorable and moving experience for everyone in attendance.Finally, the overall atmosphere and mood of the graduation ceremony should be carefully curated to create a sense of pride, accomplishment, and joy. The ceremony should be a time for celebration and reflection, where graduates can look back on their achievements and look forward to the future with optimism and excitement. The design of the ceremony should aim to evoke a sense of unityand camaraderie among the graduates and their families, as well as a deep appreciation for the hard work and dedication that have led to this momentous occasion.In conclusion, the design of a graduation ceremony is a multifaceted and important aspect of the event. A well-designed ceremony can create a lasting impression and provide a meaningful and memorable experience for everyone involved. By carefully considering the venue, program, decoration, speakers, and overall atmosphere, the graduation ceremony can be transformed into a truly special and unforgettable occasion for the graduates, their families, and the faculty.。

毕业设计英语翻译【篇一：毕业设计中英文翻译】英文资料翻译题目基于网络信息的自动化控制系别专业班级学生姓名学号指导教师2012年4月con trol based on n etwork andin formatio na automation networking application areas networking is used in all areas of automation. in factory automation, process automati on and buildi ng automati on n etworks perform diverse tasks. likewise, there are dist inct differe nces betwee n tasks performed for applicati ons in differe nt in dustry sectors that all have unique characteristics and con seque ntly vary ing requireme nts. the way devices are conn ected, con figured, and excha nge data also differ.there is no on e-size-fits-all for in dustrial n etworks; rather, buses are optimized foter differe nt characteristics. for example, factory automati on and process automati on are ofte n used in harsh and hazardous en viro nments where a producti on in terrupti on is costly. these requireme nts con trast sig nifica ntly with build ing automati on, for example, where keep ing costs low is a main driving force.factory automatio nfactories with assembly-l ine manu facturi ng, as in the automotive, bottli ng, and mach inery in dustries, are predo minan tly con trolled using discrete logic and sen sors that sense whether or not, for example, a process mach ine has a box standing in front of it. the network types ideal for simple discrete i/o focus on low overhead and small data packets, but they are un suitable for larger, messages like con figurati on download and the like. examples of this network type are seriplex, i nterbus-s, and as-i (as-in terface), which are sometimes called sen sor buses or bit level buses. other more adva need protocols orie nted toward discrete logic in clude device net, con troln et, and profibus (dp and fms applicati on profiles). these buses are sometimes referred to as devicebuses or byte-level buses. factory automati on in volves fast-moving mach inery and therefore requires quicker resp onse than slower processes. traditi on ally, these tasks have bee n han dled by plcs.process automati onprocess plants in industry segments like refining, pulp paper, power, and chemicals are dominated by continuous regulatory con trol. measureme nt is an alog (here meaning scalar values tran smitted digitally), and actuatio n is modulat ing. of course, process industries also use some discrete control and the predo minan tly discrete manu facturi ng in dustries use some modulating. fieldbus on/off valves are already available in the market, as are small remotely moun ted i/o modules for discrete sen sors .in the past, a dcs or sin gle-loop con troller did this.process-related n etwork in clude foun dati on fieldbus, profibus (pa application profile), and hart. all these buses as a category are now typically referred to as fieldbus (without the capital f), though some would argue that one or the other does not bel ong. these three protocols were specifically desig ned for bus-powered field in strume nts with predefi ned parameters and comma nds for asset man ageme nt in formatio n like iden tificati on, diag no stics, materials of con structi on, and fun cti ons for calibratio n and commissi onin g. i n term of size, the n etworks used in in dustrial automati on are con sidered to con stitute local area n etworks (la n) spa nning areas no greater tha n a kilometer or two in diameter and typically confined to a sin gle build ing or a group of build in gs. n etworks that exte nd only a few meters are in sufficie nt, and n etworks that spa n cities or eve n the globe are overkill.field and host tier networkseven within control systems for the process sector there is a n eed for differe nt n etwork characteristics at each tier of the control system hierarchy. at the field and there are instruments such as tran smitters and valve positti oners that have their specific needs, and valve positioners that have their specific n eeds (fig.5-1a-1). whe n fieldbus bega n to evolve, the process in dustry put a large nu mber of requireme nts on the field-level n etwork that were not met by other types of n etworks. many new desig n con sideratio ns n eeded to be take n into acco unt.on the upper tier, data from all the field-level networks have to be marshaled on to a si ngle host-leveln etwork that also serves any tasks the pla nt may have that seem related to factory automatio n.fig.5-1a-1 field level at the field level, the dominant protocols for process instrument are hart, foundation fieldbus h1, and profibus pa.hart is significantly different from the other two in that it is a so-called smart protocol, that is a comb in atio n of digital com muni cati on simulta neously superimposed on a conven tio nal 4-20ma sig nal. as such, the hart protocol has bee n an ideal in termediate solutio n in the tran siti on from an alog. hart is compatible with exist ing an alog recorders, controllers, and indicators while at the same time it makes possible remote configuration and diagnostics using digital com mun icatio n. the hart protocol does allow several devices to be multidropped on a sin gle pair of wires, but this is a capability in freque ntly explored because of the low update speed, typically half a sec ond per device. for a vast majority of in stallati ons hart devices are conn ected point to point, that is, one pair of wires for each device and a han dheld conn ected temporarily from time to time for configuration and maintenance. both foundation fieldbus h1 and profibus pa are completely digital and even use identical wiri ng, follow the iec 61158-2 sta ndard. however, bey ond that there are major differe nces betwee n these two protocols, and depe nding on the desired system architecture one may be more suitable than the other.at the field level, i nstrume nts appear in large qua ntities, ofte n in the hundreds or thousands. the wire run are very long, as the network cable must run from the control room all the way into the field, up towers, and the n branching out to devices scattered throughout the site. because there is a limit to the nu mber of devices that can be multidropped on each n etwork, eve n a medium-sized pla nt may have many n etwork cables running into the field, although substantially fewer than if poi nt-to-poi nt wiri ng was used. the field-level n etworks were therefore desig ned to en able very long wire runs and to allow field devices to take their power from the network. only asin gle pair of wires carries both the device powera s d thedigital com muni cati ons sig nal. this elimi nates the n eed for a separate power cable, thus keep ing the wiri ng simple and in expe nsive.as ano ther measure to keep costs dow n, desig ners chose a moderate field-level n etwork speed so no rmal in strume nt- grade cable could be used in stead of special data cable. no special conn ectors, couplers, or hubs are required either, which makes it possible to use rugged and weatherproof conn ecti ons.the grade of cable used for conven tio nal in strume nt conn ecti ons on most sites is more tha n sufficie nt for fieldbus n etwork ing. as a result, it is possible to reuse that cable when an existing plant is migrated to fieldbus. in hazardous process en vir onments where flammable fluids are prese nt in tri nsic safety is many times the preferred protecti on method. the field-level n etworks were therefore desig ned to allow safety barriers to be in stalled on the bus.because desig ners chose a moderate field-level n etwork speed the devices conn ected to it do not require a great deal of cpu process ing power to han dle the com muni cati on quickly. as a result, they also con sume very little power. because the low power con sumpti on results inlow voltage drop along the wire, it is therefore【篇二：毕业设计英文翻译模板】都信业设系别姓名专业班级学号息工程学院计英文翻译论文标题****学院大气探测、信***处、两个专业填写电子信息*******工程。

附录1：英文文献原文A High-Tech Office Campus in Mexico CityPedro F．MarcelinoABSTRACT:The Azcapotzalco Disthct , located in the north-Western area of Mexico City is undergoing an Irreversible transformation, from heavy and light industry-based economy to low cost housing and technological institutes and a major university campus.Mario Schjetnan, Jose Luis Perez Maldonado and Jose Luis Gomez, all from Mexico City’s architecture studio GDU, have been called to be part of the solution. The intention of the project was to create a high-technology office campus to provide space for call centers, service centers and data centers with world-class specs. The campus holds 6 office buildings with a total area of 120,000m2 and enough parking for 3,500 cars. A small shopping area, restaurants and service center were also built on site. The completed project accommodates 8,000—10,000 office workers. GDU was hired to review the master plan and to design all open spaces(plazas, gardens, on-grade parking, pedestrian ways, etc.)In addition, the landscape practice designed the reception building, cafeteria and pergola as well as a small transit center and police substation under an adjoining underpass bridge.The site, a former steel plates and rods production plant, was closed down in the early 1990’s due to its obsolescence and as part of a policy to improve air quality in the Valley of Mexico City. The City and back then acquired approximately 15 hectares of land, and the present city Administration re-sold it to the project’s client( a group of private developers specialized in office buildings),offering incentives for the creation of permanent tertiary sector jobs, and to use limited amounts of water from the city’s mains.The landscape plan had to take several aspects into integral consideration, and allow them to conceptually guide the project. Prime among them was the water supply issue. The landscape architects, along with consulting engineers, developed a conceptto collect rain water from the roofs of buildings and plazas, store it in retention cells and send it to deep wells(at approximately 80 meters)to recharge the city aquifer. Considering Mexico City’s perennial water shortage to supply its more than 20 million inhabitants, this solution alone stood out in the crowd. In addition, water from restrooms is treated on site, stored in pools and fountains and recycled to irrigate gardens and parking areas. In parking areas, rain water is retained and filtered through lava rock to irrigate trees and grass pavers. Excess water from roads is sent to city drainage. Another main design consideration was way finding within the campus, establishing identity and sense of place through the three main gardens the‘civic’garden by the entrance, the ‘central’ and natural garden and the ‘still’ garden. Each garden provides opportunities to rest, talk, and meet people. There are eating facilities, and areas for coffee and snacks. The grid pattern establishes a clear pedestrian axis and allows for users to walk under the porticoes and overhangs of buildings. In an effort to offer comfort and safety through connections with the transit lines and subway system, surrounding detrimental urban environments such as the adjacent underpass bridge were re-designed.The key intention of the project was to provide a variety of high quality environments through the presence and reuse of water, transforming a problem into an opportunity that respects aesthetical precepts. The City’s key Objective was, by now, already achieved：to transform a section of the city from industrial to post-industrial through tertiary ( and better-paid ) jobs, and to conduct the urban renewal of a very unattractive section of Mexico City.附录2：英文文献中文翻译墨西哥城高科技办公园区马里奥.佩德罗摘要：阿斯卡帕萨科区坐落于墨西哥城的西北部，它经历过一次翻天覆地的变革,即从一个以重工业和轻工业为主导经济的地区向一个集低价住房区、科技园区和大学校园于一体的城区的转变。

毕业设计（论文）评语表（一）指导教师对毕业设计（论文）的评语：该生在规定的时间内按照论文任务书中规定的要求，圆满完成了论文的研究和编写工作。

在此出国毕设期间，其学习态度严谨、认真，掌握新的背景和基础理论知识，学习使用新的辅助设计软件AAA，结合本科基础知识高质量地完成了论文的研究和设计工作。

具有较强的独立学习和从事科学研究的能力。

论文结构严谨，条理清晰，分析正确。

同意进行学士学位论文答辩，并建议授予工学学士学位。

指导教师（签字）年月日校外指导教师对毕业设计（论文）的评语：Student CHEN Guoyong performed thesis on the topic Designing of Training Aircraft in Samara State Aerospace University in the period from 13th Februaryto 10th June, 2015. Topic of the graduation work is very complex and comprehensive, as it requires knowledge of not only the existing structures of the given type, but also a large of related disciplines. During the project, CHEN Guoyong solved all the tasks. Student CHEN Guoyong got acquainted with the program Advanced Aircraft Analysis (AAA) and used it during his studying in Samara State Aerospace University, Student had working with interest. He demonstrated an ability to find and use information in the field of aircraft design.Graduate student CHEN Guoyong deservesrated “excellent”.Student CHEN Guoyong be recommended to continue research on the given topic on the next stage of education.指导教师（签字）年月日毕业设计（论文）评语表（二）。

介绍毕业设计英文作文英文：For my graduation design, I chose to work on a project that focuses on sustainable fashion. I have always been passionate about environmental protection and I believethat the fashion industry has a huge impact on the environment. Therefore, I wanted to use my design skills to create a collection that not only looks good, but also has a minimal impact on the planet.I started by researching different sustainable materials and techniques. I found a company that produces fabric from recycled plastic bottles and decided to use it as the main material for my collection. I also experimented with natural dyes and printing techniques that use less water and energy.In addition to using sustainable materials, I also wanted to create designs that are timeless and versatile. Iwanted my collection to be something that people can wear for years, rather than just one season. I focused onclassic silhouettes and simple, elegant designs that can be mixed and matched in various ways.Throughout the process, I encountered many challenges. For example, finding suppliers for sustainable materials was not easy, and I had to spend a lot of time researching and reaching out to different companies. I also had to adjust my designs multiple times to make sure they were both sustainable and aesthetically pleasing.After months of hard work, I finally completed my collection and presented it at the graduation exhibition. I received a lot of positive feedback from both my peers and industry professionals. It was incredibly rewarding to see my designs come to life and to know that I had created something that not only looks good, but also aligns with my values.中文：对于我的毕业设计，我选择了一个关于可持续时尚的项目。

Feasibility assessment of a leading-edge-flutter wind power generator前缘颤振风力发电机的可行性评估Luca Caracoglia卢卡卡拉克格里亚Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center, 360 Huntington A venue, Boston, MA 02115, USA美国东北大学土木与环境工程斯内尔工程中心400，亨廷顿大道360，波士顿02115This study addresses the preliminary technical feasibility assessment of a mechanical apparatus for conversion of wind energy. 这项研究涉及的是风能转换的机械设备的初步技术可行性评估。

The proposed device, designated as ‘‘leading-edge-fl utter wind power generator’’, employs aeroelastic dynamic instability of a blade airfoil, torsionally rotating about its leading edge. 这种被推荐的定义为“前缘颤振风力发电机”的设备，采用的气动弹性动态不稳定叶片翼型，通过尖端旋转产生扭矩。

Although the exploitation of aeroelastic phenomena has been proposed by the research community for energy harvesting, this apparatus is compact, simple and marginally susceptible to turbulence and wake effects.虽然气动弹性现象的开发已经有研究界提出可以通过能量采集。

Key to the development of four-rotors micro air vehicletechnologyTo date, micro d experimental study on the basic theory of rotary wing aircraft and have made more progress, but to really mature and practical, also faces a number of key technical challenges.1. Optimal designOverall design of rotary-wing aircraft when small, need to be guided by the following principles: light weight, small size, high speed, low power consumption and costs. But these principles there are constraints and conflicting with each other, such as: vehicle weights are the same, is inversely proportional to its size and speed, low energy consumption. Therefore, when the overall design of miniature four-rotor aircraft, first select the appropriate body material based on performance and price, as much as possible to reduce the weight of aircraft; second, the need to take into account factors such as weight, size, speed and energy consumption, ensuring the realization of design optimization.2. The power and energyPower unit includes: rotor, micro DC motor, gear reducer, photoelectric encoder and motor drive module, the energy provided by onboard batteries. Four-rotors micro air vehicle's weight is a major factor affecting their size and weight of the power and energy devices accounted for a large share of the weight of the entire body. For the OS4 II, the proportion is as high as 75%. Therefore, development of lighter, more efficient power and energy devices is further miniaturized four key to rotary wing aircraft.The other hand, the lifting occurs with a power unit, most airborne energy consumption. For example, OS4 II power 91% power consumption. To increase the efficiency of aircraft, the key is to improve the efficiency of the power plant. In addition to maximize transmission efficiency, you must alsoselect the motor and reduction ratios, taking into account the maximum efficiency and maximum power output under the premise of two indicators, electric operating point within the recommended run area.3. The establishment of mathematical modelIn order to achieve effective control of four-rotors micro air vehicles, must be established accurately under various flight model. But during the flight, it not only accompanied by a variety of physical effects (aerodynamic, gravity, gyroscopic effect and rotor moment of inertia, also is vulnerable to disturbances in the external environment, such as air. Therefore, it is difficult to establish an effective, reliable dynamic model. In addition, the use of rotary wing, small size, light weight, easy to shape, it is difficult to obtain accurate aerodynamic performance parameters, and also directly affects the accuracy of the model.Establishment of mathematical model of four-rotor MAV, must also be studied and resolved problems rotor under low Reynolds number aerodynamics. Aerodynamics of micro air vehicle with conventional aircraft is very different, many aerodynamic theory and analysis tools are not currently applied, requires the development of new theories and research techniques.4. Flight controlFour-rotors micro air vehicle is a six degrees of freedom (location and attitude) and 4 control input (rotor speed) of underactuated system (Underactuated System), have more than one variable, linear, strongly coupled and interfere with sensitive features, makes it very difficult to design of flight control system. In addition, the controller model accuracy and precision of the sensor performance will also be affected.Attitude control is the key to the entire flight control, because four-rotors micro air vehicle's attitude and position a direct coupling (roll pitch p directly causes the body to move around before and after p), if you can precisely control the spacecraft attitude, then the control law is sufficient to achieve itsposition and velocity PID control. International study to focus on with attitude control design and validation, results show that although the simulation for nonlinear control law to obtain good results, but has a strong dependence on model accuracy, its actual effect rather than PID control. Therefore, developed to control the spacecraft attitude, also has strong anti-jamming and environment-Adaptive attitude control of a tiny four-rotary wing aircraft flight control system of priorities.5. Positioning, navigation and communicationMiniature four-rotor aircraft is primarily intended for near-surface environments, such as urban areas, forests, and interior of the tunnel. However, there are also aspects of positioning, navigation and communication. One hand, in near-surface environments, GPS does not work often requires integrated inertial navigation, optics, acoustics, radar and terrain-matching technology, development of a reliable and accurate positioning and navigation technology, on the other, near-surface environment, terrain, sources of interference and current communication technology reliability, security and robustness of application still cannot meet the actual demand. Therefore, development of small volume, light weight, low power consumption, reliability and anti-jamming communication chain in four-rotors micro air vehicle technology (in particular the multi-aircraft coordination control technology) development, are crucial.微小型四旋翼飞行器发展的关键技术迄今为止，微小型四旋翼飞行器基础理论与实验研究已取得较大进展，但要真正走向成熟与实用，还面临着诸多关键技术的挑战。

武汉工程大学毕业设计外文翻译Construction project management sub-contracting 建筑工程项目分承包管理方式的探讨班级：工程管理01班学号：0890070111姓名：向宏庭Construction project management sub-contractingKeywords: project, project management, general contractor (general contractor), sub-contractors (subcontractors), the construction market sub-system, matrix organizational structure, contract management , the target managementAbstract: With the construction projects in greater depth of management, project management of more extensive application of scientific methods, the construction industry to a higher level of development, set up a sound system of construction specialist sub-contractors will be building market development in China are the inevitable trend, I think in the current environment, the use of centralized contract-style company, authorized the implementation of the project management, to take the matrix-style organization and management structure, focused on contract management and production process management by objectives approach is a more effective management of subcontractors form.1. The concept and characteristics of the project, project management, construction project management features (1) project concept "project" was the origin of a morning, the building industry and the military field, the earliest use of project management tools and methods. The definition of the project has a wide range, but they all revolve around the basic concept of the project and summarized. ISO10006 in the project as "a unique process that has the beginning and end of time, by a series of coordinated and controlled the activities of the composition. The process of implementation are in order to achieve the objectives set, including the needs of time, cost and resource binding conditions. "American Project Management Institute PMI at PMBOOK (2000 version) give the definition as:" projects are completed for a unique product or service for a one-time effort. "German National Standard DIN69901 and should project as a" project are refers to the following conditions are met on a unique mission. (with the intended target, a specific time, financial and other restrictions on human conditions, with specific organizations). "(b) thecharacteristics of the project 1. a unique and uniqueness any item in which the timing, location, environment, participation of people, the aim should vary, they are linked to project the Second Provisional. As "people do not have the same two people", is unique and unique. In addition the project during the course of events, conflicts and contradictions are not the same, so for example people or things involved in the project, each project is unique. At the development and changes on its uniqueness, the project is also unique. 2. The life cycle of projects have specific start and end times. In general, and in this one of any of the items are available in four phases, namely, the concept, planning, implementation, ending four stage of life such as breeding, birth, growth, maturity, like the demise of the project cycle, each stage has a corresponding different characteristics. Modern, will be extended to four stages of five stages: "the concept, planning, implementation, end of operation and maintenance." 3. Specific objectives of the project activities are "for the completion of a unique product or service," so the project with a clear goal, such as construction quality, duration and cost goals of civilized construction. Between the objectives may be contradictory and constraints, but are united in the project, the target of a binding nature, the project activity is to much suffering and limit the conditions, the completion of the many contradictions in conflict with each other, but had to be completed task. The results of project management is to achieve a balance between the objectives of results. Goals can be decomposed, the overall target from multi-layered composition of the sub-goals. 4. System project is a whole organization, project the various components of the mutual influence, mutual constraints, form a complete system, and projects are organized at the background, such as construction projects are at a construction company organizations are organized and managed, so the project is an organized system as a whole. 5. Uncertainty projects are unique, and is the only project the development of no fixed precedent.建筑工程项目分承包管理方式的探讨关键词：项目、项目管理、总承包商（总包商）、分承包商（分包商）、建筑市场分包体系、矩阵式组织结构、合同管理、目标管理提要：随着建筑工程项目化管理更加深入，项目管理的科学方法应用更加广泛，建筑业向更高层次发展，建立完善的建筑业专业分包体系，将是我国建筑市场发展的必然趋势，我认为在目前的环境中，采用集权式的公司发包，授权项目的实施管理，采取矩阵式的组织管理结构，着重于合同管理和生产过程目标管理的方式，是较为有效的分包管理形式。

English translationThe E- Behind EverythingElectricity and magnetism run nearly everything we plug in or turn on. Although it’s something we take for granted, it has taken hundreds of years of experimentation and research to reach the point where we flick a switch and the lights go on.People knew about electricity for a long time. Ancient Greeks noticed that if they rubbed a piece of amber, feathers would stick to it. You’ve experienced a similar thing if you’ve ever had your hair stick up straight after you combed it, or had your socks stick together when you removed them from the drier. This is called static electricity, but back then nobody knew how to explain it or what to do with it.Experiments using friction to generate static electricity led to machines that could produce large amounts of static electricity on demand. In 1660 German Otto von made the first electrostatic generator with a ball of sulfur and some cloth. The ball symbolized the earth, and he believed that this little replica of the e arth would shed part of its electric “soul” when rubbed. It worked, and now scientists could study electric shocks and sparks whenever they wanted.As scientists continued to study electricity, they began thinking of it as an invisible fluid and tried to capture and store it. One of the first to do this was Pieter van, Holland. In 1746 he wrapped a water-filled jar with metal foil and discovered that this simple device could store the energy produced by an electrostatic generator. This device became known as the jar. were very important in other people’s experiments, such as Benjamin Franklin’s famous kite experiment. Many people suspected that lightning and static electricity were the same thing, since both crackled and produced bright sparks. In 1752 Franklin attached a key to a kite and flew it in a storm-threatened sky. (NOTE that Franklin did not fly a kite in an actual storm. NEVER do that!) When a thundercloud moved by, the key sparked. This spark charged the jars and proved that lightning was really electricity. Like many experimenters and scientists Franklin used one discovery to make another. Franklin was not the only scientist inspired to conduct experiments with electricity. In the 1780s, the Italian scientist Luigi m ade a dead frog’s leg move by means of an electric current. called this “animal electricity.” He thought that the wet animal tissue generated electricity when it came in contact with metal probes. He even suggested that the soul was actually Italian Alessandro Volta was skeptical of con clusions. In 1799 he discovered that it wasn’t animal tissue alone producing the electric current at all. Volta believed that the current was actually caused by the interaction of water and chemicals in the animal tissue with the metal probes. Volta stacked metal disks separated by layers of cardboard soaked in salt water. This so-called voltaic pile produced an electric current without needing to be charged like a jar. This invention is still around today, but we call it the battery.Volta’s pile was a lot different from the batteries you put in your Discman. It was big, ugly, and messy, but it worked, making Volta the first person to generate electricity with a chemical reaction. His work was so important that the term volt—the unit of electrical tension or pr—is named in his honor. As for Galvani, although he was proven wrong, his work stimulated research on electricity and the body. That research eventually proved that nerves do carry electrical impulses, an important medical discovery. Like electricity, magnetism was baffling to the earliest researchers. Today manufactured magnets are common, but in earlier timesthe only available magnets were rare and mysterious rocks with an unexplainable attraction for bits of iron. Explanations of the way they work sound strange today. For example, in the 1600, English doctor William Gilbert published a book on magnetism. He thought that these strange substances, called “lodestones,” had a soul that accounted for the attraction of a lodestone to iron and steel. The only real use for lodestones was to make compasses, and many thought the compass needle’s movement was in response to its attraction to the earth’s “soul.” By 1800, after many years of study, scientists began wondering if these two mysterious forces—electricity and magnetism—were related. In 1820 Danish physicist Hans Oersted showed that whenever an electric current flows through a wire, it produces a magnetic field around the wire. French mathematician André-Marie used algebra to come up with a mathematical formula to describe this relationship between electricity and magnetism. He was one of the first to develop measuring techniques for electricity. The unit for current, the ampere, abbreviated as amp or as A, is named in his honor. Groundbreaking experiments in electromagnetism were conducted by British scientist Michael Faraday. He showed that when you move a loop of a wire in a magnetic field, a little bit of current flows through the loop for just a moment. This is called induction. Faraday constructed a different version of it called the induction ring. In later years, engineers would use the principle of the induction ring to build electrical transformers, which are used today in thousands of electrical and electronic devices. Faraday also invented a machine that kept a loop of wire rotating near a magnet continuously. By touching two wires to the rotating loop, he could detect the small flow electric current. This machine used induction to produce a flow of current as long as it was in motion, and so it was an electromagnetic generator. However, the amount of electricity it produced was very tiny. There was still another use for induction. Faraday also created a tiny electric motor—too small to do the work of a steam engine but still quite promising. For thousands of years electricity and magnetism were subjects of interest only to experimenters and scientists. Nobody thought of a practical way of using electricity before the 1800s and it was of little interest to most people. But by Faraday’s time invento rs and engineers were gearing up to transform scientific concepts into practical machines.Telegraphs and TelephonesOne of the most important ways that electricity and magnetism have been put to use is making communication faster and easier. In this day o f instant messaging, cell phones, and pagers, it’s hard to imagine a time when messages had to be written and might spend weeks or even months reaching their destination. They had to be carried great distances by ships, wagon, or even by horseback—you coul dn’t just call somebody up to say hello. That all changed when inventors began using electricity and magnetism to find better ways for people to talk to each other. The telegraph was first conceived of in the 1700s, but few people pursued it. By the 1830s, however, advancements in the field of electromagnetism, such as those made by Alessandro Volta and Joseph Henry, created new interest in electromagnetic communication. In 1837, English scientist Charles Wheatstone opened the first com telegraph line between London and Camden Town, a distance of 1.5 miles. Building on, Samuel Morse, an American artist and inventor, designed a line to connect Washington, DC and Baltimore, Maryland in 1844. Morse’s telegraph was a simple device that used a battery, a switch, and a small electromagnet, but it allowed people miles apart to communicate instantly. Although Morse is often credited with inventing the telegraph, his greatest contribution was actually Morse, a special language designed for the telegraph. Morse'scommercialization of the telegraph spread the technology quickly. In 1861 California was connected to the rest of the United States with the first transcontinental telegraph line. Five years later, engineers found a way of spanning the Atlantic Ocean with telegraph lines, thus connecting the United States and Europe. This was an enormous and challenging job. To do it engineers had to use a huge ship called The Great Eastern to lay the cable across the ocean. It was the only ship with enough room to store all that cable. The world was connected by wire before the nation was connected by rail—the transcontinental railroad wasn’t completed until 1869! The telegraph was the key to fast, efficient railroad service. The railroads and the telegraph expanded side-by-side, crisscrossing every continent, except Anta, in the late 1800s. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, telegraphy became a very lucrative business for companies such as Western Union. It also provided women with new career options. As convenient as the telegraph was, people dreamt of hearing the voices of loved ones who lived far away. Pretty soon, another instrument to communicate across distances was invented. Alexander Graham Bell, a teacher and inventor, worked with the deaf and became fascinated with studying sound. In 1875, Bell discovered a way to convert sound waves to an undulating current that could be carried along wires. This helped him invent the telephone. The first phone conversation was an inadvertent one between Bell and Watson, his ass istant in the next room. After spilling some acid, Bell said “Mr. Watson, come here.I want you.” He patented his device the same year. Early phone service wasn’t as portable and convenient as today’s. At first, telephones we connected in pairs. You could call only one person, and they could only call you. The telephone exchange changed all that. The first exchange was in New Haven, Connecticut in 1878. It allowed people who subscribed to it to call one another. Operators had to connect the calls, but in 1891 an automatic exchange was invented. Some problems had to be solved, though, before long-distance telephoning could work. The main one was that the signal weakened with distance, disappearing if the telephone lines were too long. A solution was found in 1912 with a way to amplify electrical signals, and transcontinental phone calls were possible. A test took place in 1914, and the next year, Bell, who was in New York, called Watson, who was in San Francisco. He said the same thing he had said during the first phone conversation. Watson’s answer? “It will take me five days to get there now!”Plc development1.1 MotivationProgrammable Logic Controllers (PLC), a computing device invented by Richard E. Morley in 1968, have been widely used in industry including manufacturing systems, transportation systems, chemical process facilities, and many others. At that time, the PLC replaced the hardwired logic with soft-wired logic or so-called relay ladder logic (RLL), a programming language visually resembling the hardwired logic, and reduced thereby the configuration time from 6 months down to 6 days [Moody and Morley, 1999].Although PC based control has started to come into place, PLC based control will remain the technique to which the majority of industrial applications will adhere due to its higher performance, lower price, and superior reliability in harsh environments. Moreover, according to a study on the PLC market of Frost and Sullivan [1995], an increase of the annual sales volume to 15 million PLCs per year with the hardware value of more than 8 billion US dollars has been predicted, though the prices of computing hardware is steadily dropping. The inventor of the PLC, Richard E Morley, fairly considers the PLC market as a 5-billion industry at the present time.Though PLCs are widely used in industrial practice, the programming of PLC based control systems is still very much relying on trial-and-error. Alike software engineering, PLC software design is facing the software dilemma or crisis in a similar way. Morley himself emphasized this aspect most forcefully by indicating [Moody and Morley, 1999, p. 110]:`If houses were built like software projects, a single woodpecker could destroy civilization.” Particularly, practical problems in PLC programming are to eliminate software bugs and to reduce the maintenance costs of old ladder logic programs. Though the hardware costs of PLCs are dropping continuously, reducing the scan time of the ladder logic is still an issue in industry so that low-cost PLCs can be used.In general, the productivity in generating PLC is far behind compared to other domains, for instance, VLSI design, where efficient computer aided design tools are in practice. Existent software engineering methodologies are not necessarily applicable to the PLC based software design because PLC-programming requires a simultaneous consideration of hardware and software. The software design becomes, thereby, more and more the major cost driver. In many industrial design projects, more than SO0/a of the manpower allocated for the control system design and installation is scheduled for testing and debugging PLC programs [Rockwell, 1999].In addition, current PLC based control systems are not properly designed to support the growing demand for flexibility and reconfigurability of manufacturing systems. A further problem, impelling the need for a systematic design methodology, is the increasing software complexity in large-scale projects.1.2 Objective and Significance of the ThesisThe objective of this thesis is to develop a systematic software design methodology for PLC operated automation systems. The design methodology involves high-level description based on state transition models that treat automation control systems as discrete event systems, a stepwise design process, and set of design rules providing guidance and measurements to achieve a successful design. The tangible outcome of this research is to find a way to reduce the uncertainty in managing the control software development process, that is, reducing programming and debugging time and their variation, increasing flexibility of the automation systems, and enabling software reusability through modularity. The goal is to overcome shortcomings of current programming strategies that are based on the experience of the individual software developer.A systematic approach to designing PLC software can overcome deficiencies in the traditional way of programming manufacturing control systems, and can have wide ramifications in several industrial applications. Automation control systems are modeled by formal languages or, equivalently, by state machines. Formal representations provide a high-level description of the behavior of the system to be controlled. State machines can be analytically evaluated as to whether or not they meet the desired goals. Secondly, a state machine description provides a structured representation to convey the logical requirements and constraints such as detailed safety rules. Thirdly, well-defined control systems design outcomes are conducive to automatic code generation- An ability to produce control software executable on commercial distinct logic controllers can reduce programming lead-time and labor cost. In particular, the thesis is relevant with respect to the following aspects.Customer-Driven ManufacturingIn modern manufacturing, systems are characterized by product and process innovation, become customer-driven and thus have to respond quickly to changing system requirements. A majorchallenge is therefore to provide enabling technologies that can economically reconfigure automation control systems in response to changing needs and new opportunities. Design and operational knowledge can be reused in real-time, therefore, giving a significant competitive edge in industrial practice.Higher Degree of Design Automation and Software QualityStudies have shown that programming methodologies in automation systems have not been able to match rapid increase in use of computing resources. For instance, the programming of PLCs still relies on a conventional programming style with ladder logic diagrams. As a result, the delays and resources in programming are a major stumbling stone for the progress of manufacturing industry. Testing and debugging may consume over 50% of the manpower allocated for the PLC program design. Standards [IEC 60848, 1999; IEC-61131-3, 1993; IEC 61499, 1998; ISO 15745-1, 1999] have been formed to fix and disseminate state-of-the-art design methods, but they normally cannot participate in advancing the knowledge of efficient program and system design.A systematic approach will increase the level of design automation through reusing existing software components, and will provide methods to make large-scale system design manageable. Likewise, it will improve software quality and reliability and will be relevant to systems high security standards, especially those having hazardous impact on the environment such as airport control, and public railroads.System ComplexityThe software industry is regarded as a performance destructor and complexity generator. Steadily shrinking hardware prices spoils the need for software performance in terms of code optimization and efficiency. The result is that massive and less efficient software code on one hand outpaces the gains in hardware performance on the other hand. Secondly, software proliferates into complexity of unmanageable dimensions; software redesign and maintenance-essential in modern automation systems-becomes nearly impossible. Particularly, PLC programs have evolved from a couple lines of code 25 years ago to thousands of lines of code with a similar number of 1/O points. Increased safety, for instance new policies on fire protection, and the flexibility of modern automation systems add complexity to the program design process. Consequently, the life-cycle cost of software is a permanently growing fraction of the total cost. 80-90% of these costs are going into software maintenance, debugging, adaptation and expansion to meet changing needs [Simmons et al., 1998].Design Theory DevelopmentToday, the primary focus of most design research is based on mechanical or electrical products. One of the by-products of this proposed research is to enhance our fundamental understanding of design theory and methodology by extending it to the field of engineering systems design. A system design theory for large-scale and complex system is not yet fully developed. Particularly, the question of how to simplify a complicated or complex design task has not been tackled in a scientific way. Furthermore, building a bridge between design theory and the latest epistemological outcomes of formal representations in computer sciences and operations research, such as discrete event system modeling, can advance future development in engineering design. Application in Logical Hardware DesignFrom a logical perspective, PLC software design is similar to the hardware design of integrated circuits. Modern VLSI designs are extremely complex with several million parts and a product development time of 3 years [Whitney, 1996]. The design process is normally separated into acomponent design and a system design stage. At component design stage, single functions are designed and verified. At system design stage, components are aggregated and the whole system behavior and functionality is tested through simulation. In general, a complete verification is impossible. Hence, a systematic approach as exemplified for the PLC program design may impact the logical hardware design.1.3 Structure of the ThesisFigure 1.1 illustrates the outline of the following thesis. Chapter 2 clarifies the major challenges and research issues, and discourses the relevant background and terminology. It will be argued that a systematic design of PLC software can contribute to higher flexibility and reconfigurability of manufacturing systems. The important issue of how to deal with complexity in engineering design with respect to designing and operating a system will be debated. The research approach applied in this thesis is introduced starting from a discussion of design theory and methodology and what can be learnt from that field.Chapter 3 covers the state-of-the-art of control technology and the current practice in designing and programming PLC software. The influences of electrical and software engineering are revealed as well as the potentially applicable methods from computer science are discussed. Pros and cons are evaluated and will lead to the conclusion that a new methodology is required that suffices the increasing complexity of PLC software design.Chapter 4 represents the main body of the thesis and captures the essential features of the design methodology. Though design theory is regarded as being in a pre- scientific stage it has advanced in mechanical, software and system engineering with respect to a number of proposed design models and their evaluation throughout real-world examples. Based on a literature review in Chapter 2 and 3 potential applicable design concepts and approaches are selected and applied to context of PLC software design. Axiomatic design is chosen as underlying design concept since it provides guidance for the designer without restriction to a particular design context. To advance the design concept to PLC software design, a formal notation based on statechart formalism is introduced. Furthermore, a design process is developed that arranges the activities needed in a sequential order and shows the related design outcomes.In Chapter 5, a number of case studies are given to demonstrate the applicability of the developed design methodology. The examples are derived from a complex reference system, a flexible assembly system. The achieved insights are evaluated in a concluding paragraph.Chapter 6 presents the developed computerized design tool for PLC software design on a conceptual level. The software is written in Visual Basic by using ActiveX controls to provide modularity and reuse in a web-based collaborative programming environment. Main components of the PLC software are modeling editors for the structural (modular) and the behavioral design, a layout specification interface and a simulation engine that can validate the developed model. Chapter 7 is concluding this thesis. It addresses the achievements with respect to the research objectives and questions. A critical evaluation is given alongside with an outlook for future research issues.电力的故事当我们插上电源,打开旋钮,电和磁差不多在每样东西上都运行着,今天我们知道这是什么,这一些花了人们上百年时间的实验和研究来达到这一点—当我们按下按钮时,光亮已经开始，人们对电的了解已经有很长一段时间了.古希腊人注意到,摩擦一块琥珀,羽毛将能被吸住.你已经经历过相类似的事情,当你梳头时,头发将垂直竖起,当你从干燥机中拿袜子时,袜子也会粘在一起.这被称作静电.但是在以前人们不知道如何解释此类现象或如何应用这种现象，使用摩擦产生的静电来带动机器的实验可以产生大量所需要的静电.在1660年,德国人Otto von Guericke用一个硫磺球和一些布制造了第一台静电发电机.硫磺球象征大地,他深信这种小型地球复制品被摩擦时将流出电的灵魂,他成功了,现在的科学家可以在任何想要的时候来研究电击和电火花.随着科学家们持续对电的研究,他们开始认为它以一种看不见的方式流动,并试图去捕获并储存.第一次去做这项研究的是荷兰Leyden的Pieter van Musschenbroek.1746,他用一个金属箔片包一个装满水的罐子,发现这种简单的设备能储存由静电发电机产生的能量.这个设备后来著名的莱顿瓶.莱顿瓶在其他人的实验中有非常重要的作用.如Benjamin Franklin著名的风筝实验.许多人认为闪电和静电是同一种东西,由于双方碰撞产生明亮的电火花.1752年, Franklin将一把钥匙绑在风筝上,在一个暴风即将来临的天气里放飞(请记住Franklin不是在一个真正的暴风寸中放飞的,永远不要这样做),当一块雷雨云经过时,钥匙被闪电击中,闪电充满莱顿瓶,由此证明闪电实际也是一种电力.同其他实验人和科学家一样, Franklin用一个发现来做另外一个. Franklin并不是唯一的在电力实验方面灵光突现的科学家.18世纪80年代,意大利的科学家Luigi Galvani用电流让一只切断的青蛙的腿移动. Galvani称之为生物电.他认为当潮湿的动物组织同金属探测针接触时产生电能.他甚至大胆预测精神也是一种电能。

毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Architecture StructureWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic consideration s .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of his or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift toapproximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasis will be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specific form of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.1.Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice ofconcrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.2. EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with thedragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³ heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m ³struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m ³, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³ and the articulated type of about 0.5 m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.3.Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also asunserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. Ther e are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults andimperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .文献翻译建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。

中英文翻译Classification of control systems there are three ways: by automatic classification methods in order to participate in the control mode classification, to adjust the law category.One way to control category 1, the open-loop control system if the computer output of open loop control system to exercise control of the production process, but the control results --- the state of the production process does not affect the computer control systems, computer \ controller \ production and other sectors does not constitute a closed loop, is called open-loop control system computer. the production process of the state is no feedback to the computer, but by the operator to monitor the status of the production process, decision control program, and tell the computer to control the role of exercising control. 2, closed loop control system computer to the production of an object or process control, the state can directly influence the production process computer control system, called the closed-loop control system computer. Control of the computer monitor in the operator, the automatic acceptance of the production process state test results, calculate and determine the control scheme, the direct command and control units (devices) of action, the role of exercising control of the production process. In such systems, aircraft control components under control of control information sent to control device operation, the other running equipment condition as the output, measured by the detection part, the feedback as input to the control computer; to make control Computer \ Control Components \ production \ test components form a closed loop. We will call this form of control computer control closed-loop control. Closed loop control system computer, using a mathematical model to set the value of the production process and test results of the best value of the deviation between the feedback and control the production process to run at their best. 3, line control system as long as the computer controlled production of the controlled object or process, to exercise direct control, without human intervention are called the control computer on-line control, or on-line control system. 4, offline control system control computer does not directly participate in the control object or the controlled production process. It only managed to complete the process of the controlled object or the status of testing, and testing of data processing; and then develop control programs, the output control instruction, operator reference control instructions manually controlled operation to control parts of the object or subject control process control. This control form is called off-line computer control system. 5, real-time control system control computer real-time control system iscontrolled by the control of the object or process, or request when the request processing control, the control function in a timely manner to address and control systems, commonly used in the production process is interrupted for the occasion. Such as steel, each one refining furnace steel is a process; and if the process rolling, rolling out each piece of steel considered a process, each process is repeated. Only enter the process only requires a computer control. Once control of the computer, it requires a computer from the production process information in the required time to respond to or control. Such systems often use sophisticated interrupt system and interrupt handling procedures to achieve. In summary, an online system is not necessarily a real-time system. But a real-time system must be an online system.Second, in order to participate in the control mode to Category 1, direct digital control system by the control computer to replace conventional analog instruments and direct regulation to control the production process, as the computer as digital signals, so named after the DDC control. Actually controlled the production process control components, control signals received by the process controller input / output channels of D / (D / A) converter output of the digital control computer volume to be converted into analog; analog input control machine to go through the process of input / output channels of analog / digital (A / D) converter into a digital number into the computer. DDC control systems often use a small computer or microprocessor, the time-sharing system to achieve multiple points of control. Is in fact a discrete sampling with the controller, to achieve discrete multi-point control. DDC computer control system that has become the main control computer control system forms. DDC control of the advantage of flexibility, large, focused on high reliability and low cost. Can use several forms of digital computing circuits, or even dozens of loop production process, integral to proportional --- --- differential (PID) control to maintain the industrial state of the controlled object at a given value, the deviation small and stable. And as long as the change of control algorithms and applications can achieve more complex control. Such as feedforward control and the best control. Under normal circumstances, DDC-level control often more complex as the implementation of advanced control level. 2, supervisory computer control system supervisory computer control system for a particular production process, according to the production process of various states, according to the production process of the mathematical model to calculate the best production equipment should be running a given value, and the best value automatically or manually on the DDCExecutive-level computer or analog meter to align the regulation or control of the target set. By a DDC or adjust the instrument at various points on the production process (running equipment) to exercise control. SCC system is that it can guarantee the production process is always controlled the situation in the best condition to run, so get the most benefit. SCC results directly affect the merits of the first of its mathematical model, this should always improve the operation process model, and modify the control algorithm, and application control procedures. 3, multi-level control systems in modern manufacturing enterprises in the production process not only the need to address the problem of online control, and Huan Zhi Li called for a solution of production problems, the daily product line, the number of arrangements for planning and scheduling, and Rose plans develop a long term planning, notice Xiaoshou prospects, there was multi-level control system. DDC class is mainly used for direct control of the production process, for PID, or feedforward control; SCC level is mainly used for optimal control or adaptive control or learning control calculation, and command and control the same DDC class report back to the MIS class. DDC level usually microcomputers, SCC-level general use of small computers or high-end microcomputers. MIS Workshop main function of governance is based on plant-level production of varieties issued, the number of orders and collect up the production process of the state of information, at any time reasonable schedule to achieve optimal control, command and SCC-level supervisory control. Factory management level MIS main function is to accept the company and factory production tasks assigned by the actual situation of optimized computing, Zhi Ding factory production plans and short-term (ten days or weeks or days) arrangements, and then issued to the plant-level production tasks. Corporate governance level MIS main function is to guess the market demand computing to develop strategic long-term development planning, and contract orders, raw material supply situation and the production conditions, comparison of the optimal production program selection and calculation, work out the entire company business a long time (months or ten days) of the production plan, sales plan, assigned to the task of the factory management level. MIS-level main function is to achieve real-time information processing, decision-makers at all levels to provide useful information, make on the production planning \ scheduling and management programs to plan the coordination and management control in the optimal state. This one can control the size and scope of enterprise size divided into several levels. Each level has to be addressed accordingto the size of the amount of information to determine the type of computer used. MIS generally use small computer shop class or high-grade micro-computer, the factory management level of the MIS with a medium-sized computer, and corporate governance level MIS is to use large-scale computer, or use super computer. 4, distributed control or distributed control system distributed control or distributed control, the control system is divided into a number of independent local control subsystems to complete the controlled production process control task. Since the emergence of micro-computers and rapid development of distributed control to provide for the realization of the material and technical basis, in recent years, decentralized control can be different almost normal development, and has become an important trend in the development of computer control. Since the 70's, appeared focused on distributed control system, called DCS. It is a decentralized local control of the new computer control system.Three, classified according to the law regulating 1, program control if the computer control system the division of a predetermined time function control, such control is called program control. Such as the furnace temperature-time curves Anzhao some control on the process control. Here the procedure is time-varying changes have to determine the corresponding value, rather than the computer running. 2, sequence control in the process control based on the generated sequence control, computer, over time, as can be determined according to the corresponding control value and previous results at the moment both to exercise on the production process control system, called the order of the computer control . 3, proportional - integral - differential analog PID control regulation of conventional PID control instrument can be completed. Micro-computer can also be achieved with PID control. 4, feedforward control is usually the feedback control system, have certain effects on the interference in order to generate feedback over the role of inhibitory control of interference, and thus delay the control of undesirable consequences. In order to overcome the negative lag control, with the computer accepts the interference signal after the, did not produce effects in the Huan insert a feedforward control Zuoyong, it Ganghao interference point in the interference of the control to completely offset the effect on the variable, it was Ming Wei Yin Er disturbance compensation control. 5, optimal control (optimal control) system control computer, such as to have controlled object is best known as the best run of the control system control system. Such as computer control system is limited in the existing conditions, select appropriate control law(mathematical model), the controlled object indicators in optimal running condition. Such as the largest output, consumption of the largest, highest quality standards, such as the least scrap rate. Best is determined by a set of mathematical models, sometimes several in a limited range of the best indicators of the pursuit of individual, sometimes the best indicators of comprehensive requirements. 6, the adaptive control system, optimal control, when the working conditions or qualifications change, we can not get the best control effects. If the situation changes in working conditions, the control system can still be controlled in the best state of the object's control, such control system called the adaptive system. This requires mathematical model reflects the change in the conditions, how to achieve the best state. Control computer to detect changes in terms of the information given by the laws of mathematical models to calculate, to change the control variables, the controlled objects still in the best condition. 7, self-learning control system if the computer can keep the results under the controlled object gain experience running their own change and improve the control law so that more and better control effect, this control system is called self-learning control system. Above mentioned optimal control, adaptive control and self-learning control are related to multi-parameter, multi-variable complex control systems, are all problems of modern control theory. Determine the stability of the system, many factors affect the control of complex mathematical models, have to be a production control, production technology, automation, instrumentation, programming, computer hardware, each with various personnel to be realized. Controlled object by the length of reaction time required to control the number of points and mathematical models to determine the complexity of the computer use scale. Generally speaking, a strong need to functionality (speed and computing power) of the computer can be achieved. The Zhuzhong control, can be a single type also is not single, you can combine several forms to achieve control of the production process. This should address the actual situation of the controlled object, the system analysis, system design determined at the time.Keywords ：open the control,closed loop control控制系统的分类有三种方法：以自动控制方式分类、以参于控制方式分类、以调节规律分类。