默默英文文献

英文文献文章English Version:Title: Navigating the World of Academic LiteratureAcademic literature serves as the backbone of scholarly communication, providing a platform for researchers to share their findings, insights, and perspectives. It plays a crucial role in the advancement of knowledge and the dissemination of research.One of the key features of academic literature is its meticulous documentation and citation practices. This ensures that the work is transparent, verifiable, and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. Authors are expected to adhere to strict guidelines when it comes to formatting, referencing, and presenting their research to maintain a standard of academic integrity.The process of engaging with academic literature begins with a thorough review of existing publications. This often involves sifting through numerous articles, journals, and databases to identify relevant studies. Databases such as JSTOR, PubMed, and Google Scholar are invaluable resources for researchers looking to build a foundation of understanding in their field.As researchers delve deeper into their topic, they often encounter a variety of writing styles and methodologies. The ability to critically evaluate the sources and extract pertinent information is an essential skill. It is also important to recognize the cultural and linguistic nuances that may be present in literature from different regions.When reading academic literature, it's important to take notes and summarize key points. This not only aids in comprehension but also serves as a reference for future work. Highlighting, annotating, and creating a structured summary are common practices that help in synthesizing the information.The ultimate goal of academic literature is to contribute to the ongoing dialogue within a particular discipline. By publishing their research, authors hope to stimulate further inquiry, debate, and innovation. The impact of a piece of literature is often measured by its citations, reviews, and the influence it has on subsequent studies.In conclusion, academic literature is a vital component of the research landscape.It requires a commitment to严谨的研究和批判性思维，but the rewards of engaging with this rich source of knowledge are immense.Chinese Translation:标题：探索学术文献的世界学术文献是学术交流的支柱，为研究人员提供了一个分享他们的发现、见解和观点的平台。

9个常用的国外英文论文文献数据库1、Wiley InterScience(英文文献期刊)Wiley InterScience是John Wiely 电气电子工程师学会IEEE（Institute of Electrical 华尔街日报（The Walls Street Journal）、哈佛商业评论（Harvard Business Review）、每周商务（Business Week）、财富（Fortune）、经济学家智囊团国家报告(EIU Country Reports)、American Banker、Forbes、The Economist等报刊。

该数据库从1990年开始提供全文，题录和文摘则可回溯检索到1984年，数据库每日更新。

学术期刊集成全文数据库（Academic Search Premier，简称ASP）：包括有关生物科学、工商经济、资讯科技、通讯传播、工程、教育、艺术、文学、医药学等领域的七千多种期刊，其中近四千种全文刊。

5.ProQuestProQuest是博士论文全文检索系统, PQDD的全称是ProQuest Digital Dissertations。

而ProQuest 的母公司是UMI，The answser Company (UMI有问必答公司），UMI 成立于1938年，是全球最大的信息存储和发行商之一，也是美国学术界著名的出版商，它向全球160多个国家提供信息服务，内容涉及商业管理、社会科学、人文科学、新闻、科学与技术、医药、金融与税务等。

网址：/UMI提供以下三种数据库：学术研究图书馆（Academic Research Library，简称ARL）综合参考及人文社会科学期刊论文数据库，涉及社会科学、人文科学、商业与经济、教育、历史、传播学、法律、军事、文化、科学、医学、艺术、心理学、宗教与神学、社会学等学科，收录2，300多种期刊和报纸，其中全文刊占三分之二，有图像。

英文文献剖析范文The study of English literature has long been a cornerstone of academic curriculums around the world. As a vast and multifaceted field, it encompasses the analysis and interpretation of a wide range of written works, from classic novels and poetry to contemporary plays and short stories. At its core, the examination of English literature provides invaluable insights into the human experience, allowing us to delve into the depths of the human condition, explore diverse perspectives, and gain a deeper understanding of the cultural, historical, and social contexts that have shaped the written word.One of the primary objectives of analyzing English literature is to uncover the deeper meanings and underlying themes that lie within the text. This process often involves a close reading of the work, where scholars and students scrutinize the language, symbolism, and narrative structure to identify the author's intentions and the broader significance of the work. By examining the literary devices employed, the character development, and the thematic elements, researchers can gain a more nuanced appreciation for the complexities and subtleties inherent in the written word.Moreover, the study of English literature extends far beyond the confines of the text itself. Scholars often situate the work within its historical and cultural context, exploring the sociopolitical, economic, and philosophical influences that may have shaped the author's perspective and the reception of the text. This contextual analysis is crucial in understanding the broader significance of a literary work and its impact on the cultural landscape.For instance, the novels of Charles Dickens, renowned for their vivid depictions of Victorian-era London, provide a window into the social and economic inequalities of the time. By examining Dickens' works through this lens, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of the marginalized and underprivileged members of society, as well as the broader societal issues that were at the forefront of public discourse.Similarly, the poetry of the Harlem Renaissance, a pivotal cultural movement in the early 20th century, offers a powerful expression of the African American experience, grappling with themes of racial identity, social justice, and the search for self-actualization. By analyzing these works within their historical context, scholars can uncover the ways in which literature has served as a vehicle for marginalized voices to assert their agency and challenge the dominant narratives.Beyond the exploration of historical and cultural contexts, the study of English literature also involves the application of various critical theories and analytical frameworks. From feminist and postcolonial approaches to Marxist and psychoanalytic interpretations, these theoretical lenses provide scholars with a diverse array of tools to interrogate the text and uncover new layers of meaning.For instance, a feminist reading of Virginia Woolf's "A Room of One's Own" might focus on the ways in which the author challenges patriarchal structures and advocates for the recognition of women's intellectual and creative capacities. Conversely, a postcolonial analysis of Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" could examine the text's underlying assumptions about race, power, and the colonial enterprise.The richness and complexity of English literature also lend themselves to interdisciplinary approaches, where scholars draw upon insights from fields such as history, sociology, psychology, and philosophy to enrich their understanding of the written word. This interdisciplinary dialogue not only broadens the scope of literary analysis but also encourages a more holistic and nuanced understanding of the human experience as reflected in the literary canon.Furthermore, the study of English literature has profound implications for our understanding of language and communication. By closely examining the ways in which authors manipulate language to convey meaning, scholars can gain valuable insights into the power of words, the construction of narratives, and the role of rhetoric in shaping our perceptions and beliefs.Through the close reading and analysis of literary texts, students and researchers can develop a heightened sensitivity to the nuances of language, the subtleties of tone and voice, and the ways in which language can be used to both reflect and shape the human experience. This linguistic awareness can then be applied to a wide range of contexts, from literary criticism to professional writing and communication.In conclusion, the study of English literature is a multifaceted and dynamic field of inquiry that offers a wealth of insights into the human condition. By examining the written word through various critical lenses, scholars and students can gain a deeper understanding of the cultural, historical, and social forces that have shaped the literary canon, while also developing a more nuanced appreciation for the power of language and the role of literature in shaping our collective understanding of the world around us. As we continue to engage with and analyze the rich tapestry of English literature, we can expect to uncover new perspectives, challengeexisting assumptions, and expand the boundaries of our intellectual and creative horizons.。

英语类论文参考文献（3篇）英语类论文参考文献(一)[1] Kemmis.S&R.Mc Taggart. The Action Research Planne[M]. Geelong, Victoria; Deakin University Press, 1982.[2] Hustler. D, T. Cassidy & J. Cuff(eds.). Action Research in Classroom and Schools [C]. Inndon: Allen & Unwin, 1986.[4] Cohen, L.& Mansion, L. ResearchMethods in Education (4th ed.)[M]. London and New Youk: Routledge, 1994.[5] Richards, J. C.& C. Lockhart. Reflective Teaching in Second Language Calssrooms [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.[6]胡青球.行动研究:教学与科研紧密结合的桥梁式研究方法[J].山东外语教学, 2002 (5): 54-56.[7]李静纯.导读[A].华莱士.语言教师行动研究[M].北京:人民教育出版社, 2000.[8]王蔷.英语教师行动研究[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社, 2002.[9]支永碧.从行动研究到行动教育 [J].大连:外语与外语教学, 2008 (9): 28-33.[1]郭建中.当代美国翻译理论[M].武汉：湖北教育出版社，2000[2]王慧.论翻译教学中思维能力的培养[J].吉林省教育学院学报，2009(10)[3]白晓莉.大学英语翻译教学现状及对策分[J].读与写(教育教学刊)，2008(5)[4]刘宓庆.翻译教学：实务与理论[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2007[5]萧立明.英汉比较研究与翻译[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社，2002[6]何刚强.当代英汉互译指导与实践[M].上海:华东理工大学出版社， 1997[7]程镇球.政治文章的翻译要讲政治[J].中国翻译，2003(3).[8]杨全红.简论汉英新词翻译[J].中国翻译，1999(3).Malley，J& A. Chamot. Learner Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990Neil J. Anderson,《《第二语言阅读探索：问题与策略》》外语教学与研究出版社 2004郑敏.对语言学习策略分类框架的质疑[J ].外语与外语教学,200(12):33 - 35.英语类论文参考文献(二)[1] Aitchison, J. 1987. Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon [M]. Oxford: Basil lackwell.[2] Blakemore, D. 1992. Understanding Utterances [M]. Oxford: Blackwell.[3] Blakemore, D. 2002. Relevance and Linguistic Meaning: The Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse Markers [M]. Cambridge: CUP.[4] Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford: OUP.[5] Emmorey, K. D. & V. A. Fromkin. 1990. The mental lexicon [A]. In J. Frederick (ed.). Language:The Cambridge Survey: Psychological and Biological Aspects [C]. Newmeyer: CUP.[6] Garnham, A. 1985. Psycholinguistics:#from 英语类论文参考文献（3篇）来自end# Central Topics [M]. Cambridge: CUP.[7] Anderson , A. et al. 1999. Cross-linguistic evidence for the early acquisition of discourse markers as register variables [J]. Journal of Pragmatics (10): 1339-1351.[8] Wesche, M. & T. M. Paribakht. 1996. Assessing vocabulary knowledge: Depth vs. breadth [J].Canadian Modern Language Review (10): 13-40.[9] 丁言仁.2004.第二语言习得研究与英语学习 [M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.[10]束定芳，庄智象.1996.现代外语教学理论、方法与实践 [M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.[11]文秋芳. 2001.英语学习的成功之路 [M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.[12]陈新仁.2002.话语联系语与英语议论文写作:调查分析[J].外语教学与研究(5):350-354.[13]崔刚.1994.布鲁卡氏失语症实例研究[J].外语教学与研究 (1):272-33.[14]桂诗春.2004.我国外语教学的新思考[J].外国语(4):229.[15]何安平，徐曼菲.2003.中国大学生英语口语Small Words的研究[J].外语教学与研究(6):446-452.[16]黄远振.2001.词的形态理据与词汇习得的相关性[J].外语教学与研究(6):430–435.[17]文秋芳.2002.编写英语专业教材的重要原则[J].外语界(1):7-21.[18]文秋芳.2003.频率作用与二语习得[J].外语教学与研究 (2):151-154.英语类论文参考文献(三)文献类型标识：普通图书[M], 会议录[C], 汇编[G], 报纸[N], 期刊[J]学位论文[D], 报告[R]，标准[S]，专利[P]，数据库[DB]计算机程序[CP]，电子公告[EB] 磁带[MT]，磁盘[DK]光盘[CD]，联机网络[OL]专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地：出版社，出版年份.[1]何兆熊. 新编语用学概论[M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社, 2000.[2]Brown, P. & Levinson, S.C. Politeness: Universals in Language Usage [M].Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.期刊类[3]刘建达.中国学生英语语用能力的测试[J]. 外语教学与研究, 2006(4): 259-265.[4]Cameron, L. Confrontations or Complementarities? Metaphor in Language Use and Cognitive Metaphor Theory [J]. Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics, 2007(5): 107-135.报纸类[5]李大伦.经济全球化时代英语学习的重要性[N]. 光明日报，1998-12-27(3).[6]French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China [N].Atlantic Weekly,1987-8-15(33).论文集[7]伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海：上海译文出版社，1979：12-17.[8] Spivak,G. Can the Subaltern Speak? [A]. In C.Nelson & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, 271-313.学位论文[9]王淼.中初水平学习者在外语学习环境下的偶遇词汇学习[D]. 上海外国语大学，2004 .研究报告[10] 冯西桥.翻译研究的多维视角[R].北京：清华大学, 1997：9-10.。

英文文献阅读笔记Title: The Role of MicroRNAs in Cancer Development and ProgressionAuthor: Kaitlyn SmithPublication: Cancer Research JournalDate: January 2023Summary:This article delves into the intricate world of microRNAs (miRNAs) and their critical role in cancer development and progression. miRNAs are small non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression, playing a significant role in various biological processes including cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. The article highlights the complex interplay between miRNAs and cancer, discussing how these tiny regulators can act as either tumor suppressors or oncogenes, depending on the context.Key Points:1. miRNAs function as post-transcriptional regulators, binding to the 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) of target mRNAs, leading to either mRNA degradation or translational repression.2. Dysregulation of miRNAs is common in cancer, often characterized by miRNA overexpression or underexpression. These changes can lead to abnormal gene expression patterns that drive cancer development and progression.3. miRNAs can act as tumor suppressors by targeting oncogenes for degradation or inhibiting their translation, or they can function as oncogenes by targeting tumor suppressor genes.4. Therapeutic potential of miRNAs has been recognized, with several ongoing clinical trials exploring the use of miRNA-based drugs or inhibitors for the treatment of various cancers.5. The role of miRNAs in cancer is further complicated by their ability to influence the tumor microenvironment, including immune cell infiltration and stromal cell activation.6. Future research directions include understanding the precise mechanisms of miRNA regulation in cancer, identifying specific miRNA signatures predictive of tumor behavior and patientprognosis, and developing more effective miRNA-based therapeutic strategies.Reflections:This article has significantly expanded my understanding of the complex role of miRNAs in cancer. The concept of miRNAs functioning as both tumor suppressors and oncogenes is fascinating and underscores the remarkable versatility of these tiny regulators. The therapeutic potential of miRNAs is also promising, offering new avenues for cancer treatment. However, the challenges associated with developing effective miRNA-based therapies are numerous, requiring a more comprehensive understanding of miRNA biology and the tumor microenvironment.。

In our country development overview of the stamping dieThe status quo of China's mold industrySince the reform and opening up, with the rapid development of national economy, the market demand for mold growth.In recent years, the mold industry has been rapid development in the growth rate of around 15%, all components of the system mold industry has undergone tremendous changes, in addition to state-owned professional mold factory, collective, joint ventures, and private sector has also been a rapid development.Along with the international standards and the pace continues to accelerate, the aggravation of the market competition, the importance of the ability to develop more and more people have realized that the product quality, cost and new product.While the mold manufacturing is one of the most basic elements in the whole chain, mold manufacturing technology has become an important symbol to measure a country's level of manufacturing industry, and decide the survival of enterprises to a great extent.In recent years, many die enterprises to increase investment for technological progress, technological progress will be seen as an important driving force for enterprise development.Some domestic enterprises die has been popularized in the two-dimensional CAD, and started using UG, I-DEAS and other international common software, individual manufacturers have introduced Moldflow, C-Flow and other CAE software, designed and successfully applied in stamping die.Although China mould industry has attract people's attention development over the past decade, but many aspects compared with developed countries there is still a large gap.For example, the proportion of precision processing equipment in the mold processing equipment is relatively low;CAD/CAE/CAM technology penetration rate is not high;Many advanced mold technology application is not wide enough and so on, resulting in a considerable part of the large, sophisticated, complex and long life moulds dependence on imports.Mold manufacturing compared with foreign countries in China, behindthe Department is mainly the following 5 aspects:Less standardized. Domestic standardization degree is about 30%, standard varieties High precision, less, the lack of standard parts and standard parts of goods. Precision mold manufacturing cycle is long, low. Overseas mold factory are the rough machining, finish machining, assembly, measurement precision of the complete sets of equipment, such as CNC coordinates grinder, NC EDM machine etc.Domestic mold factory obsolete equipment is not complete, occupy the NC machine, EDM machine tool in processing machine in the proportion of small, less use of new technology to make the mold precision mold processing, than foreign low grade 1~2, long manufacturing cycle times of 1~2.Die less variety, low efficiency. Mainly is the lack of large, complex, the long life mold.The overseas mold development toward precision, automation, many processes can be completed in a pair of mould.The low rate of short service life of the mould, material utilization.Abroad due to the adoption of new technology of smelting and heat treatment, die life is greatly improved.Technical force is backward, poor management level. Production technology of our country mould proportion accounted for only 7%~8%, this ratio is not only lower than abroad, but also lower than the other 30%, within the industry, the lack of scientific management of production.The above several aspects of the problem that the overall level of China's mold industry is still in a backward state, we also need to accelerate the development of. According to the forecast, the future of our country will become the world's manufacturing center, the more to mould industry has brought hitherto unknown development opportunities and space. In order to accelerate the development of mold industry in our country, is one of the basic tasks to speed up the cultivation of talents. Mold design and manufacture of professional (College), is in order to adapt to the country is badly in need of cultivating the comprehensive quality of modern mold manufacturing and production skills, adapt to the demand of talents of modern mold manufacturing technology and production mode and set.The future development trend of the stamping die manufacturingtechnologyThe development of mould technology should be adapted for mold products "short delivery time", "accuracy", "good quality", "low price" of services.Achieve this one requirement is badly in need of the development of the following:To popularize CAD/CAM/CAE technology of mould CAD/CAM/CAE technology is the development direction of mold design and manufacturing.With the computer software development and progress, the popularity of CAD/CAM/CAE technology, the conditions are ripe, the enterprise will increase the CAD/CAM technical training and technical services;To further expand the scope of application of CAE technology. With the development of computer and network technology is making the CAD/CAM/CAE cross regional, cross enterprise, cross Institute in the industry as possible to promote, achieve re integration of technical resources, make the virtual manufacturing possible.High speed milling machining of high speed milling abroad in recent years, greatly improve the processing efficiency, and can obtain very high surface finish.In addition, the process can also be hard module, also has the advantages of low temperature rise, small thermal deformation etc.. High speed milling technology, automobile and home appliances industries of large type cavity die manufacturing has injected new vitality. At present, it has to be integrated more agile, intelligent, development direction. Scanning system for die scanning and digitizing system high-speed scannersand mold provides many functions in the model of the model or scan to processing, greatly shorten the manufacturing cycle in the development of mold. Some fast scanning system can be quickly installed in existing CNC milling machine and machining center, CAD data to achieve rapid data acquisition and processing program of NC system, automatic generation of a variety of different formats of the reverse engineering in mold design and manufacturing "". Die scanning system has been successfully applied in automobile, motorcycle, household appliances and other industries, that will play a greater role in the "fifteen" period.Electrical discharge machining EDM milling technology, also known as electric spark machining technology, which is a new technology to replace the traditional molding electrode processing cavity, which is a high-speed rotation of the tubular electrode assimple 3D or 2D contour machining (the same as CNC milling), so no need to manufacture electrode the complex, which is obviously a great development in the field of edm. The application of this has been the use of foreign technology in mould machining machine tool. It is expected that this technology will be developed. Improve the mold standardization degreechinas mold standardization degree is increasing, estimated that China's mold standard parts using coverage has reached about 30%. Developed countries is generally about 80%.High-quality materials and advanced surface treatment technology for the surface treatment technology of high quality steel and application of appropriate it is to improve the life of the mold is very necessary. Die heat treatment and surface treatment can give full play to the key link of the material properties of die steel. The development direction of mold heat treatment is the use of vacuum heat treatment. Mold surface treatment should be developed in the process of chemical vapor deposition (TiN, TiC), plasma spraying technology.Have a greater impact mold polishing automation, intelligent mold surface quality of mold service life, the appearance of quality parts, grinding and polishing method of automation, intelligent to replace the existing manual operation, in order to improve the surface quality of the mould is an important trend of development.Mold the development of automatic processing system which is our long-term development goals. The reasonable combination of mould automatic processing system should be more than one machine; with accompanying positioning fixture or positioning plate; complete machines, CNC tool library; complete CNC flexible synchronization system; quality monitoring and control system.Die position in manufacturing and ApplicationApplication in the mould manufacturing is extremely wide, the industry machinery, automobile, light industry, chemical industry, electronic communication, metallurgy, plastics, building materials, mold of professional and technical personnel is the foundation of talents in manufacturing industry. As the world manufacturing center to China transfer, China's mold industry ushered in a new round of development opportunities, so die industry has been rapid development. In recent years, the total output value of China's mold industry maintained an annual growth rate of 13%. Fromthe mold industry scale, China has ranked third in the world, after Japan and the America, a mold producing countries.Importance of mould in modern industrial production is mainly manifested in the following aspects:Molded products is extremely wide application process. For example: die forging, stamping, extrusion and drawing parts are made of metal material in the mould of plastic deformation and forming. Forming in the mold filling of die casting and powder metallurgy parts, pressure. Plastic, ceramic and other non-metallic materials are mostly formed by mold.Mold forming can be achieved less, non cutting processing. Little or no cutting, is a development direction of mechanical manufacturing. The forming die is less or no cutting process in an effective way, which is the key to improve the level of mold manufacturing. Improve the level of mold manufacturing mold improvement can make the precision of products, lower surface roughness, which may directly processed products, do not need to be processed, so as to avoid cutting.Stamping products has the advantages of high accuracy, high complexity, high consistency, high productivity, low energy consumption and low cost, so a wide range of applications. According to statistics, the use of a variety of mold parts, aircraft, automobile, 60%~70%, electrical instrumentation and other fields, home appliances accounted for more than 80%, watches, bicycles and other light industrial products accounted for more than 85%.Meet the press mold problems and SolutionsThe convex die worn out too fastThe main reasons: 1) the die gap is too small, the general recommended mold total clearance for material thickness of 20% ~ 25%2) mould temperature is too high, mainly due to the same die stamping punch overheating caused by continuous long time. 3) concave mould for neutral good, including die and mold guide assembly and a turret bushing precision deficiency and other causes of mold is not good for the neutral. 4) mold grinding method is undeserved, cause mould annealing, the wear is intensified.Punch die material die material will cause the waste of the rebound, related factors:1) the gap of the mould is reasonable, if the die gap is not suitable, easy to cause the waste of rebound. 2) the sharpness of cutting edge, cutting edge radius is larger, more easily lead to waste of rebound. 3) by oil processing plate surface is more. 4) spring fatigue damage. 5) the modulus of mould, machine of each station into the modulus is certain, the mold into the modulus is small, easy to cause the waste of rebound.The prospects for the development of Chinese casting mouldFrom the long-term development perspective, China sustained economic growth, the future of casting mould overall demand will continue to grow, China mold to an average of 17% growth in recent years, higher than the average value of China GDP more than doubled.Die casting can also keep pace of development, so there is still much room for development of casting mould, die casting enterprise to the conversion mechanism, the development of specialized production, enhance market awareness, promote the adjustment of industrial structure of the casting mold industry.In the past, under the planned economy condition, large enterprises with internal mold factory (workshop), manufacturing capacity and strong technical force, accounted for a considerable proportion of domestic mold production, in addition to a small number of standard parts. Most of the works, by the mold factory to complete, the specialization, low degree of standardization, in addition to the enterprise management system the constraint, mold manufacturing cycle is long, can not meet the market demands.After entering the WTO, China casting mold industry is gradually integrating into the world trade integration. The influence of planned economy through thorough reform eliminated, therefore, the degree of commercialization of the mold also will be improved to a great extent, the state-owned enterprise shareholding system reform will accelerate the pace of development of enterprises, private and individual enterprises, the structure of die and mould industry changes. Mold industry of social cooperation and specialization will be strengthened, which is the effective measures to resist the impact of the accession to the world trade organization, the traditional enterprise internal mold workshop will become part of the new economic entity with independent accounting system through reform, and most will be phased out, the morethe mold enterprise will embark on the road of specialization, keep the advantage in their field of expertise on the product, take the fine of the road, in order to survive and develop in the competition.。

外文文献翻译Operational AmplifiersIn 1943 Harry Black commuted from his home in New York City at Bell Labs in New Jersey by way of a ferry. The ferry ride relaxed Harry enabling him to do some conceptual thinking. Harry had a tough problem to solve; when phone lines were extended long distance, they needed amplifiers, and undependable amplifiers limited phone service. First, initial tolerances on the gain were poor, but that problem was quickly solved wuth an adjustment. Second, even when an amplifier was adjusted correctly at the factory, the gain drifted so much during field operation that the volume was too low or the incoming speech was distorted.Many attempts had been made to make a stable amplifier, but temperature changes and power supply voltage extremes experienced on phone lines caused uncontrollable gain drift. Passive components had much better drift characteristics than active components had, thus if an amplifier’s gain could be made dependent on passive components, the problem would be solve. During on e of his ferry trips, Harry’s fertile brain conceived a novel solution for the amplifier problem, and he documented the solution while riding on the ferry.The solution was to first build an amplifier that had more gain than the application required. Then some of the amplifier output signal was fed back to the input in a manner that makes the circuit gain (circuit is the amplifier and feedback components) dependent on the feedback circuit rather than the amplifier gain. Now the circuit gain is dependent on the passive feedback components rather than the active amplifier. This is called negative feedback, and it is the underlying operating principle for all modern day opamps. Harry had documented the first intentional feedback circuit had been built prior to that time ,but the designers ignored the effect.I can hear the squeals of anguish coming from the manager and amplifier designers. I imagine that they said something like this, “it is hard enough to achieve 30kHz gainbandwidth (GBW), and now this fool wants me to design an amplifier with 3MHz GBW. But ,he is still going to get a circuit gain GBW of 30kHz .” Well, time has proven Harry right ,but there is a minor problem. It seems that circuit designed with large pen loop gains sometimes oscillate when the loop is closed. A lot of people investigated the instability effect, and it was prettywell understood in the 1940s, but solving stability problems involved long, tedious, and intricate calculations. Years passed without anybody making the problem solution simpler or more understandable.In 1945 H. W. Bode presented a system for analyzing the stability of feedback system by using graphical methods. Until this time, feedback analysis was done by multiplication and division, so calculation of transfer functions was a time consuming and laborious task. Remember, engineers did not have calculators or computers until the ‘70s, Bode presented a log technique that transformed the intensely mathematical process of calculating a feedback system’s stability into grap hical analysis that was simple and perceptive. Feedback system design was still complicated, but it no longer was an art dominated by a few electrical engineers kept in a small dark room. Any electrical engineer could use Bode’s methods to find the stability of a feedback circuit, so the application of feedback to machines began to grow. There really wasn’t much call for electrical feedback design until computers and transducers become of age.The first real-time computer was the analog computer! This computer used preprogrammed equations and input data to calculate control actions. The programming was hard wired with a series of circuit that performed math operations on the data, and the hard wiring limitation eventually caused the declining popularity of the analog computer. The heart of the analog computer was a device called an operational amplifier because it could be configured to perform many mathematical operations such as multiplication, addition, subtraction, division, integration, and differentiation on the input signals. The name was shortened to the familiar op amp, as we have come to know and love them. The op amp used an amplifier with a large open loop gain, and when the loop was closed, the amplifier performed the mathematical operations dictated by the external passive components. This amplifier was very large because it was built with vacuum tubes and it required a high-voltage power supply,but it was the heart of the analog computer, thus its large size and huge power requirements were accepted. Many early op amps were designed for analog computers, an it was soon found out the op amps had other uses and were handy to have around the physics lab .At this time general-purpose analog computers were found in universities and large company laboratories because they were critical to the research work done there. There was a parallel requirement for transducer signal conditioning in lab experiments, and op amps found their way into signal conditioning applications. As the signal conditioning applications expanded, the demand for op amps grew beyond the analog computer requirements , and even when the analog computers lost favor to digital computers, the op amps survived because of its importance in universal analog applications. Eventually digital computes replaced the analog computers, but the demand for op amps increased as measurement applications increased.The first signal conditioning op amps were constructed with vacuum tubes prior to the introduction of transistors, so they were large and bul ky. During the’50s, miniature vacuum tubes that worked from lower voltage power supplies enabled the manufacture of op amps that shrunk to the size lf a brick used in house construction, so the op amp modules were nick named bricks. Vacuum tube size and component size decreased until an op amp was shrunk to the size of a single octal vacuum tube. Transistors were commercially developed in the ‘60s, and they further reduced op amp size to several cubic inches. Most of these early op amps were made for specific applications, so they were not necessarily general purpose. The early op amps served a specific purpose, but each manufacturer had different specifications and packages; hence, there was little second sourcing among the early op amps.ICs were developed during the late 1950s and early 1960s, but it wasn’t till the middle 1960s that Fairchild released the μA709. This was the first commercially successful IC op am. TheμA709 had its share of problems, bur any competent analog engineer could use it, and it served in many different analog applications. The maj or drawback of theμA709 was stability; it required external compensation and a competent analog engineer to apply it. Also, theμA709 was quite sensitive because it had a habit of self-destruction under any adverse condition. TheμA741 followed theμA709, and it is an internally compensated op amp that does not require external compensation if operated under data sheet conditions. There has been a never-ending series of new op amps released each year since then, and their performance and reliability had improved to the point where present day op amps can be usedfor analog applications by anybody.The IC op amp is here to stay; the latest generation op amps cover the frequency spectrum from 5kHz GBW to beyond 1GHz GBW. The supply voltage ranges from guaranteed operation at 0.9V to absolute maximum voltage ratings of 1000V. The input current and input offset voltage has fallen so low that customers have problems verifying the specifications during incoming inspection. The op amp has truly become the universal analog IC because it performs all analog tasks. It can function as a line driver, comparator (one bit A/D), amplifier, level shifter, oscillator, filter, signal conditioner, actuator driver, current source, voltage source, and etc. The designer’s problem is h ow to rapidly select the correct circuit /op amp combination and then, how to calculate the passive component values that yield the desired transfer function in the circuit.The op amp will continue to be a vital component of analog design because it is such a fundamental component. Each generation of electronic equipment integrates more functions on silicon and takes more of the analog circuit inside the IC. As digital applications increase, analog applications also increase because the predominant supply of data and interface applications are in the real world, and the real world is an analog world. Thus , each new generation of electronic equipment creates requirements for new analog circuit; hence, new generations of op amps are required to fulfill these requirements. Analog design, and op amp design, is a fundamental skill that will be required far into the future.放大器1943年，哈利·布莱克乘火车或渡船从位于纽约市的家去新泽西州的贝尔实验室上班。

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下面是店铺带来的关于毕业论文英文参考文献的内容，欢迎阅读参考!毕业论文英文参考文献(一)[1]徐安律.原住民小说《圆屋》获美国国家图书奖[N].中华读书报，2012(004).[2]Coulombe,JosephL.ReadingNativeAmericanLiterature[M\. NewYork:Routledge,2011.[3]Erdrich,Louise.TheRoundHouse\M\.NewYork:HarperCollin sPublishers,2012.[J].作家，2013(12)：1.[4]杨恒.弱者的失语法律的缺位--评美国国家图书奖获奖作品《圆屋》[J].博览群书，2013(6)：84-88.[5]Said,Edward.CultureandImprerialism[M].NewYork:Vintage Books,1994.[6]Erdrich,Louise.LoveMedicine[M],NewYork:HarperPerennia l,1993.[7]罗世平.凝视：后殖民主义文学折射[J].国外文学，2006(4)：122.[8]任一鸣.《后殖民：批评理论与文学》[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2008.[9]Halliday,Lisa.LouiseErdrich[J].ParisReview,2010(52)：133-137.[10]温语晴.书写印第安文化的温暖和困境一美国当代作家路易丝·厄德里克和她的作品.[11]陈榕.《凝视》[A].《西方文论关键词》[C].ed.赵一凡.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2011.[12]Russo,Maria.Disturbing the spirits[i]. New York TimesBook Review, 2012(10): 9[13]Said, Edward. Culture and Imprerialism[M]. New York: Vintage Books,1994.[14]Fanon,Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth[M]. New York: Grove Press,1968.[15]徐安律.原住民小说《圆屋》获美国国家图书奖[N].中华读书报，2012(004).毕业论文英文参考文献(二)[1] 陈鹏.高速公路服务区及收费站建筑节能研究[D].中南大学，2007[2] 清华大学建筑节能研究中心.中国建筑节能年度发展研究报告[M]2014.北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2014:39[3] 李慧玲.绿色建筑理念下的高速公路服务区建筑设计研究[D].西安：长安大学，2011[4] 公通字[2009]46 号.民用建筑外保温系统及外墙装饰防火暂行规定[S].新乡市建筑工程质量监督站印发.2009[5] 汤旭东.建筑工程中的现浇聚苯复合材料屋面保温技术[J].江西建材，2014,(11)：45[6] 杨欣霖.高速公路服务区绿色建筑技术体系研究[D].西安：长安大学，2011[7] 欧志华，郭俊明.浅谈我国建筑节能50%设计标准的含义[J].建筑节能，2007,35(12)：60-62[8] 邹惠芬，王国业，郭立杰等.严寒地区窗户热工性能对建筑能耗的影响分析[J].沈阳建筑大学学报(自然科学版).2009,25(5)：982-986[9] 崔洪军，刘孔杰.国外服务区建设及研究现状[J].中国交通报，2008,(12)：138-139[10] 郎松军.建筑结露的起因和防治方法初探[J].四川建筑，2002,22(Z1)：201-203[11] 王金奎，史慧芳，邵旭.体形系数在公共建筑节能设计中的应用[J].低温建筑技术，2010,(5)：98-99[12] 王丽颖，丘雨佳.对德国被动式居住建筑节能技术的考察[J].长春工程学院学报，2013,14(3)：38-40[13] 赖有志，陆京海，杨军霞，张童.现浇轻质泡沫混凝土在屋面工程中的应用[J].施工技术.2011,40(14)：79-94毕业论文英文参考文献(三)[1]蒋花，史志康.整合与对话一论《金色笔记》中的戏仿[J].当代外国文学，2007(2)：78.[2]黄梅.女人的危机和小说的危机--女人与小说杂谈之四[J].读书，1988(01)：5.[3]孙宗白.真诚的女作家多丽丝·莱辛[J].外国文学研宄，1981(3)：70.[4]施旻.《金色笔记》是女性主义文本吗·一关于多丽丝·莱辛及其《金色笔记》的论争[J].东岳论丛，2000(5)： 132-134.[5]李福祥.多丽丝·莱辛笔下的政治与妇女主题[J].外国文学评论，1993(4)：40-43[6]黎会华·多丽丝·莱辛《金色笔记》中的现代主义技巧分析[J].外语研究，2003(6)：73.[7]陈才宇，刘新民.金色笔记[M].北京：译林出版社，2000.[8]黎会华·解构菲勒斯中心：构建新型女性主义主体一《金色笔记》的女性主义阅读[J].浙江师范大学学报，2004(3)：33.[9]韩小敏，纪卫宁.析伍尔夫与莱辛文学创作的相似性[J].理论专刊，2004(8)：125-126.[10]姜红.有意味的形式[J].外国文学，2003(4)：96-98.[11]徐燕.《金色笔记》的超小说艺术[J].宁波大学学报，2003(3)：78-80[12]蒋花，史志康.整合与对话一论《金色笔记》中的戏仿[J].当代外国文学，2007(2)：78.[13]卢婧.《金色笔记》的艺术形式与作者莱辛的人生体验[D].南京师范大学博士学位论文，2008.[14]佘海若.迟来的正义：被缚的自由女性一记2007年诺贝尔文学奖[J].今日科苑，2007(23)： 19-24.[15]刘颖.建构女性的主体性话语一评多丽丝·莱辛的《金色笔记》[J].邵阳学院学报，2004(4).[16]范晓红.从《金色笔记》解读多丽丝·莱辛的生态整体观[D].南京师范大学，2011.[17]Brewster, Dorothy. Doris Lessing\M\. New York: Wayne, 1965: 161.[18]Spilka, Mark. Lessing and Lawrence: the Battle of theContemporary Literature,1975(16)： 218-240.。

几个免费英文文献的网站推荐几个免费英文文献的网站2007-06-14 9:48Update: 2011-06-26①：学术英文资料NCBI美国国家生物技术中心简介：生物、医学、药学等友情提示1：PMC搜索入口在Search下拉列表中找到,可以找到全文的免费文献友情提示2：其它入口也有部分文献可查看全文,如PubMed,右上角会有“Full-Text Article”HighWire Press简介：综合类;斯坦福大学下属的出版机构;友情提示：部分免费,标识有“This article is FREE”; Science简介：科学杂志官方网站友情提示：免费注册后,可以下载1997年以前的全文;注册有点繁琐,但是内容都可以随意填写,不过,一定要记住自己先前大致的填写内容,否则通不过最后的一个验证;Nature简介：自然杂志官方网站,有一些Full Text的在线发表的论文;ScienceDirect简介：综合期刊、论文;友情提示：仅带绿框的文章可全文浏览;沃顿知识在线简介：商业,金融经济类为主;分中、英文两个版本;Marxists 简介：文史类;有中文版;友情提示：一切与马克思主义挨边的资料人、事件、国家,都可以在这儿找;比如可以找到列宁、毛泽东、鲁迅等的生平和着作,还有法国大革命、古巴导弹危机……;literature简介：综合类;类似于一个文献搜索的搜索引擎;友情提示：“Free Full Text”一栏值得关注,提供了一些全文免费文献的搜索入口;②：普通英文资料Wikipedia维基百科简介：英文大百科全书;查单个词条十分方便;友情提示1：适合于查找资料性的东西,比如,电冰箱的诞生史、微软的概况、红楼梦的简评和人物分析等Many books简介：免费的英文小说下载,都是无版权争议的,即20世纪之前的经典,提供多种格式;友情提示：在Search框里输入内容后,直接回车即可,没设置搜索按钮;Archive简介：资源丰富,被称为网络的“黑洞”;友情提示：要找某个网站的历史网页,可以到这儿来碰碰运气;Encyclopedia简介：英文大百科全书,类似于Wikipedia;Answers简介：搜索引擎Answers做的百科;About简介：类似一个门户网站,可以找找分类文章;其它未整理：。

外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。