国际会计准则中英文对照外文翻译文献

国际会计准则第8 号之会计政策中英文对照会计变更以后财务报表能够提供更加可靠相关的会计信息来反映企业的业务、发生的事件或者情况对财务报表、财务业绩或现金流的影响。

下面是yjbys 小编为大家带来的关于国际会计准则的知识，欢迎阅读。

1.Changes in accounting policiesAn entity is permitted to change an accounting policy only if thechange:(i) is required by a standard or interpretation; or(ii) results in the financial statements providing reliable and morerelevant information about the effects of transactions, other events orconditions on the entity's financial position, financial performance, orcash flows. [IAS 8.14]Note that changes in accounting policies do not include applying anaccounting policy to a kind of transaction or event that did not occurpreviously or were immaterial. [IAS 8.16]1.会计政策变更企业只有在发生以下变化的时候允许变更会计政策：(1)会计准则或解释说明的要求(2)会计变更以后财务报表能够提供更加可靠相关的会计信息来反映企业的业务、发生的事件或者情况对财务报表、财务业绩或现金流的影响。

[IAS 8.14]注意，会计政策的变更不包括应用在之前没有发生过或者不重大的交易或事项。

本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译题目外币报表折算方法分析及中国的选择初探专业会计学外文题目Effect of Changes in Exchage Rates of Foreign Currencies 外文出处International Accounting Standard No 21 (IAS 21)外文作者International Accounting Standards Board原文：International Accounting Standard No 2 (IAS 2)Effect of changes in exchange rates of foreign currenciesObjectiveAn institution may conduct business abroad in two different ways. You can make transactions in foreign currency or may have business abroad. In addition, the entity may file its financial statements in a foreign currency. The purpose of this rule is to prescribe how they are incorporated in the financial statements of an entity, foreign currency transactions and business abroad, and how to convert the financial statements to the presentation currency of choice.The main problems that arise are the type or types of change to use and how to report on the effects of changes in exchange rates within the financial statements.DefinitionsOne group is the group formed by the parent and all its subsidiaries.Net investment in a foreign operation is the amount that corresponds to the participation of the entity that submitted their financial statements in the net assets of that business.Foreign currency (or currency) is any currency other than the functional currency of the entity.Functional currency is the currency of the primary economic environment in which the entity operates.Presentation currency is the currency in which the financial statements are presented.Business abroad is an entity dependent partner, joint venture or branch of the reporting entity, whose activities are based or carried out in a country or a currency different from those of the reporting entity.Currency monetary items are kept in cash and assets and liabilities to be received or paid by a fixed or determinable amount of monetary units.Exchange rate is the ratio of exchange between two currencies.End exchange rate is the rate of existing cash on the balance sheet date.Exchange rate spot is the exchange rate used in transactions with immediate delivery.Fair value is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, canceled or a liability,among stakeholders and duly informed in a transaction conducted at arm's length.Initial Recognition1. A foreign currency transaction is any transaction whose value is called or requires winding up in a foreign currency, including those in which the entity:(a) buys or sells goods or services whose price is denominated in a foreign currency;(b) lends or borrows funds, if the amounts are set to charge or pay in a foreign currency(c) acquires or disposes provides another avenue for assets or liabilities incurred or liquidation, provided that these operations are denominated in foreign currencies.2. Any foreign currency transaction is recorded at the time of its initial recognition,using the functional currency, by applying to the amount in foreign currency exchange spot at the date of the transaction between the functional currency and foreign currency.The date of the transaction is the date on which the transaction meets the conditions for recognition in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards. For practical reasons, often using an exchange rate closer to existing at the time of the transaction, for example, may be used for weekly or monthly average rate for all transactions that take place at that time In each of the classes of foreign currency used by the entity.However, it is not appropriate to use average rates if during the interval, the changes have fluctuated significantly.Financial information on the dates of the balance sheets post3. At each balance sheet date:(a) monetary items in foreign currencies are converted using the exchange rate of closure;(b) the non-monetary foreign currency being valued in terms of historical cost, will be converted using the exchange rate on the date of the transaction; and(c) the non-monetary foreign currency being valued at fair value, will be converted using the exchange rates of the date it was determined that fair value.4. To determine the amount of an item is taken into account, in addition, other rules that apply. For example, tangible assets can be valued in terms of historical cost or revalued amount, in accordance with IAS 16 Property, plant and equipment. Regardless of whether it has determined the amount by using the historical cost or revalued amount,provided that this amount has been established in foreign currency is converted to the functional currency using the rules set out in this Standard.Recognition of exchange differences5.Exchange differences that arise in the settlement of monetary items, or to convert monetary items at rates different from those used for its initial recognition, have already occurred during the year or in previous financial statements, are recognized in the outcome of year in which they appear.See a difference when you have change monetary items as a result of a transaction in foreign currency, and there is a change in the exchange rate between the date of the transaction and the settlement date. When the transaction is settled in the same year in which they occurred, the entire exchange difference will be recognized in that period.However, when the transaction is settled in a later period, the exchange difference recognized in each period, until the settlement date, will be determined from the change that has occurred in the exchange rate for each year. When recognized directly in equity gain or loss on a non-monetary, any exchange difference, including in such losses or gains were also recognized directly in equity. By contrast, when the gain or loss on a non-monetary recognition in profit or loss, any exchange difference, including in such losses or gains, was also recognized in profit or loss.6. Exchange differences arising on a monetary item that forms part of the netinvestment in a business of the foreign entity, are recognized in profit or loss of the separate financial statements of the reporting entity or in the separate financial statements of business abroad, as appropriate. Financial statements containing the business abroad and the reporting entity (for example,the consolidated financial statements if the business abroad is a dependent), such exchange differences are recognized initially as a separate component of equity,and subsequently recognized in the outcome when it becomes available or disposed of by other means business abroad.When a monetary item is part of the net investment, carried out by the reporting entity in a foreign operation, and is denominated in the functional currency of the reporting entity,an exchange difference arises in the separate financial statements of the business abroad.When the entity bears its records and ledgers in a currency other than their functional currency and proceed to prepare their financial statements, will convert all amounts to the functional currency, as set out in paragraphs 1 to 26.As a result, will produce the same amounts, in terms of functional currency, which would have been earned if the items were originally recorded in the functional currency. For example, monetary items are translated into the functional currency using the exchange rates of closure, and nonmonetary items which are valued at historical cost, will be converted using the exchange rate at the date of the transaction that created its appreciation.7. The results and financial position of an entity whose functional currency is not in accordance with the currency of a hyperinflationary economy, translated into the presentation currency, should it be different, using the following procedures:(a) the assets and liabilities of each balance sheet presented (i.e., including comparative figures), will be converted at the rate of closure on the date of the corresponding stock;(b) revenue and expenses for each profit and loss accounts (i.e., including comparative figures), will become the exchange rates at the date of each transaction; and(c) all exchange differences arising out of this, it is recognized as a separate component of equity.8. Often, for the conversion of items of income and expenditure, is used for practical purposes an approximate rate, representative of changes in the dates of transactions,such as the average exchange rate of the period. However, when exchange rates have changed significantly, it is inappropriate to use the average rate for the period.9. Exchange differences referred to in paragraph (c) of paragraph 39 are listed by:(a) The conversion of expenditure and revenue to the exchange rates of the dates oftransactions, and of the assets and liabilities at the rate of closure. These differencesappear to change both the expenditure items and revenue recognized in the results, as recognized by the directly in equity.(b) Conversion of assets and liabilities to an early Net-end exchange rate that is different from the type used in the previous closing. Such exchange differences are not recognized in profit or loss because of the variations in exchange rates have little or no direct effect on cash flows arising from current and future activities. When the above exchange differences relating to a business abroad that while consolidating, is not involved in its entirety, the cumulative exchange differences arising from the conversion that is attributable to the minority stake, will be allocated to it and be recognized as part of the minority interest in the consolidated balance sheet.10. When the entity's functional currency is that of a hyperinflationary economy, it will restate its financial statements before implementing the conversion method set out in paragraph 42, according to IAS 29 Financial reporting in hyperinflationary economies, except the comparative figures, in the case of conversion to the currency of a hyperinflationary economy.When the economy in question ceases to be hyperinflationary and the entity ceases to restate its financial statements in accordance with IAS 29, used as the historic costs to be converted to the presentation currency, the amounts restated according to the level of prices on the date that the entity ceased to do this restatement.11. When converting to a presentation currency, the results and financial position of a foreign operation, as a preliminary step to their inclusion in the financial statements of the reporting entity, whether through consolidation, or using the proportional consolidation method of Participation will apply paragraphs 45 to 47, in addition to the provisions of paragraphs 38 to 10.The incorporation of the results and financial position of a foreign operation to the reporting entity will follow the normal procedures of consolidation, such as the elimination of intra-group transactions and balances of a dependent (see IAS 27 States Consolidated and separate financial and IAS 31 Interests in joint ventures). However, an asset (or liability) intragroup money, either short or long term, it may not be eliminated against the corresponding liability (or asset) Intra, without showing the results of changes in exchange rates within the states Consolidated Financial. This is because the monetary item represents a commitment to convert one currency into another, which exposes the reporting entity at a loss or gain on exchange fluctuations between the currencies. In line with this, in the consolidated financial statements of the reporting entity, the exchange difference should continue to be recognized in profit or loss, or, if they arise from the circumstances described in paragraph 32, is classified as a component of equity until the disposition or disposal by other means business abroad.12. When the financial statements of business abroad and the reporting entity are referred to different dates, he often produces additional financial statements with the same date as this one. When it is not, IAS 27 allows the use of different dates of submission, provided that the difference is not greater than three months, and have performed the appropriate adjustments to reflect the effects of significant transactions and other events that occurred between the dates reference. In this case, the assets and liabilities of the business abroad will be converted at the rate of the balance sheet date business abroad.It was also carried out the appropriate adjustments for significant variations in exchange rates until the balance sheet date of the reporting entity, in accordance with IAS 27.Disposition or disposal by other means of a foreign13. To alienate or otherwise dispose of a foreign operation, exchange differences deferred as a component of shareholders' equity, related to that business abroad, be recognized in the results at the same time they recognize the outcome of the alienation or disposition.It may have all or part of their participation in a business abroad through the sale,liquidation, recovery of capital contributed or neglect. The receipt of a dividend will be part of this provision only if it constitutes a recovery in investment, for example when it is paid from income in prior years to the acquisition. In the case of disposal or partial disposal, only included in the result of the exercise, the proportionate share of the difference in accumulated corresponding conversion. The correction of the value of a business abroad will not constitute a sale or partial disposal. Accordingly, at the time of accounting for this correction, shall not be recognized in profit or loss accrued no difference conversion.Source:（Excerpt from）International Accounting Standard No 21 (IAS 21)，International Accounting Standards Board 1993译文：国际会计准则第21号外汇汇率变动的影响（1993年12月修订）目的企业可以用两种方式从事对外的活动。

The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be re placed by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.I.. INTRODUCTIONBased on international-accounting-convergence approach, the Ministry of Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the International Financial Reporting Standards (hereinafter referred to as “the International Standards”) for reference. The Enterprise Accounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively. The objective of accounting reformation following-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advanced theory for reference, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thorough evaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards, this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of accounting regulations.II. OPTIMIZA TION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTA TIONAs an important management activity, accounting should make use of information systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic management and macro-economic regulation at the same time. Optimization of financial statements system should try to take all aspects of the demands of the financial statements in both macro and micro level into account.Why do companies need to prepare financial statements? Whose demands should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questions are basic issues we should consider on the optimization of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evidence are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". From the perspective of "private interest", security investors and financial regulatory authoritieshope that financial statements reflect changes of market prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is the origin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statements can be compatible with these two different views and balance the public interest and private interest? To solve this problem, we design a new balance sheet and an income statement.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are introduced into China's accounting practices from international accounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives enriched the understanding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and standard-setters are also aware that International Standards are still in the process of developing .The purpose of proposing new formats of financial statements in this paper is to push forward the accounting reform into a deeper level on the basis of international convergence.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the financial statements are able to maintain their stability? It is necessary to mobilize the initiatives of both supply-side and demand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial statements could meet the demands of the macro-economic regulation and business administration, and whether they are popular with millions of accountants.Accountants are responsible for preparing financial statements and auditors are responsible for auditing. They will benefit from the implementation of the new financial statements.Firstly, for the accountants, under the isolated design of historical cost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Accounting process will not need assets impairment and fair value any longer. Accounting books will not record impairment and appreciation of assets any longer, for the historical cost accounting is comprehensively implemented. Fair value information will be recorded in accordance with assessment only at the balance sheet date and only in the annual financial statements. Historical cost accounting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustment. Accountants will not need to calculate the deferred income tax expense any longer, and the profit-after-tax in the solid line table is acknowledged by the Company Law, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not need to record the fair value information needed by security investors in the accounting books; instead, they only need to list the fair value information at the balance sheet date. In addition, because the data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of accountants can be well controlled. Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced, and the auditors’ review process will be greatly simplified. The independent auditors will not have to bear the considerable legal risk for the dotted-line table they audit, because the risk of fair value information has been prompted as "not supported by legalevidences". Accountants and auditors can quickly adapt to this financial statements system, without the need of training. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve management efficiency. Surveys show that the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of accounting and auditing have been substantially reduced, therefore, the total expenses for auditing and evaluation will not exceed current level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and demand-side, the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of financial statements, without increase the burden of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core concept of fair value is to make financial statements reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the current International Standards do not implement this concept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. China's accounting academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already introduced a mixed-attributes model into corporate financial statements.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we can balance public interests and private interests and can redesign the financial statements system with enhancing management efficiency and implementing higher-level laws as main objective. By presenting fair value and historical cost in one set of financial statements at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books according to domestic laws, but also meet the demand from financial regulatory authorities and security investorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial statements system which not only meets the domestic needs, but also converges with the International Standards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。

国际会计科目中英文对照Account帐户Accounting system会计系统AmericanAccountingAssociation美国会计协会AmericanInstituteofCPAs美国注册会计师协会Audit审计Balance sheet资产负债表Bookkeepking簿记Cash flow prospects现金流量预测Certificate in Internal Auditing内部审计证书CertificateinManagementAccounting管理会计证书Certificate Public Accountant注册会计师Cost accounting成本会计External users外部使用者Financial accounting财务会计Financial Accounting Standards Board财务会计准则委员会Financial forecast财务预测Generallyacceptedaccountingprinciples公认会计原则General-purpose information通用目的信息GovernmentAccountingOffice政府会计办公室Income statement损益表InstituteofInternalAuditors内部审计师协会InstituteofManagementAccountants管理会计师协会Integrity整合性Internal auditing内部审计Internal control structure内部控制结构Internal Revenue Service国内收入署Internal users内部使用者Management accounting管理会计Return of investment投资回报Return on investment投资报酬SecuritiesandExchangeCommission证券交易委员会Statement of cash flow现金流量表Statement of financial position财务状况表Tax accounting税务会计Accounting equation会计等式Articulation勾稽关系Assets资产Business entity企业个体Capital stock股本Corporation公司Cost principle成本原则Creditor债权人Deflation通货紧缩Disclosure批露Expenses费用Financial statement财务报表Financial activities筹资活动Going-concern assumption持续经营假设Inflation通货膨涨Investing activities投资活动Liabilities负债Negative cash flow负现金流量Operating activities经营活动Owners equity所有者权益Partnership合伙企业Positive cash flow正现金流量Retained earning留存利润Revenue收入Sole proprietorship独资企业Solvency清偿能力Stable-dollar assumption稳定货币假设Stockholders股东Stockholders equity股东权益Window dressing门面粉饰财会名词汉英对照表（1）会计与会计理论会计accounting决策人Decision Maker投资人Investor股东Shareholder债权人Creditor财务会计Financial Accounting管理会计Management Accounting成本会计Cost Accounting 私业会计Private Accounting公众会计Public Accounting注册会计师CPA Certified Public Accountant国际会计准则委员会IASC美国注册会计师协会AICPA财务会计准则委员会FASB管理会计协会IMA美国会计学会AAA税务稽核署IRS独资企业Proprietorship合伙人企业Partnership公司Corporation会计目标Accounting Objectives会计假设Accounting Assumptions会计要素Accounting Elements会计原则Accounting Principles会计实务过程Accounting Procedures财务报表Financial Statements财务分析Financial Analysis会计主体假设Separate-entity Assumption 货币计量假设Unit-of-measure Assumption 持续经营假设Continuity（Going-concern）Assumption会计分期假设Time-period Assumption资产Asset负债Liability业主权益Owners Equity收入Revenue费用Expense收益Income亏损Loss历史成本原则Cost Principle收入实现原则Revenue Principle配比原则Matching Principle全面披露原则Full-disclosure（Reporting）Principle客观性原则Objective Principle一致性原则Consistent Principle可比性原则Comparability Principle重大性原则Materiality Principle稳健性原则Conservatism Principle权责发生制Accrual Basis现金收付制Cash Basis财务报告Financial Report流动资产Current assets流动负债Current Liabilities 长期负债Long-term Liabilities投入资本Contributed Capital留存收益Retained Earning（2）会计循环会计循环Accounting Procedure/Cycle会计信息系统AccountinginformationSystem帐户Ledger会计科目Account会计分录Journal entry原始凭证Source Document日记帐Journal总分类帐General Ledger明细分类帐Subsidiary Ledger试算平衡Trial Balance现金收款日记帐Cash receipt journal现金付款日记帐Cash disbursements journal销售日记帐Sales Journal购货日记帐Purchase Journal普通日记帐General Journal工作底稿Worksheet调整分录Adjusting entries结帐Closing entries（3）现金与应收帐款现金Cash银行存款Cash in bank库存现金Cash in hand流动资产Current assets偿债基金Sinking fund定额备用金Imprest petty cash支票Check（cheque）银行对帐单Bank statement银行存款调节表Bankreconciliationstatement在途存款Outstanding deposit在途支票Outstanding check应付凭单Vouchers payable应收帐款Account receivable应收票据Note receivable起运点交货价F.O.B shipping point目的地交货价F.O.B destination point商业折扣Trade discount现金折扣Cash discount销售退回及折让Sales return and allowance坏帐费用Bad debt expense备抵法Allowance method备抵坏帐Bad debt allowance损益表法Income statement approach资产负债表法Balance sheet approach 帐龄分析法Aging analysis method直接冲销法Direct write-off method 带息票据Interest bearing note不带息票据Non-interest bearing note 出票人Maker受款人Payee本金Principal利息率Interest rate到期日Maturity date本票Promissory note贴现Discount背书Endorse拒付费Protest fee（4）存货存货Inventory商品存货Merchandise inventory产成品存货Finished goods inventory 在产品存货Work in process inventory 原材料存货Raw materials inventory 起运地离岸价格F.O.B shipping point目的地抵岸价格F.O.B destination寄销Consignment寄销人Consignor承销人Consignee定期盘存Periodic inventory永续盘存Perpetual inventory购货Purchase购货折让和折扣Purchaseallowanceanddiscounts存货盈余或短缺Inventoryoveragesandshortages分批认定法Specific identification加权平均法Weighted average先进先出法First-in, first-out or FIFO后进先出法Lost-in, first-out or LIFO移动平均法Moving average 成本或市价孰低法Lowerofcostormarketor LCM市价Market value重置成本Replacement cost可变现净值Net realizable value上限Upper limit下限Lower limit毛利法Gross margin method零售价格法Retail method成本率Cost ratio（5）长期投资长期投资Long-term investment长期股票投资Investment on stocks长期债券投资Investment on bonds成本法Cost method权益法Equity method合并法Consolidation method股利宣布日Declaration date股权登记日Date of record除息日Ex-dividend date付息日Payment date债券面值Face value, Par value债券折价Discount on bonds债券溢价Premium on bonds票面利率Contract interest rate, stated rate市场利率Market interest ratio, Effective rate普通股Common Stock优先股Preferred Stock现金股利Cash dividends股票股利Stock dividends清算股利Liquidating dividends到期日Maturity date到期值Maturity value直线摊销法Straight-Linemethodofamortization实际利息摊销法Effective-interestmethodof amortization（6）固定资产固定资产Plant assets or Fixed assets原值Original value预计使用年限Expected useful life预计残?nbsp;Estimated residual value 折旧费用Depreciation expense累计折旧Accumulated depreciation帐面价值Carrying value应提折旧成本Depreciation cost净值Net value在建工程Construction-in-process磨损Wear and tear过时Obsolescence直线法Straight-line method（SL）工作量法Units-of-productionmethod（UOP）加速折旧法Accelerateddepreciationmethod双倍余额递减法Double-decliningbalance method（DDB）年数总和法Sum-of-the-years-digitsmethod （SYD）以旧换新Trade in经营租赁Operating lease融资租赁Capital lease廉价购买权Bargain purchase option（BPO）资产负债表外筹资Off-balance-sheet financing最低租赁付款额Minimum lease payments （7）无形资产无形资产Intangible assets专利权Patents商标权Trademarks, Trade names著作权Copyrights特许权或专营权Franchises商誉Goodwill开办费Organization cost租赁权Leasehold摊销Amortization（8）流动负债负债Liability流动负债Current liability应付帐款Account payable应付票据Notes payable贴现票据Discount notes长期负债一年内到期部分Currentmaturities of long-term liabilities应付股利Dividends payable预收收益Prepayments by customers存入保证金Refundable deposits应付费用Accrual expense增值税value added tax营业税Business tax应付所得税Income tax payable应付奖金Bonuses payable产品质量担保负债Estimatedliabilitiesunder product warranties赠品和兑换券Premiums,couponsandtrading stamps或有事项Contingency或有负债Contingent或有损失Loss contingencies或有利得Gain contingencies永久性差异Permanent difference时间性差异Timing difference应付税款法Taxes payable method纳税影响会计法Taxeffectaccountingmethod递延所得税负债法Deferredincometaxliability method（9）长期负债长期负债Long-term Liabilities应付公司债券Bonds payable有担保品的公司债券Secured Bonds抵押公司债券Mortgage Bonds 保证公司债券Guaranteed Bonds信用公司债券Debenture Bonds一次还本公司债券Term Bonds分期还本公司债券Serial Bonds可转换公司债券Convertible Bonds可赎回公司债券Callable Bonds 可要求公司债券Redeemable Bonds记名公司债券Registered Bonds 无记名公司债券Coupon Bonds普通公司债券Ordinary Bonds收益公司债券Income Bonds名义利率，票面利率Nominal rate实际利率Actual rate有效利率Effective rate溢价Premium折价Discount面值Par value直线法Straight-line method实际利率法Effective interest method 到期直接偿付Repayment at maturity 提前偿付Repayment at advance偿债基金Sinking fund长期应付票据Long-term notes payable 抵押借款Mortgage loan（10）业主权益权益Equity业主权益Owners equity股东权益Stockholders equity投入资本Contributed capital缴入资本Paid-in capital股本Capital stock资本公积Capital surplus留存收益Retained earnings核定股本Authorized capital stock实收资本Issued capital stock发行在外股本Outstanding capital stock 库藏股Treasury stock普通股Common stock优先股Preferred stock累积优先股Cumulative preferred stock非累积优先股Noncumulativepreferredstock完全参加优先股Fullyparticipatingpreferred stock部分参加优先股Partiallyparticipating preferred stock非部分参加优先股Nonpartially participating preferred stock现金发行Issuance for cash非现金发行Issuancefornoncash consideration股票的合并发行Lump-sum sales of stock发行成本Issuance cost成本法Cost method面值法Par value method捐赠资本Donated capital盈余分配Distribution of earnings股利Dividend 股利政策Dividend policy宣布日Date of declaration股权登记日Date of record除息日Ex-dividend date股利支付日Date of payment现金股利Cash dividend股票股利Stock dividend拨款appropriation（11）财务报表财务报表Financial Statement资产负债表Balance Sheet收益表Income Statement帐户式Account Form报告式Report Form编制（报表）Prepare工作底稿Worksheet多步式Multi-step单步式Single-step（12）财务状况变动表财务状况变动表中的现金基础SCFP.CashBasis（现金流量表）财务状况变动表中的营运资金基础SCFP.Working Capital Basis （资金来源与运用表）营运资金Working Capital全部资源概念All-resources concept直接:)业务Direct exchanges正常营业活动Normal operating activities财务活动Financing activities 投资活动Investing activities（13）财务报表分析财务报表分析Analysisoffinancialstatements比较财务报表Comparativefinancialstatements趋势百分比Trend percentage比率Ratios普通股每股收益Earningspershareofcommon stock股利收益率Dividend yield ratio价益比Price-earnings ratio普通股每股帐面价值Bookvaluepershareof common stock资本报酬率Return on investment总资产报酬率Return on total asset债券收益率Yield rate on bonds已获利息倍数Numberoftimesinterestearned债券比率Debt ratio优先股收益率Yield rate on preferred stock营运资本Working Capital周转Turnover存货周转率Inventory turnover应收帐款周转率Accountsreceivable turnover流动比率Current ratio速动比率Quick ratio酸性试验比率Acid test ratio （14）合并财务报表合并财务报表Consolidatedfinancial statements吸收合并Merger创立合并Consolidation控股公司Parent company附属公司Subsidiary company少数股权Minority interest权益联营合并Pooling of interest购买合并Combination by purchase 权益法Equity method成本法Cost method（15）物价变动中的会计计量物价变动之会计Price-levelchangesaccounting一般物价水平会计Generalprice-levelaccounting货币购买力会计Purchasing-poweraccounting统一币值会计Constant dollar accounting历史成本Historical cost现行价值会计Current value accounting现行成本Current cost重置成本Replacement cost物价指数Price-level index国民生产总值物价指数Grossnationalproductimplicitpricedeflator （orGNPdeflator）消费物价指数Consumer price index（or CPI）批发物价指数Wholesale price index货币性资产Monetary assets货币性负债Monetary liabilities货币购买力损益Purchasing-powergainsorlosses资产持有损益Holding gains or losses未实现的资产持有损益Unrealizedholdinggains or losses现行价值与统一币值会计Constantdollarand current cost accounting21/ 21。

国际会计中英文对照第一篇：国际会计中英文对照国际会计科目中英文对照 Account 帐户Accounting system 会计系统American Accounting Association 美国会计协会American Institute of CPAs 美国注册会计师协会Audit 审计Balance sheet 资产负债表Bookkeepking 簿记Cash flow prospects 现金流量预测Certificate in Internal Auditing 内部审计证书Certificate in Management Accounting 管理会计证书Certificate Public Accountant注册会计师Cost accounting 成本会计External users 外部使用者Financial accounting 财务会计Financial Accounting Standards Board 财务会计准则委员会Financial forecast 财务预测Generally accepted accounting principles 公认会计原则General-purpose information 通用目的信息Government Accounting Office 政府会计办公室Income statement 损益表Institute of Internal Auditors 内部审计师协会Institute of Management Accountants 管理会计师协会Integrity 整合性Internal auditing 内部审计Internal control structure 内部控制结构Internal Revenue Service 国内收入署Internal users 内部使用者Management accounting 管理会计Return of investment 投资回报Return on investment 投资报酬Securities and Exchange Commission 证券交易委员会Statement of cash flow 现金流量表Statement of financial position 财务状况表Tax accounting 税务会计Accounting equation 会计等式Articulation 勾稽关系Assets 资产Business entity 企业个体Capital stock 股本Corporation 公司Cost principle 成本原则Creditor 债权人Deflation 通货紧缩Disclosure 批露Expenses 费用Financial statement 财务报表Financial activities 筹资活动Going-concern assumption 持续经营假设Inflation 通货膨涨Investing activities 投资活动Liabilities 负债Negative cash flow 负现金流量Operating activities 经营活动Owners equity 所有者权益Partnership 合伙企业Positive cash flow 正现金流量Retained earning 留存利润Revenue 收入Sole proprietorship 独资企业Solvency 清偿能力Stable-dollar assumption 稳定货币假设Stockholders 股东Stockholders equity 股东权益Window dressing 门面粉饰财会名词汉英对照表（1）会计与会计理论会计accounting决策人Decision Maker投资人Investor股东Shareholder债权人Creditor财务会计Financial Accounting管理会计Management Accounting成本会计Cost Accounting私业会计Private Accounting公众会计 Public Accounting注册会计师 CPA Certified Public Accountant 国际会计准则委员会IASC美国注册会计师协会AICPA财务会计准则委员会FASB管理会计协会IMA美国会计学会AAA税务稽核署IRS独资企业Proprietorship合伙人企业 Partnership公司 Corporation 会计目标Accounting Objectives会计假设Accounting Assumptions会计要素 Accounting Elements会计原则 Accounting Principles会计实务过程 Accounting Procedures财务报表 Financial Statements财务分析Financial Analysis会计主体假设 Separate-entity Assumption货币计量假设 Unit-of-measure Assumption持续经营假设Continuity（Going-concern）Assumption 会计分期假设 Time-period Assumption资产 Asset负债 Liability业主权益Owners Equity收入Revenue费用Expense收益Income亏损 Loss历史成本原则 Cost Principle收入实现原则 Revenue Principle配比原则 Matching Principle全面披露原则Full-disclosure（Reporting）Principle客观性原则 Objective Principle一致性原则 Consistent Principle可比性原则Comparability Principle重大性原则 Materiality Principle稳健性原则Conservatism Principle权责发生制Accrual Basis现金收付制Cash Basis财务报告 Financial Report流动资产 Current assets流动负债Current Liabilities长期负债Long-term Liabilities投入资本Contributed Capital留存收益 Retained Earning（2）会计循环会计循环Accounting Procedure/Cycle会计信息系统Accounting information System帐户 Ledger会计科目 Account会计分录 Journal entry原始凭证 Source Document日记帐 Journal 总分类帐 General Ledger明细分类帐 Subsidiary Ledger试算平衡 Trial Balance现金收款日记帐Cash receipt journal现金付款日记帐Cash disbursements journal销售日记帐Sales Journal购货日记帐Purchase Journal普通日记帐 General Journal工作底稿 Worksheet 调整分录 Adjusting entries结帐 Closing entries（3）现金与应收帐款现金 Cash银行存款 Cash in bank库存现金 Cash in hand流动资产 Current assets偿债基金Sinking fund定额备用金Imprest petty cash支票Check（cheque）银行对帐单 Bank statement银行存款调节表Bank reconciliation statement 在途存款Outstanding deposit在途支票Outstanding check应付凭单Vouchers payable应收帐款Account receivable应收票据Note receivable起运点交货价F.O.B shipping point目的地交货价F.O.B destination point商业折扣 Trade discount现金折扣 Cash discount 销售退回及折让 Sales return and allowance坏帐费用 Bad debtexpense备抵法 Allowance method备抵坏帐 Bad debt allowance 损益表法 Income statement approach资产负债表法 Balance sheet approach帐龄分析法Aging analysis method直接冲销法Direct write-off method带息票据 Interest bearing note不带息票据 Non-interest bearing note出票人 Maker受款人 Payee本金 Principal利息率 Interest rate到期日 Maturity date本票Promissory note贴现Discount背书Endorse拒付费Protest fee（4）存货存货 Inventory商品存货Merchandise inventory产成品存货Finished goods inventory在产品存货 Work in process inventory原材料存货 Raw materials inventory起运地离岸价格 F.O.B shipping point目的地抵岸价格 F.O.B destination寄销 Consignment寄销人 Consignor承销人 Consignee定期盘存Periodic inventory永续盘存Perpetual inventory购货 Purchase购货折让和折扣 Purchase allowance and discounts 存货盈余或短缺Inventory overages and shortages 分批认定法Specific identification加权平均法Weighted average先进先出法First-in, first-out or FIFO后进先出法Lost-in, first-out or LIFO移动平均法Moving average成本或市价孰低法 Lower of cost or market or LCM 市价 Market value重置成本 Replacement cost可变现净值 Net realizable value上限 Upper limit下限 Lower limit毛利法 Gross margin method零售价格法 Retail method成本率 Cost ratio（5）长期投资长期投资 Long-term investment长期股票投资 Investment on stocks长期债券投资 Investment on bonds成本法 Cost method权益法Equity method合并法Consolidation method股利宣布日Declaration date股权登记日Date of record除息日Ex-dividenddate付息日 Payment date债券面值 Face value, Par value债券折价 Discount on bonds债券溢价 Premium on bonds票面利率 Contract interest rate, stated rate市场利率 Market interest ratio, Effective rate普通股Common Stock优先股Preferred Stock现金股利 Cash dividends股票股利 Stock dividends 清算股利Liquidating dividends到期日Maturity date到期值Maturity value直线摊销法 Straight-Line method of amortization实际利息摊销法 Effective-interest method of amortization（6）固定资产固定资产 Plant assets or Fixed assets原值 Original value预计使用年限Expected useful life预计残?nbsp;Estimated residual value折旧费用Depreciation expense累计折旧Accumulated depreciation帐面价值Carrying value应提折旧成本Depreciation cost净值 Net value在建工程Construction-in-process磨损Wear and tear过时Obsolescence直线法 Straight-line method（SL）工作量法Units-of-production method（UOP）加速折旧法Accelerated depreciation method双倍余额递减法 Double-declining balance method（DDB）年数总和法 Sum-of-the-years-digits method（SYD）以旧换新 Trade in经营租赁 Operating lease融资租赁 Capital lease廉价购买权Bargain purchase option（BPO）资产负债表外筹资Off-balance-sheet financing最低租赁付款额Minimum lease payments（7）无形资产无形资产 Intangible assets专利权 Patents商标权 Trademarks, Trade names著作权 Copyrights特许权或专营权 Franchises商誉 Goodwill开办费 Organization cost租赁权 Leasehold摊销 Amortization （8）流动负债负债 Liability流动负债 Current liability应付帐款 Account payable应付票据Notes payable贴现票据 Discount notes长期负债一年内到期部分Current maturities of long-term liabilities应付股利Dividends payable预收收益Prepayments by customers存入保证金Refundable deposits应付费用Accrual expense增值税 value added tax营业税 Business tax应付所得税 Income tax payable应付奖金 Bonuses payable产品质量担保负债Estimated liabilities under product warranties赠品和兑换券 Premiums, coupons and trading stamps或有事项 Contingency或有负债 Contingent或有损失 Loss contingencies 或有利得 Gain contingencies永久性差异 Permanent difference时间性差异 Timing difference应付税款法 Taxes payable method 纳税影响会计法 Tax effect accounting method递延所得税负债法 Deferred income tax liability method（9）长期负债长期负债 Long-term Liabilities应付公司债券 Bonds payable有担保品的公司债券Secured Bonds抵押公司债券Mortgage Bonds 保证公司债券Guaranteed Bonds信用公司债券Debenture Bonds 一次还本公司债券 Term Bonds分期还本公司债券 Serial Bonds可转换公司债券 Convertible Bonds可赎回公司债券 Callable Bonds 可要求公司债券Redeemable Bonds记名公司债券Registered Bonds无记名公司债券Coupon Bonds普通公司债券Ordinary Bonds收益公司债券Income Bonds名义利率，票面利率Nominal rate实际利率 Actual rate有效利率 Effective rate溢价 Premium折价 Discount面值 Par value直线法 Straight-line method实际利率法Effective interest method到期直接偿付Repayment at maturity提前偿付 Repayment at advance偿债基金Sinking fund长期应付票据Long-term notes payable抵押借款Mortgage loan（10）业主权益权益 Equity业主权益 Owners equity股东权益 Stockholders equity投入资本 Contributed capital缴入资本 Paid-in capital股本 Capital stock 资本公积Capital surplus留存收益Retained earnings核定股本Authorized capital stock实收资本 Issued capital stock 发行在外股本 Outstanding capital stock库藏股 Treasury stock 普通股 Common stock优先股 Preferred stock累积优先股Cumulative preferred stock非累积优先股Noncumulative preferred stock完全参加优先股 Fully participating preferred stock部分参加优先股Partially participating preferred stock非部分参加优先股 Nonpartially participating preferred stock 现金发行 Issuance for cash非现金发行 Issuance for noncash consideration股票的合并发行Lump-sum sales of stock发行成本Issuance cost成本法Cost method面值法 Par value method捐赠资本 Donated capital盈余分配 Distribution of earnings股利 Dividend股利政策 Dividend policy宣布日 Date of declaration股权登记日Date of record除息日Ex-dividend date股利支付日Date of payment现金股利Cash dividend股票股利Stock dividend拨款appropriation（11）财务报表财务报表Financial Statement资产负债表Balance Sheet收益表 Income Statement帐户式 Account Form报告式 Report Form编制（报表）Prepare工作底稿Worksheet多步式Multi-step单步式Single-step（12）财务状况变动表财务状况变动表中的现金基础 SCFP.Cash Basis（现金流量表）财务状况变动表中的营运资金基础 SCFP.Working Capital Basis（资金来源与运用表）营运资金 Working Capital全部资源概念All-resources concept直接:)业务Direct exchanges正常营业活动 Normal operating activities财务活动 Financing activities投资活动 Investing activities（13）财务报表分析财务报表分析Analysis of financial statements比较财务报表Comparative financial statements趋势百分比 Trend percentage比率 Ratios普通股每股收益 Earnings per share of common stock股利收益率 Dividend yield ratio价益比 Price-earnings ratio普通股每股帐面价值 Book value per share of common stock 资本报酬率Return on investment总资产报酬率Return on total asset债券收益率 Yield rate on bonds已获利息倍数 Number of times interest earned债券比率 Debt ratio优先股收益率 Yield rate on preferred stock营运资本 Working Capital周转 Turnover存货周转率 Inventory turnover应收帐款周转率Accounts receivable turnover流动比率Current ratio速动比率 Quick ratio酸性试验比率 Acid test ratio（14）合并财务报表合并财务报表Consolidated financial statements吸收合并Merger创立合并Consolidation控股公司Parent company附属公司Subsidiary company少数股权Minority interest权益联营合并Pooling of interest购买合并Combination by purchase权益法Equity method成本法 Cost method（15）物价变动中的会计计量物价变动之会计Price-level changes accounting一般物价水平会计General price-level accounting货币购买力会计Purchasing-power accounting统一币值会计 Constant dollar accounting历史成本 Historical cost现行价值会计 Current value accounting现行成本 Current cost 重置成本 Replacement cost物价指数 Price-level index 国民生产总值物价指数Gross national product implicit price deflator（or GNP deflator）消费物价指数Consumer price index（or CPI）批发物价指数Wholesale price index货币性资产Monetary assets货币性负债Monetary liabilities货币购买力损益 Purchasing-power gains or losses资产持有损益 Holding gains or losses未实现的资产持有损益 Unrealized holding gains or losses现行价值与统一币值会计 Constant dollar and current cost accounting 第二篇：中英文对照A《美国口语惯用法例句集粹》ＡA(Page 1-4)1.about1)2)3)4)5)6)7)I'd like to know what this is all about.我想知道这到底是怎么回事。

The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management Theory基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法Abstract—This paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be replaced by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.摘要——本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。

国际财务报告准则（IFRS）的根本缺陷是由公平价值核算和资产减值核算。

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文:译文（一）世界贸易的飞速发展和国际资本的快速流动将世界经济带入了全球化时代。

在这个时代, 任何一个国家要脱离世界贸易市场和资本市场谋求自身发展是非常困难的。

会计作为国际通用的商业语言, 在经济全球化过程中扮演着越来越重要的角色, 市场参与者也对其提出越来越高的要求。

随着市场经济体制的逐步建立和完善，有些国家加入世贸组织后国际化进程的加快，市场开放程度的进一步增强，市场经济发育过程中不可避免的各种财务问题的出现，迫切需要完善的会计准则加以规范。

然而，在会计准则制定过程中，有必要认真思考理清会计准则的概念，使制定的会计准则规范准确、方便操作、经济实用。

由于各国家的历史、环境、经济发展等方面的不同,导致目前世界所使用的会计准则在很多方面都存在着差异,这使得各国家之间的会计信息缺乏可比性,本国信息为外国家信息使用者所理解的成本较高,在很大程度上阻碍了世界国家间资本的自由流动。

近年来,许多国家的会计管理部门和国家性的会计、经济组织都致力于会计准则的思考和研究,力求制定出一套适于各个不同国家和经济环境下的规范一致的会计准则,以增强会计信息的可比性,减少国家各之间经济交往中信息转换的成本。

译文（二）会计准则就是会计管理活动所依据的原则, 会计准则总是以一定的社会经济背景为其存在基础, 也总是反映不同社会经济制度、法律制度以及人们习惯的某些特征, 因而不同国家的会计准则各有不同特点。

但是会计准则毕竟是经济发展对会计规范提出的客观要求。

它与社会经济发展水平和会计管理的基本要求是相适应的,因而,每个国家的会计准则必然具有某些共性:1. 规范性每个企业有着变化多端的经济业务,而不同行业的企业又有各自的特殊性。

而有了会计准则,会计人员在进行会计核算时就有了一个共同遵循的标准,各行各业的会计工作可在同一标准的基础上进行,从而使会计行为达到规范化,使得会计人员提供的会计信息具有广泛的一致性和可比性,大大提高了会计信息的质量。

外文翻译--国际会计准则第36号-资产减值本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文题目 International Accounting Standard 36外文出处 International Accounting Standard原文：International Accounting Standard 36 Impairment of AssetsObjective1. The objective of this Standard is to prescribe the procedures that an entity applies to ensure that its assets are carried at no more than their recoverable amount. An asset is carried at more than its recoverable amount if its carrying amount exceeds the amount to be recovered through use or sale of the asset. If this is the case, the asset is described as impaired and the Standard requires the entity to recognise an impairment loss. The Standard also specifies when an entity should reverse an impairment loss and prescribes disclosures.Scope2. This Standard shall be applied in accounting for the impairment of all assets, other than:a inventories see IAS 2 Inventories ;b assets arising from construction contracts see IAS 11 Construction Contracts ;c deferred tax assets see IAS 12 Income Taxes ;d assets arising from employee benefits see IAS 19 Employee Benefits ;e financial assets that are within the scope of IAS 32 Financial Instruments.f investment property that is measured at fair value see IAS 40 Investment Property ;g biological assets related to agricultural activity that are measured at fair value less costs to sell see IAS 41 Agriculture ;h deferred acquisition costs, and intangible assets, arising from an insurer’s contractual r ights under insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts; andi non-current assets or disposal groups classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations.3. This Standard does not apply to inventories, assets arising from construction contracts, deferred tax assets, assets arising from employee benefits, or assets classified as held for sale or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale, because existing IFRSs applicable to these assets contain requirements for recognising andmeasuring these assets.4. This Standard applies to financial assets classified as:a subsidiaries, as defined in IAS 27 Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements;b associates, as defined in IAS 28 Investments in Associates; andc joint ventures, as defined in IAS 31 Interests in Joint Ventures.For impairment of other financial assets, refer to IAS 39.5. This Standard does not apply to financial assets within the scope of IFRS 9, investment property measured at fair value in accordance with IAS 40, or biological assets related to agricultural activity measured at fair value less costs to sell in accordance with IAS 41. However, this Standard applies to assets that are carried at revalued amount ie fair value in accordance with other IFRSs, such as the revaluation model in IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment. Identifying whether a revalued asset may be impaired depends on the basis used to determine fair value:a if the asset’s fair value is its market value, the only difference between the asset’s fair value and its fair value less costs to sell is the direct incremental costs to dispose of the asset:i if the disposal costs are negligible, the recoverable amount of the revalued asset is necessarily close to, or greater than, its revalued amount ie fair value . In this case, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, it is unlikely that the revalued asset is impaired andrecoverable amount need not be estimated.ii if the disposal costs are not negligible, the fair value less costs to sell of the revalued asset is necessarily less than its fair value. Therefore, the revalued asset will be impaired if its value in use is less than its revalued amount ie fair value . In this case, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, an entity applies this Standard to determine whether the asset may be impaired.b if the asset s fair value is determined on a basis other than its market value,its revalued amount ie fair value may be greater or lower than its recoverable amount. Hence, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, an entity applies this Standard to determine whether the asset may be impaired.Definitions6. The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised after deducting any accumulated depreciation amortisation and accumulated impairment losses thereon.A cash-generating unit is the smallest identifiable group of assets that generates cash inflows that are largely independent of the cash inflows from other assets or groups of assets.Corporate assets are assets other than goodwill that contribute tothe future cash flows of both the cash-generating unit under review and other cash-generating units.Costs of disposal are incremental costs directly attributable to the disposal of an asset or cash-generating unit, excluding finance costs and income tax expense.Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost in the financial statements, less its residual value.Depreciation Amortisation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its useful life.Fair value less costs to sell is the amount obtainable from the sale of an asset or cash-generating unit in an arm’s length transaction between knowledgeable, willing parties, less the costs of disposal.An impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset or a cash-generating unit exceeds its recoverable amount.The recoverable amount of an asset or a cash-generating unit is the higher of its fair value less costs to sell and its value in use.Useful life is either:a the period of time over which an asset is expected to be used by the entity; orb the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by the entity.Value in use is the present value of the future cash flows expectedto be derived from an asset or cash-generating unit.Identifying an asset that may be impaired7. Paragraphs 8 17 specify when recoverable amount shall be determined. These requirements use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset or a cash-generating unit. The remainder of this Standard is structured as follows:a paragraphs 18 57 set out the requirements for measuring recoverable amount. These requirements also use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset and a cash-generating unit.b paragraphs 58 108 set out the requirements for recognising and measuring impairment losses. Recognition and measurement of impairment losses for individual assets other than goodwill are dealt with in paragraphs 58 64.Paragraphs 65 108 deal with the recognition and measurement of impairment losses for cash-generating units and goodwill.In the case of an intangible asset, the term ‘amortisation’ is generally used instead of ‘depreciation’. The two terms have the same meaning.c paragraphs 109 116 set out the requirements for reversing an impairment loss recognised in prior periods for an asset or a cash-generating unit. Again, these requirements use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset or a cash-generating unit.Additional requirements for an individual asset are set out in paragraphs 117 121, for a cash-generating unit in paragraphs 122 and 123, and for goodwill in paragraphs 124 and 125.d paragraphs 126 133 specify the information to be disclosed about impairment losses and reversals of impairment losses for assets and cash-generating units. Paragraphs 134 137 specify additional disclosure requirements for cash-generating units to which goodwill or intangible assets with indefinite useful lives have been allocated for impairment testing purposes.8. An entity shall assess at the end of each reporting period whether there is any indication that an asset may be impaired. If any such indication exists, the entity shall estimate the recoverable amount of the asset.9. In assessing whether there is any indication that an asset may be impaired, an entity shall consider, as a minimum, the following indications:External sources of informationa during the period, an asset’s market value has declined significantly more than would be expected as a result of the passage of time or normal use;b significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place during the period, or will take place in the near future, inthe technological, market, economic or legal environment in which the entity operates or in the market to which an asset is dedicated;c market interest rates or other market rates of return on investments have increased during the period, and those increases are likely to affect the discount rate used in calculating an asset’s value in use and decrease the asset’s recoverable amount materially;d the carrying amount of the net assets of the entity is more than its market capitalisation.Internal sources of informatione evidence is available of obsolescence or physical damage of an asset.f significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place during the period, or are expected to take place in the near future, in the extent to which, or manner in which, an asset is used or is expected to be used. These changes include the asset becoming idle, plans to discontinue or restructure the operation to which an asset belongs, plans to dispose of an asset before the previously expected date, and reassessing the useful life of an asset as finite rather than indefinite.g evidence is available from internal reporting that indicates that the economic performance of an asset is, or will be, worse than expected.10. The list in paragraph 9 is not exhaustive. An entity may identifyother indications that an asset may be impaired and these would also require the entity to determine the asset’s recoverable amount.13 Evidence from internal reporting that indicates that an asset may be impaired includes the existence of:a cash flows for acquiring the asset, or subsequent cash needs for operating or maintaining it, that are significantly higher than those originally budgeted;b actual net cash flows or operating profit or loss flowing from the asset that are significantly worse than those budgeted;c a significant decline in budgeted net cash flows or operating profit, or a significant increase in budgeted loss, flowing from the asset;d operating losses or net cash outflows for the asset, when current period amounts are aggregated with budgeted amounts for the future.12. The concept of materiality applies in identifying whether the recoverable amount of an asset needs to be estimated. For example, if previous calculations show that an asset’ s recoverable amount is significantly greater than its carrying amount, the entity need not re-estimate the asset’ s recoverable amount if no events have occurred that would eliminate that difference. Similarly, previous analysis may show that an asset’s recoverable amount is not sensitive to one or more of the indications listed in paragraph 9.13 As an illustration of paragraph 12, if market interest rates or other market rates of return on investments have increased during the period, an entity is not required to make a formal estimate of an asset’ s recoverable amount in the following cases:a if the discount rate used in calculating the asset’ s value in use is unlikely to be affected by the increase in these market rates. For example, increases in short-term interest rates may not have a material effect on the discount rate used for an asset that has a long remaining useful life; orb if the discount rate used in calculating the asset’ s value in use is likely to be affected by the increase in these market rates but previous sensitivity analysis of recoverable amount shows that:i it is unlikely that there will be a material decrease in recoverable amount because future cash flows are also likely to increase eg in some cases, an entity may be able to demonstrate that it adjusts its revenues to compensate for any increase in market rates ; or ii the decrease in recoverable amount is unlikely to result in a material impairment loss.14. If there is an indication that an asset may be impaired, this may indicate that the remaining useful life, the depreciation amortisation method or the residual value for the asset needs to be reviewed and adjusted in accordance with the Standard applicable to the asset, evenif no impairment loss is recognised for the asset.From：IAS36，Impairment of Assets[S].译文：《国际会计准则第36号-资产减值》目的本准则的目的是，规定企业用以确保其资产以不超过可收回价值的金额进行计量的程序。

国际会计准则目录（中英文对照）1.IAS1：Presentation of Financial Statements《IAS1——财务报表的列报》2.IAS2：Inventories《IAS2——存货》3.IAS3：Consolidated Financial Statements《IAS3——合并财务报表》（已被IAS27和IAS28取代）4.IAS4：Depreciation Accounting《IAS4——折旧会计》（已被IAS16、IAS22和IAS38取代）5.IAS5：Information to Be Disclosed in Financial Statements《IAS5——财务报表中披露的信息》（已被IAS1取代）6.IAS6：Accounting Responses to Changing Prices《IAS6——物价变动会计》（已被IAS15取代）7.IAS7：Cash Flow Statements《IAS7——现金流量表》8.IAS8：Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors 《IAS8——当期净损益、重大差错和会计政策变更》9.IAS9：Accounting for Research and Development Activities《IAS9——研发活动会计》（已被IAS38取代）10.IAS10：Events after the Balance Sheet Date《IAS10——资产负债表日后事项》11.IAS11：Construction Contracts《IAS11——建造合同》12.IAS12：Income Taxes《IAS12——所得税》13.IAS13：Presentation of Current Assets and Current Liabilities 《IAS13——流动资产和流动负债的列报》（已被IAS1取代）14.IAS14：Segment Reporting《IAS14——分部报告》15.IAS15：Information Reflecting the Effects of Changing Prices 《IAS15——反映物价变动影响的信息》（2003年已被撤销）16.IAS16：Property, Plant and Equipment《IAS16——不动产、厂场和设备》17.IAS17：Leases《IAS17——租赁》18.IAS18：Revenue《IAS18——收入》19.IAS19：Employee Benefits《IAS19——雇员福利》20.IAS20：Accounting for Government Grants and Disclosure of Government Assistance《IAS20——政府补助会计和政府援助的披露》21.IAS21：The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates《IAS21——汇率变动的影响》22.IAS22：Business Combinations《IAS22——企业合并》（已被IFRS3取代）23.IAS23：Borrowing Costs《IAS23——借款费用》24.IAS24：Related Party Disclosures《IAS24——关联方披露》25.IAS25：Accounting for Investments《IAS25——投资会计》（已被IAS39 和IAS40取代）26.IAS26：Accounting and Reporting by Retirement Benefit Plans 《IAS26——退休福利计划的会计和报告》27.IAS27：Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements《IAS27——合并财务报表及对子公司投资会计》28.IAS28：Investments in Associates《IAS28——对联合企业投资会计》29.IAS29：Financial Reporting in Hyperinflationary Economies《IAS29——恶性通货膨胀经济中的财务报告》30.IAS30：Disclosures in the Financial Statements of Banks and Similar Financial Institutions《IAS30——银行和类似金融机构财务报表中的披露》31.IAS31：Interests in Joint Ventures《IAS31——合营中权益的财务报告》32.IAS32：Financial Instruments: Disclosure and Presentation 《IAS32——金融工具：披露和列报》33.IAS33：Earnings per Share《IAS33——每股收益》34.IAS34：Interim Financial Reporting《IAS34——中期财务报告》35.IAS35：Discontinuing Operations《IAS35——终止经营》（已被IFRS5取代）36.IAS36：Impairment of Assets《IAS36——资产减值》37.IAS37：Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets 《IAS37——准备、或有负债和或有资产》38.IAS38：Intangible Assets《IAS38——无形资产》39.IAS39：Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement 《IAS39——金融工具：确认和计量》40.IAS40：Investment Property《IAS40——投资性房地产》41.IAS41：Agriculture《IAS41——农业》。

外文翻译外文题目Accounting for share-based payment under NZ IFRS2 外文出处University of Auckland business review,spring2005,V ol,issue2,p39-46外文作者David Emanuel原文：Accounting for share-based payments under NZ IFRS-2I n essence this Standard deals with three primary issues. The first is where “payment” is by the issue of shares or other f orms of instrument. The second is where there is a cash payment, but the amount is derived from share values or a change in share values. And the third is where the provider of goods or services to an entity has a choice about whether he or she gets paid in cash or shares.As a practical matter, the major effect of this standard is on remuneration. Employees may receive part of their remuneration in restricted shares, share appreciation rights, or via share options. In the case of restricted shares the employee may not have to pay “fair value” for the shares. Schemes based on share appreciation involve the employee (eventually) receiving cash that is tied to changes in share prices. In the case of share options, the normal arrangement is that no money is exchanged when the option is granted, and if the option is exercised the grantee (i.e., the employee) pays the exercise price for the new shares that are issued.This article concentrates on the share option accounting, as share options are an international and pervasive form of remuneration, because share options have come in for some criticism, and options involve the use of equity instruments. It is important to note at the outset that some share-based payment schemes will involve the recognition of a liab ility, rather than the recognition of an item that affects “equity”. What are employee share options?A share option gives its holder the right but not the obligation to buy shares in thegranting company, on or before a specified date, and at an agreed price. For example, an employee might be given, at the “grant date”, the right to buy 1,000 shares in Company A at an exercise price of $5 per share, but only after a three-year time period (of waiting, while continuing to be employed) and only over the following two years. Technically, the option is a warrant, as most of the time new shares are created when the options are exercised. Senior employee share options (i.e., executive share options) agreements often have complicated performance aspects associated with them, for example the options can only be exercised if accounting rates of return reach certain targets, or provided the price of the shares on the share market exceeds some benchmark price by vesting date. Sometimes the exercise price might also ch ange. For example, the exercise price might increase at the company’s equity cost of capital, less dividends, each year, or the exercise price might be tied to an international industry index, like the Morgan Stanley Telecommunication Index, which might be appropriate for assessing the performance of companies like Telecom.Some companies issue restricted shares, but in a way that the shares are really options in disguise. For example a senior manager might be issued shares, which he or she has paid for through a loan made by the company to the employee. There is likely to be a restriction on the shares, for example they may not vest until say three years from grant date. However, the manager also holds a put option written by the company, with an exercise price equal to the subscription price of the shares. In sum, if the share price falls, the manager puts the shares back to the company, receives the cash, and pays off the loan. If the share price rises the manager throws the put away. Effectively the manager owns shares and a put, and has a loan from the company. It can easily be shown that this is equivalent to a call option, so executive stock option accounting would be applied even if this is not “technically”an option.In many practical cases options are issued with an exercise price that is close to the share price at the time of the initial grant. That is, options are frequently issued “at the money”. When the share price exceeds the exercise price the option is described as being “in the money”, and t he difference between the share price and the exercise price is described as the option’s intrinsic value. When the share price is less than theexercise price the option is “out of the money”, and the intrinsic value of the option is zero.Impact on compa nies’ profitsThe impact on New Zealand companies’ profits is likely to be quite small as typically employee options outstanding, if any, are a very small proportion of the total ordinary shares outstanding –in the order of 1% or 2% at most. However, in the US, and particularly in certain sectors of the economy, the impact of expensing options will be large. A Bear Stearns’ research team estimated that the impact on companies in the Standard and Poor’s 500 index would be to slice five percent off post-tax net income if those companies had expensed options in 2004. For the top 100 companies on the Nasdaq the impact would be 22% on average. The report indicated that Intel’s net income would have dropped 17% if it had expensed employee stock options and Cisco’s profit would have fallen 24%. Unsurprisingly, the information technology sector companies have been strongly opposed to expensing stock options. So have biotechnology companies. Many of the companies in these sectors will be start-ups, will have negative cash flow and hence will need to go back to financiers from time to time, and will rely extensively on options in remunerating employees. Those companies would not be enamoured with the prospect of reporting even bigger losses as a consequence of expensing options, as they might feel it will impact on their bility to raise additional capital. Further, they have argued that there is no satisfactory way to determine the fair value of the options in the first place.What does the new standard require?IFRS-2indicates that there is an amount that ought to be recognized as an expense. The expense is based on the fair value of the services provided, and if that cannot be done the expense is based on the fair value of the options granted. As it is virtually impossible to assess the fair value of the services provided by the employee, the normal method of determining expense is therefore going to be the fair value of the options actually granted. That is easier said than done, and some of the issues associated with the valuation of employee options are dealt with below.Paragraph 15 tells us over what period the expense associated with the options isrecognized. This is determined to be the vesting period, which in many New Zealand cases is the first two or three y ears of the option’s life. For example when Pumpkin Patch Limited made its initial public offering (IPO) in June 2004, about two million options were issued to senior employees with a vesting period of three years and an exercise period of the following two years. In essence the executives could exercise the options any time between June 2007 and June 2009, provided the market-based performance hurdle was reached. In that case the exercise price was the IPO price, but the options can only be exercised as long as the share price increased by Pumpkin Patch’s equity cost of capital, less dividends, over the vesting period. My estimate of the fair value of these options at grant date, each one of which converts into one share if exercised, is about $0.306 each. In aggregate this translates into a total expense of $600,000 to be recognized over the vesting period –say $200,000 per annum. In practice this calculation would actually be based on the expected number of options to be exercised, rather than the total number, as some options will lapse if employees resign, die, are made redundant, or are dismissed with cause. And obviously the expected number of options to be exercised could change over the vesting period, depending on what the share price was doing. For example in the case of Pumpkin Patch the share price at the time of writing is about $2.75 so the options are “deep in the money” but there is another two years to run before the options vest. Executives are less inclined to leave in this situation, than if the options were out of the money. Therefore, the accounting under IFRS-2 would require the recognition of an expense each year during the vesting period, with a corresponding credit to Equity, to an account likely to be called “Issued Capital (Options)”.Fair value of employee share optionsThe value of an option depends on six variables – the share price at the time, the exercise price, interest rates, time to run to expiry, the volatility of the returns on the underlying shares, and dividends expected to be paid during the life of the options. There are other factors that make the valuation more complex. The major one is that typically employee share options do not vest for a period of time, and then can be exercised at any time after service vesting, subject to any remaining performancehurdles being satisfied, and also subject to any insider trading provisions that may exist. Hence, employee share options are a mixture of European and American options (if they were traded on an exchange they would be known as Bermudan options). If the performance hurdles are market based (as in the Pumpkin Patch case) this, too, needs to be factored into the valuation.With traded options there is a simple rule –don’t exercise all options on non-dividend paying shares early. But while options on markets can be traded, employee share options lack liquidity. Liquidity is valuable, and the only (easy) way in which the managers can create liquidity is to exercise their rights and then sell the shares. So early exercise is common, perhaps motivated by the desire of the employees to diversify their wealth. Effectively they will be allocating some of the monetary wealth away from where their human capital is allocated. And this raises another issue – the employees may be assigning a value to the options that is less than the cost of the options to the company, creating a deadweight loss.All this suggests that valuing employee options is difficult and there is some considerable uncertainty in the final numbers. However they are likely to be a substantially better estimate than the estimate of expense used currently, which is zero. Further, the uncertainty is probably no greater than with other items that we take for granted – like the useful life of an asset for depreciation purposes.Most valuers will use some form of binomial option pricing model to determine “fair value”, and the binomial model can cope with most of the complexity that has been described above. Some will use the Black-Scholes-Merton optionpricing model, and use expected life (not total life) of the option in the formula.The more complicated the option, the more likely a binomial solution will be needed. From the company’s perspective, this will not come for free – firms will need to employ a financial expert to determine the initial fair value, every time the firm grants new options. Of course, it is acknowledged that firms do need to know what options are worth if they are part of a remuneration package, so it can be argued that the net incremental cost of having to “book” the amount into the accounting system is quite low.Concluding commentThe basic accounting for share based payments for remuneration is therefore quite simple –expense an amount over a vesting period. The main difficulties are associated with (a) determining a reliable fair value for the instrument, and (b) determining a reasonable estimate of the number of instruments that will not lapse during the vesting period. The former, fair value, is bound up in some reasonably sophisticated valuation procedures. The latter is a management-derived estimate that will depend upon internal judgments on a year-by-year basis, although by the end of the vesting period one will know how many options will vest. In my view the determination of the fair value will be the more difficult aspect. However, all leading firms of financial advisers will have experts in this area, and will have developed models that can satisfy most computational needs.David EmanuelUniversity of Auckland business review；spring2005,vol.1ssue 2,p39-46译文：国际会计准则2—股份支付下的会计计量股份支付准则大体上是解决这样三个主要的问题。

外文文献翻译一、外文原文原文：International Accounting Standard 40Investment Property Scope1 This Standard shall be applied in the recognition, measurement and disclosure of investment property.2 Investment property is held to earn rentals or for capital appreciation or both. Therefore, an investment property generates cash flows largely independently of the other assets held by an entity. This distinguishes investment property from owner-occupied property. The production or supply of goods or services (or the use of property for administrative purposes) generates cash flows that are attributable not only to property, but also to other assets used in the production or supply process. IAS3 Property, Plant and Equipment applies to owner-occupied property.Recognition15 Investment property shall be recognised as an asset when, and only when:(a) it is probable that the future economic benefits that are associated with the investment property will flow to the entity; and(b) the cost of the investment property can be measured reliably. Measurement at recognition4 An investment property shall be measured initially at its cost. Transaction costs shall be included in the initial measurement.5 The cost of a purchased investment property comprises its purchase price and any directly attributable expenditure. Directly attributable expenditure includes, for example, professional fees for legal services, property transfer taxes and other transaction costs.Measurement after recognition6 This Standard requires all entities to determine the fair value of investmentproperty, for the purpose of either measurement (if the entity uses the fair value model) or disclosure (if it uses the cost model). An entity is encouraged, but not required, to determine the fair value of investment property on the basis of a valuation by an independent valuer who holds a recognised and relevant professional qualification and has recent experience in the location and category of the investment property being valued.Fair value model7 After initial recognition, an entity that chooses the fair value model shall measure all of its investment property at fair value, except in the cases described in paragraph 47.8 A gain or loss arising from a change in the fair value of investment property shall be recognised in profit or loss for the period in which it arises.9 The fair value of investment property is the price at which the property could be exchanged between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction (see paragraph 5). Fair value specifically excludes an estimated price inflated or deflated by special terms or circumstances such as atypical financing, sale and leaseback arrangements, special considerations or concessions granted by anyone associated with the sale.10 An entity determines fair value without any deduction for transaction costs it may incur on sale or other disposal.11 The fair value of investment property shall reflect market conditions at the end of the reporting period.EC staff consolidated version as of 16 September 2009, EN – EU IAS 40 FOR INFORMATION PURPOSES ONLY12 Fair value is time-specific as of a given date. Because market conditions may change, the amount reported as fair value may be incorrect or inappropriate if estimated as of another time. The definition of fair value also assumes simultaneous exchange and completion of the contract for sale without any variation in price that might be made in an arm’s length transaction between knowledgeable, willing parties if exchange and completion are not simultaneous.13 The fair value of investment property reflects, among other things, rentalincome from current leases and reasonable and supportable assumptions that represent what knowledgeable, willing parties would assume about rental income from future leases in the light of current conditions. It also reflects, on a similar basis,any cash outflows (including rental payments and other outflows) that could be expected in respect of the property. Some of those outflows are reflected in the liability whereas others relate to outflows that are not recognised in the financial statements until a later date (eg periodic payments such as contingent rents).14 The definition of fair value refers to ‘knowledgeable, willing parties’. In this context, ‘knowledgeable’ means th at both the willing buyer and the willing seller are reasonably informed about the nature and characteristics of the investment property, its actual and potential uses, and market conditions at the end of the reporting period.A willing buyer is motivated, but not compelled, to buy. This buyer is neither over-eager nor determined to buy at any price. The assumed buyer would not pay a higher price than a market comprising knowledgeable, willing buyers and sellers would require.to sell at any price, nor one prepared to hold out for a price not considered reasonable in current market conditions. The willing seller is motivated to sell the investment property at market terms for the best price obtainable. The factual circumstances of the actual investment property owner are not a part of this consideration because the willing seller is a hypothetical owner (eg a willing seller would not take into account the particular tax circumstances of the actual investment property owner).15 The definition of fair value ref ers to an arm’s length transaction. An arm’s length transaction is one between parties that do not have a particular or special relationship that makes prices of transactions uncharacteristic of market conditions. The transaction is presumed to be between unrelated parties, each acting independently.16 The best evidence of fair value is given by current prices in an active market for similar property in the same location and condition and subject to similar lease and other contracts. An entity takes care to identify any differences in the nature, location or condition of the property, or in the contractual terms of the leases and othercontracts relating to the property.17 In the absence of current prices in an active market of the kind described in paragraph 45, an entity considers information from a variety of sources, including:(a) current prices in an active market for properties of different nature, condition or location (or subject to different lease or other contracts), adjusted to reflect those differences;(b) recent prices of similar properties on less active markets, with adjustments to reflect any changes in economic conditions since the date of the transactions that occurred at those prices; and(c) discounted cash flow projections based on reliable estimates of future cash flows, supported by the terms of any existing lease and other contracts and (when possible) by external evidence such ascurrent market rents for similar properties in the same location and condition, and using discount rates that reflect current market assessments of the uncertainty in the amount and timing of the cashflows.18 In some cases, the various sources listed in the previous paragraph may suggest different conclusions about the fair value of an investment property. An entity considers the reasons for those differences, in order to arrive at the most reliable estimate of fair value within a range of reasonable fair value estimates.EC staff consolidated version as of 16 September 2009, EN –EU IAS 40 FOR INFORMATION PURPOSES ONLY19 In exceptional cases, there is clear evidence when an entity first acquires an investment property (or when an existing property first becomes investment property after a change in use) that the variability in the range of reasonable fair value estimates will be so great, and the probabilities of the various outcomes so difficult to assess, that the usefulness of a single estimate of fair value is negated. This may indicate that the fair value of the property will not be reliably determinable on a continuing basis (see paragraph 47).20 Fair value differs from value in use, as defined in IAS 36 Impairment ofAssets. Fair value reflects the knowledge and estimates of knowledgeable, willing buyers and sellers. In contrast, value in use reflects the entity’s estimates, including the effects of factors that may be specific to the entity and not applicable to entities in general. For example, fair value does not reflect any of the following factors to the extent that they would not be generally available to knowledgeable, willing buyers and sellers:(a) additional value derived from the creation of a portfolio of properties in different locations;(b) synergies between investment property and other assets;(c) legal rights or legal restrictions that are specific only to the current owner; and(d) tax benefits or tax burdens that are specific to the current owner.21 In determining the carrying amount of investment property under the fair value model, an entity does not double-count assets or liabilities that are recognised as separate assets or liabilities. For example:(a) equipment such as lifts or air-conditioning is often an integral part of a building and is generally included in the fair value of the investment property, rather than recognised separately as property,plant and equipment.(b) if an office is leased on a furnished basis, the fair value of the office generally includes the fair value of the furniture, because the rental income relates to the furnished office. When furniture is included in the fair value of investment property, an entity does not recognise that furniture as a separate asset.(c) the fair value of investment property excludes prepaid or accrued operating lease income, because the entity recognises it as a separate liability or asset.22 The fair value of investment property does not reflect future capital expenditure that will improve or enhance the property and does not reflect the related future benefits from this future expenditure.23 In some cases, an entity expects that the present value of its payments relating to an investment property(other than payments relating to recognised liabilities) will exceed the present value of the related cash receipts. An entity applies IAS 37Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets to determine whether to recognise a liability and, if so, how to measure it.Inability to determine fair value reliably24 There is a rebuttable presumption that an entity can reliably determine the fair value of an investment property on a continuing basis. However, in exceptional cases, there is clear evidence when an entity first acquires an investment property (or when an existing property first becomes investment property after a change in use) that the fair value of the investment property is not reliably determinable on a continuing basis. This arises when, and only when, comparable market transactions are infrequent and alternative reliable estimates of fair value (for example, based on discounted cash flow projections) are not available. If an entity determines that the fair value of an investment property under construction is not reliably determinable but expects the fair value of the property to be reliably determinable when construction is complete, it shall measure that investment property under construction at cost until either its fair value becomes reliably determinable or construction is completed (whichever is earlier).If an entity determines that the fair value of an investment property (other than an investment property under construction) is not reliably determinable on a continuing basis, the entity shall EC staff consolidated version as of 16 September 2009, EN –EU IAS 40 FOR INFORMATION PURPOSES ONLY8 measure that investment property using the cost model in IAS 16. The residual value of the investment property shall be assumed to be zero. The entity shall apply IAS 16 until disposal of the investment property.25 In the exceptional cases when an entity is compelled, for the reason given in paragraph 53, to measure an investment property using the cost model in accordance with IAS 16, it measures at fair value all its other investment property, including investment property under construction. In these cases, although an entity may use the cost model for one investment property, the entity shall continue to account for each of the remaining properties using the fair value model.26 If an entity has previously measured an investment property at fair value, it shall continue to measure the property at fair value until disposal (or until the propertybecomes owner-occupied property or the entity begins to develop the property for subsequent sale in the ordinary course of business) even if comparable market transactions become less frequent or market prices become less readily available. Cost model27 After initial recognition, an entity that chooses the cost model shall measure all of its investment property in accordance with IAS 16’s requirements for that model, other than those that meet the criteria to be classified as held for sale (or are included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale) in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations. Investment properties that meet the criteria to be classified as held for sale (or are included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale) shall be measured in accordance with IFRS 5. Transfers28 Transfers to, or from, investment property shall be made when, and only when, there is a change in use, evidenced by:(a) commencement of owner-occupation, for a transfer from investment property to owner-occupied property;(b) commencement of development with a view to sale, for a transfer from investment property to inventories;(c) end of owner-occupation, for a transfer from owner-occupied property to investment property; or(d) commencement of an operating lease to another party, for a transfer from inventories to investment property.29 Paragraph 51(2) requires an entity to transfer a property from investment property to inventories when, and only when, there is a change in use, evidenced by commencement of development with a view to sale. When an entity decides to dispose of an investment property without development, it continues to treat the property as an investment property until it is derecognised (eliminated from the statement of financial position) and does not treat it as inventory. Similarly, if an entity begins to redevelop an existing investment property for continued future use as investment property, the property remains an investment property and is notreclassified as owner-occupied property during the redevelopment.30 Paragraphs 54-59 apply to recognition and measurement issues that arise when an entity uses the fair value model for investment property. When an entity uses the cost model, transfers between investment property, owner-occupied property and inventories do not change the carrying amount of the property transferred and they do not change the cost of that property for measurement or disclosure purposes.31 For a transfer from investment property carried at fair value to owner-occupied property or inventories, the property’s deemed cost for subsequent accounting in accordance with IAS 16 or IAS 2 shall be its fair value at the date of change in use.61 If an owner-occupied property becomes an investment property that will be carried at fair value, an entity shall apply IAS 16 up to the date of change in use. The entity shall treat any difference at that date between the carrying amount of the property in accordance with IAS 16 and its fair value in the same way as a revaluation in accordance with IAS 16.32 Up to the date when an owner-occupied property becomes an investment property carried at fair value, an entity depreciates the property and recognises any impairment losses that have occurred. The entity treats any difference at that date between the carrying amount of the property in accordance with IAS 16 and its fair value in the same way as a revaluation in accordance with IAS 16. In other words:(a) any resulting decrease in the carrying amount of the property is recognised in profit or loss.However, to the extent that an amount is included in revaluation surplus for that property, thedecrease is recognised in other comprehensive income and reduces the revaluation surplus withinequity.(b) any resulting increase in the carrying amount is treated as follows:(i) to the extent that the increase reverses a previous impairment loss for that property, the increase is recognised in profit or loss. The amount recognised in profit or loss does not exceed the amount needed to restore the carrying amount to the carrying amount thatwould have been determined (net of depreciation) had no impairment loss been recognised.(ii) any remaining part of the increase is recognised in other comprehensive income and increases the revaluation surplus within equity. On subsequent disposal of the investment property, the revaluation surplus included in equity may be transferred to retained earnings. The transfer from revaluation surplus to retained earnings is not made through profit or loss.33 For a transfer from inventories to investment property that will be carried at fair value, any difference between the fair value of the property at that date and its previous carrying amount shall be recognised in profit or loss.34 The treatment of transfers from inventories to investment property that will be carried at fair value is consistent with the treatment of sales of inventories.35 When an entity completes the construction or development of a self-constructed investment property that will be carried at fair value, any difference between the fair value of the property at that date and its previous carrying amount shall be recognised in profit or loss.Disposals36 An investment property shall be derecognised (eliminated from the statement of financial position) on disposal or when the investment property is permanently withdrawn from use and no future economic benefits are expected from its disposal.37、The disposal of an investment property may be achieved by sale or by entering into a finance lease. In determining the date of disposal for investment property, an entity applies the criteria in IAS 18 for recognising revenue from the sale of goods and considers the related guidance in the Appendix to IAS 18.IAS 17 applies to a disposal effected by entering into a finance lease and to a sale and leaseback.38 Gains or losses arising from the retirement or disposal of investment property shall be determined as the difference between the net disposal proceeds and the carrying amount of the asset and shall be recognised in profit or loss (unless IAS 17 requires otherwise on a sale and leaseback) in the period of the retirement or disposal.39 The consideration receivable on disposal of an investment property isrecognised initially at fair value. In particular, if payment for an investment property is deferred, the consideration received is recognised initially at the cash price equivalent. The difference between the nominal amount of the consideration and the cash price equivalent is recognised as interest revenue in accordance with IAS 18 using the effective interest method.40 An entity applies IAS 37 or other Standards, as appropriate, to any liabilities that it retains after disposal of an investment property.DisclosureFair value model and cost model41 The disclosures below apply in addition to those in IAS 17. In accordance with IAS 17, the owner of an investment property provides lessors’ disclosures about leases into which it has entered. An entity that holds an investment property under a finance or operating lease provides lessees’ disclosures for finance leases and lessors’ disclosures for any operating leases into which it has entered.42 An entity shall disclose:(a) when classification is difficult (see paragraph 14), the criteria it uses to distinguish investment property from owner-occupied property and from property held for sale in the ordinary course of business.(b) the methods and significant assumptions applied in determining the fair value of investment property, including a statement whether the determination of fair value was supported by market evidence or was more heavily based on other factors (which the entity shall disclose) because of the nature of the property and lack of comparable market data.(c) the extent to which the fair value of investment property (as measured or disclosed in the financial statements) is based on a valuation by an independent valuer who holds a recognised and relevant professional qualification and has recent experience in the location and categoryof the investment property being valued. If there has been no such valuation, that fact shall be disclosed.(d) the amounts recognised in profit or loss for:(i) rental income from investment property;(ii) direct operating expenses (including repairs and maintenance) arising from investment property that generated rental income during the period; and (iii) direct operating expenses (including repairs and maintenance) arising from investment property that did not generate rental income during the period.(e) the existence and amounts of restrictions on the realisability of investment property or the remittance of income and proceeds of disposal.(f) contractual obligations to purchase, construct or develop investment property or for repairs,maintenance or enhancements.Fair value model43 In addition to the disclosures required by paragraph 66, an entity that applies the fair value model in paragraphs 27-49 shall disclose a reconciliation between the carrying amounts of investment property at the beginning and end of the period, showing the following:(a) additions, disclosing separately those additions resulting from acquisitions and those resultingfrom subsequent expenditure recognised in the carrying amount of an asset;(b) additions resulting from acquisitions through business combinations;(c) assets classified as held for sale or included in a disposal group classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 and other disposals;(d) net gains or losses from fair value adjustments;(e) the net exchange differences arising on the translation of the financial statements into a different presentation currency, and on translation of a foreign operation into the presentation currency of the reporting entity;(f) transfers to and from inventories and owner-occupied property; and(g) other changes.44 shall disclose amounts EC staff consolidated version as of 16 September 2009, EN –EU IAS 40 FOR INFORMATION PURPOSES ONLY 12 relating to that investment property separately from amounts relating to other investment property. In addition, an entity shall disclose:(a) a description of the investment property;(b) an explanation of why fair value cannot be determined reliably;(c) if possible, the range of estimates within which fair value is highly likely to lie; and(d) on disposal of investment property not carried at fair value:(i) the fact that the entity has disposed of investment property not carried at fair value;(ii) the carrying amount of that investment property at the time of sale; and(iii) the amount of gain or loss recognised.Cost model45 In addition to the disclosures required by paragraph 66, an entity that applies the cost model in paragraph 50 shall disclose:(a) the depreciation methods used;(b) the useful lives or the depreciation rates used;(c) the gross carrying amount and the accumulated depreciation (aggregated with accumulated impairment losses) at the beginning and end of the period;(d) a reconciliation of the carrying amount of investment property at the beginning and end of the period, showing the following:(i) additions, disclosing separately those additions resulting from acquisitions and those resulting from subsequent expenditure recognised as an asset;(ii) additions resulting from acquisitions through business combinations;(iii) assets classified as held for sale or included in a disposal group classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 and other disposals;(iv) depreciation;(v) the amount of impairment losses recognised, and the amount of impairment losses reversed, during the period in accordance with IAS 36;(vi) the net exchange differences arising on the translation of the financial statements into a different presentation currency, and on translation of a foreign operation into the presentation currency of the reporting entity;(vii) transfers to and from inventories and owner-occupied property; and(viii) other changes; and(e) the fair value of investment property. In the exceptional cases described in paragraph 47,when an entity cannot determine the fair value of the investment property reliably, it shalldisclose:(i) a description of the investment property;(ii) an explanation of why fair value cannot be determined reliably; and(iii) if possible, the range of estimates within which fair value is highly likely to lie.Transitional provisionsFair value model46 An entity that has previously applied IAS 40 (2000) and elects for the first time to classify and account for some or all eligible property interests held under operating leases as investment property shall recognise the effect of that election as an adjustment to the opening balance of retained earnings for the period in which the election is first made. In addition:(a) if the entity has previously disclosed publicly (in financial statements or otherwise) the fair value of those property interests in earlier periods (determined on a basis that satisfies the definition of fair value in paragraph 5 and the guidance in paragraphs 29-46), the entity is encouraged, but not required:(i) to adjust the opening balance of retained earnings for the earliest period presented for which such fair value was disclosed publicly; and(ii) to restate comparative information for those periods; and(b) if the entity has not previously disclosed publicly the information described in (a), it shall not restate comparative information and shall disclose that fact.47 This Standard requires a treatment different from that required by IAS 8. IAS 8 requires comparative information to be restated unless such restatement is impracticable.48 When an entity first applies this Standard, the adjustment to the opening balance of retained earnings includes the reclassification of any amount held inrevaluation surplus for investment property.Cost model49 IAS 8 applies to any change in accounting policies that is made when an entity first applies this Standard and chooses to use the cost model. The effect of the change in accounting policies includes the reclassification of any amount held in revaluation surplus for investment property.Effective date50 This international accounting standards on income from 1 January 2001 or after the date began annual financial statements and effective. Encourage early adoption. If the enterprise will these standards used in since 2001 start before January 1, the income, it shall disclose this fact51 This Standard supersedes IAS 40 Investment Property..Source: International accounting standards committee[M], International Accounting Standard40，2001二、翻译文章译文：国际会计准则40投资性房地产范围1、本准则适用于投资性房地产的确认、计量和披露。

附录外文资料：On February 15, 2006, the Ministry of Finance issued 1 item of basic accounting standards and 38 specific guidelines, the new set of accounting standards system. Standards issued, the community gave wide attention, the securities industry, business circles, academic circles gave height the opinion, think this is the second in 1993 accounting reform after another is of great significance to the accounting reform, marking China's convergence with international financial reporting standards of enterprise accounting standards system formally established, to improve the China's socialist market economic system, improve the level of opening up and accelerate China's integration into the global economy has important significance.Also expressed their concerns and worries, mainly reflected in the following aspects: a fair value is difficult to "fair", and is very likely to become the profit manipulation tools; two is the enterprise may to adjust earnings manipulation debt restructuring, debt restructuring will once again become the darling of the securities market; three is the new standard published may induce "fair" phenomenon, which may lead to the end of 2006 enterprises will impairment assault back, at the same time accounts receivable impairment will still give listing Corporation profit adjustment leaves lots of space. These concerns whether it can become a reality? The new standards will become the corporate profits manipulation of the tool? Here we have to this a few worry about one to launch the analysis:A moderate, fair value applicationThe history of our country is a listing Corporation with the fair value of profit manipulation. Fair value appeared in 1998 in "debt recombines", "non monetary transactions" specific accounting standards, after the actual operation in many companies the abuse of fair value and profit manipulation in 2001 revised guidelines by the restriction of the use of. The new criterion system in financial tool, real estate investment, not the combination under common control, debt restructuring andnon-monetary transactions etc. are carefully adopted the fair value accounting standards, thus becoming the one large window. Past episodes of "story" will repeat itself? To this one problem we analyzed from the following aspects:First of all, the fair value of the assets can be achieved by using fair value valuation is the international accounting standards, the United States and most market economic countries accounting standards in general practice. International already crossed the "want" present value and fair value debate stage, and mainly in "how to use" stage; International did not because of "Enron event" appear and delay the study and adopt present value and the fair value of the process. From the beginning of 1975, 30 years, FASB on the fair value measurement system research has not stopped, the fair value in the accounting standards in the United States are used more and more widely. As of 2004, at the end of 12, FASB has released a total of 153 financial accounting standards, fair value accounting standards and related 60 (forever, 2005).Fair value has a profound theoretical basis for the ten, it accords with the economic income concept, the comprehensive income concept, cash flow and market price of accounting assumption, accounting goal, modern relevance and reliability of quality characteristics of accounting elements, essential characteristics, future basic accounting, value and value concept, measurement values and net surplus theory and financial statements of the primitive logic (Xie Sifone, 2005).The use of fair value can effectively enhance the relevance of accounting information for investors, creditors, and other stakeholders to provide more help to the information for decision making. Take the investment real estate, book 20000000 yuan, if the city price rises to $200000000 accounting should reflect 200000000 yuan, such information is really true and useful. If still persist in the statements that the 20000000 yuan, accounting treatment is simple, but this information does not help the decision-making of investors, even misleading. Any reform will not give up eating for fear of choking, accounting reform is no exception. In line with international standards is the direction, is to represent the general trend, this point is in the affirmative.Secondly, suitable for the application of the fair value of the "soil" preliminary already form. Fair value is the product of the market economy. In 2003 the Central Committee made on perfecting the socialist market economic system a number of issues, symbolizes that our country market economy already from start-up to improve, the market economy status of China has been established. The securities market of our country after ten years of development and perfection, to strengthen corporategovernance, improve operational transparency, clear violations, establishing listing Corporation integrated supervision system has made great progress. China Securities Regulatory Commission promoting the share-trading reform pilot, listing and financing program, has issued a number of regulations, strengthen the listing Corporation information disclosure and fraud and strength; the Ministry of finance to increase the quality of accounting information and the CPA audit quality inspection; listing Corporation governance level rises further, CPA, assets assessment division, independent directors such as rational economic choice for listing Corporation irregularities built several "firewall"; the majority of investors in the analysis of accounting information to judge, effective screening capacity is enhanced, the effectiveness of the securities market gradually improve. In addition, after joining the WTO, large amount of foreign capital into China, financial derivatives trading activity, produce a number, different features of derivative financial instruments, such as futures (Futures), option (Options), forward contract (Forwards Contract), swap (Swaps) etc.. As the derivative financial instruments no initial net investment is required, or very few requirements of net investment, the historical cost of its incapable of action, only the fair value to carry on the accurate recognition and measurement..FASl33 stated: fair value measurement of financial instruments is the best measurement attribute, the derivative financial instruments, fair value measurement attribute is the only. Potential of time shift, which contributes to the application of the fair value of the environment is preliminary already implementation. We must adopt the development strategy view ", not" once bitten, twice shy of ten years".In third, the fair value of the criteria in the new application is more cautious, does not lead to abuse. Compared with international financial reporting standards: China accounting standards system in determining the scope of the application of fair value, the more fully consider China's national conditions, the improvement was prudent. The use of fair value must satisfy certain conditions, in the basic guidelines in section forty-third clearly pointed out that the replacement cost, net realizable value of, present value, fair value, should be to ensure that the identified elements of accounting amounts can be obtained and the reliable measurement. In relation to specific standards, the use of fair value measurement, has clearly defined constraints. For example, in real estate investment criteria specified by the fair value measurement model, the following conditions shall be met simultaneously: one is the investmentproperty real estate located in active trading market of real estate; two is the enterprise can from the real estate trading market on the same or similar real estate market prices and other information, thus the investment real estate to make a reasonable estimate of fair value.Visible in the investing real estate standards, ban contains more hypothetical valuation techniques used, only in a certain reliability on the basis that the use of fair value, and not all of the investment real estate can be applied the fair value. So as long as the strictly in accordance with the standards, fair value will really be fair.For instance in non monetary transactions for the use of fair value, the new standards in exchange of non-monetary assets, fair value and change the carrying value of the assets included in the current profits and losses of the difference between the two conditions, namely the exchange must be commercial in nature, and a change of assets or the fair value of the assets surrendered can be measured reliably. Commercial essence refers to, must be changed in the future cash flow of the assets at risk, time and amount of assets surrendered and were significantly different, or substitution of assets and the assets surrendered the present value of estimated future cash flows are different, and the difference between the assets and the change of the fair value of the assets is more significant than the. The new guidelines are also provided to determine whether is commercial in nature, an enterprise shall pay attention to whether or not the transacting parties are related party relationship. Related party relationship may lead to the occurrence of non monetary assets exchange is not commercial in nature. These preconditions, will effectively restricted to non monetary assets exchange way of earnings manipulation behavior. From these rules, we can see that, the application of fair value is strictly restricted conditions, the fair value is not allowed to abuse.The new standards require that the fair value to "reliable" and not "just, fair value estimate" is no longer the eraser ruler. The author thinks, fair value to be profit manipulation tools need to also have three elements: the listing Corporation management deliberate fraud, accounting audit staff lose occupation moral and securities market regulatory failure. In fact with the three elements, any system can effectively play a protective role, therefore, establishing and perfecting accounting standards supporting management system is urgent.Two, the debt restructuring reform from the bottomThe new debt restructuring guidelines stipulated in debt restructuring gains can be included in the current profits and losses. As a debtor's listing Corporation, the new debt restructuring guidelines means that, once the creditor concessions, listing Corporation acquired interests will be directly included in the current income, into a profit report. Debt restructuring is likely to increase profits, improve earnings per share. But this approach achieved with the international convergence of financial reporting standards, reflects the essence of transaction debt restructuring, debt restructuring gains is after all the creditors rather than owners concessions, the past will not pass the profit and loss statement directly included in the capital reserve, it is under the special background of a matter of expediency, now be included in the profit and loss, is not "white" the "black", but the reform from the bottom. The new guidelines on the definition of debt restructuring, made clear only in "the debtor's financial difficulties." the premise condition, can get debt concession confirmed as debt restructuring gains. This condition will be restricted to a certain extent, the new guidelines on abuse, prevent inappropriate acknowledgement of debt reorganization gains.Some people think that some affiliates can also through a remit a debt, a high performance to price manipulation, insider trading, is still small shareholders suffered losses. In fact, this fear is a bit much. This is because, first, for *ST and ST company, fantasy on debt restructuring benefit, reaching for the stars is futile. Because the 2004 amendment of the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchange rules, one is freed, after deducting non-recurring profits and losses, net profit is positive. Debt restructuring to listing Corporation profits, in actual accountant operation, will be included in operating income, which belongs to the non-recurring profit and loss, thus can in St, the stars are deducted from; second, has experienced more than 10 years of stock market investors' groundless talk, analysis and judgment ability and self protection consciousness had very big rise, debt restructuring guidelines requiring companies to disclose the fair value of the methods and basis for the ascertainment, investors can easily recognize the debt restructuring packaging profits, in order to make a rational choice .Investors blindly follow Zhuang, slaughter age has gone for ever.In three, the impairment of Chinese characteristicsNew guidelines for asset impairment provisions, asset impairment loss is confirmed, in the later period may not be back. It is based on the real situation of our country, last ditch of major change, it is with international accounting standards, with substantial differences in the. New guidelines for asset impairment will effectively curb the use impairment as a "secret reserve" adjusting profit situation. Guidelines for the implementation, use impairment adjusting profit space will become more and more small, the provision of manual adjustment of profits will be more and more difficult. Some people write civil point out new guidelines for asset impairment induced by releasing will "go" phenomenon, cause some "hidden profits" of the industry and Related Companies, possible impairment in 2006 will be ready to strike back, "crow change Phoenix" may reproduce. We analyze, first of all, if the listing Corporation snatches in the new guidelines before the implementation of the 2006 year rushs impairment, we must first examine whether such actions are the reasonable basis, namely the original has provision for the impairment of an asset value now is really picks up, and if so, to adjust the asset value will make the accounting information more real, related; secondly, in 2006 large red back impairment must make appropriate evidence of the original provision for the impairment of appropriateness, otherwise the previous provision is the abuse of accounting estimation results, should be in accordance with the accounting error handling, a reversal of impairment cannot be used as the 2006 annual profit. Moreover, the financial sector has been aware of this problem, and takes positive and effective measures, prevent the assault to adjust profit listing Corporation. In addition, some time ago the market that new guidelines will make A shares listing Corporation in 2006 to increase net profit 20000000000 Yuan hearsay, the survey is author's subjective, concerned media specially clarification.Others receivables and other four impairment expressed worry, think accounts receivable (especially the "shareholders of account") will become the "eight project" of the main means of profit manipulation. In fact, in the new guidelines, receivables is as financial assets, and the depreciation detailed provisions, requires that there must be "objective evidence" of impairment to provision for impairment, such evidence includes the debtor serious financial difficulties, is likely to fail or other financial restructuring. Can be said that the criterion is more and more perfect, then the "this year that cannot take back full provision, next year 'efforts' and back", this "to practice deception" approach, which itself has violated rules, to pass the CPA audit and hidfrom investors eye, I'm afraid some difficulty.Through the above analysis, we can see some people on the new criterion a few concerns, many in reality does not exist, or is in the process of the reform of the price to be paid for, and far from their imagination so serious. But these concerns also remind standards departments in the formulation of standards to the full attention of guidelines for the technical and economic consequences, in the setting of the new guidelines in the process, give full consideration to guideline implementation may arise in the course of the various problems, and further make a specific interpretation and explanation, improving guidelines operation, improve accounting information quality.Also need to point out in particular, accounting standards is a production of accounting information of the specification, it is to solve the problem of "how to do". On the accounting standards of the malicious misuse of guidelines for the implementation of the "people", from the perspective of the listing Corporation is the ecological problems, to strengthen supervision, occupation moral construction, improve the ability of investors screening accounting information system engineering to solve, cannot be attributed to the guidelines themselves. And the new accounting and auditing standards system come on stage; it is to promote the improvement of listing Corporation governance ecology effective measure. Say from this meaning, we are not going to worry about me, but "criteria for the beat and breathe out".Note: ① according to the "Shanghai Stock Exchange Listing Rules (2004 Revision)" provisions, *ST indicated the presence of terminating the listing of special processing and ST risk for other special treatment.Main referencesMinistry of finance. In 2006 accounting standards for business enterprises. Economic Science PressYu Monishing. The 2005 fair value in the United States of America's application research. Financial theory, 9Xie Stiffen, wearing Zili.2005 present value and fair value accounting: financial reform is the important premise of twenty-first Century. Theory and practice of Finance and economics, 9中文资料：2006年2月15日，财政部发布了包括1项基本准则和38项具体准则在内的新的一整套企业会计准则体系。

IFRS and IAS Summaries（2011）《国际财务报告准则》及《国际会计准则》摘要（2011）This extract has been prepared by IFRS Foundation staff and has not been approved by the IASB. For the requirements reference must be made to International Financial Reporting Standards.本摘要由国际财务报告准则基金会职员编制，未经国际会计准则理事会正式批准。

涉及相关要求必须遵照《国际财务报告准则》。

中英文对照 English with Chinese TranslationIFRS and IAS Summaries（2011）《国际财务报告准则》及《国际会计准则》摘要（2011）This extract has been prepared by IFRS Foundation staff and has not been approved by the IASB. For the requirements reference must be made to International Financial Reporting Standards.本摘要由国际财务报告准则基金会职员编制，未经国际会计准则理事会正式批准。

涉及相关要求必须遵照《国际财务报告准则》。

The Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting 2011 as issued at 1 January 2011财务报告的概念框架2011截至2011年1月1日发布This extract has been prepared by IFRS Foundation staff and has not been approved by the IASB. For the requirements reference must be made to the Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting 2010.本摘要由国际财务报告准则基金会职员编制，未经国际会计准则理事会正式批准。

附录外文资料：On February 15, 2006, the Ministry of Finance issued 1 item of basic accounting standards and 38 specific guidelines, the new set of accounting standards system. Standards issued, the community gave wide attention, the securities industry, business circles, academic circles gave height the opinion, think this is the second in 1993 accounting reform after another is of great significance to the accounting reform, marking China's convergence with international financial reporting standards of enterprise accounting standards system formally established, to improve the China's socialist market economic system, improve the level of opening up and accelerate China's integration into the global economy has important significance.Also expressed their concerns and worries, mainly reflected in the following aspects: a fair value is difficult to "fair", and is very likely to become the profit manipulation tools; two is the enterprise may to adjust earnings manipulation debt restructuring, debt restructuring will once again become the darling of the securities market; three is the new standard published may induce "fair" phenomenon, which may lead to the end of 2006 enterprises will impairment assault back, at the same time accounts receivable impairment will still give listing Corporation profit adjustment leaves lots of space. These concerns whether it can become a reality? The new standards will become the corporate profits manipulation of the tool? Here we have to this a few worry about one to launch the analysis:A moderate, fair value applicationThe history of our country is a listing Corporation with the fair value of profit manipulation. Fair value appeared in 1998 in "debt recombines", "non monetary transactions" specific accounting standards, after the actual operation in many companies the abuse of fair value and profit manipulation in 2001 revised guidelines by the restriction of the use of. The new criterion system in financial tool, real estate investment, not the combination under common control, debt restructuring andnon-monetary transactions etc. are carefully adopted the fair value accounting standards, thus becoming the one large window. Past episodes of "story" will repeat itself? To this one problem we analyzed from the following aspects:First of all, the fair value of the assets can be achieved by using fair value valuation is the international accounting standards, the United States and most market economic countries accounting standards in general practice. International already crossed the "want" present value and fair value debate stage, and mainly in "how to use" stage; International did not because of "Enron event" appear and delay the study and adopt present value and the fair value of the process. From the beginning of 1975, 30 years, FASB on the fair value measurement system research has not stopped, the fair value in the accounting standards in the United States are used more and more widely. As of 2004, at the end of 12, FASB has released a total of 153 financial accounting standards, fair value accounting standards and related 60 (forever, 2005).Fair value has a profound theoretical basis for the ten, it accords with the economic income concept, the comprehensive income concept, cash flow and market price of accounting assumption, accounting goal, modern relevance and reliability of quality characteristics of accounting elements, essential characteristics, future basic accounting, value and value concept, measurement values and net surplus theory and financial statements of the primitive logic (Xie Sifone, 2005).The use of fair value can effectively enhance the relevance of accounting information for investors, creditors, and other stakeholders to provide more help to the information for decision making. Take the investment real estate, book 20000000 yuan, if the city price rises to $200000000 accounting should reflect 200000000 yuan, such information is really true and useful. If still persist in the statements that the 20000000 yuan, accounting treatment is simple, but this information does not help the decision-making of investors, even misleading. Any reform will not give up eating for fear of choking, accounting reform is no exception. In line with international standards is the direction, is to represent the general trend, this point is in the affirmative.Secondly, suitable for the application of the fair value of the "soil" preliminary already form. Fair value is the product of the market economy. In 2003 the Central Committee made on perfecting the socialist market economic system a number of issues, symbolizes that our country market economy already from start-up to improve, the market economy status of China has been established. The securities market of our country after ten years of development and perfection, to strengthen corporategovernance, improve operational transparency, clear violations, establishing listing Corporation integrated supervision system has made great progress. China Securities Regulatory Commission promoting the share-trading reform pilot, listing and financing program, has issued a number of regulations, strengthen the listing Corporation information disclosure and fraud and strength; the Ministry of finance to increase the quality of accounting information and the CPA audit quality inspection; listing Corporation governance level rises further, CPA, assets assessment division, independent directors such as rational economic choice for listing Corporation irregularities built several "firewall"; the majority of investors in the analysis of accounting information to judge, effective screening capacity is enhanced, the effectiveness of the securities market gradually improve. In addition, after joining the WTO, large amount of foreign capital into China, financial derivatives trading activity, produce a number, different features of derivative financial instruments, such as futures (Futures), option (Options), forward contract (Forwards Contract), swap (Swaps) etc.. As the derivative financial instruments no initial net investment is required, or very few requirements of net investment, the historical cost of its incapable of action, only the fair value to carry on the accurate recognition and measurement..FASl33 stated: fair value measurement of financial instruments is the best measurement attribute, the derivative financial instruments, fair value measurement attribute is the only. Potential of time shift, which contributes to the application of the fair value of the environment is preliminary already implementation. We must adopt the development strategy view ", not" once bitten, twice shy of ten years".In third, the fair value of the criteria in the new application is more cautious, does not lead to abuse. Compared with international financial reporting standards: China accounting standards system in determining the scope of the application of fair value, the more fully consider China's national conditions, the improvement was prudent. The use of fair value must satisfy certain conditions, in the basic guidelines in section forty-third clearly pointed out that the replacement cost, net realizable value of, present value, fair value, should be to ensure that the identified elements of accounting amounts can be obtained and the reliable measurement. In relation to specific standards, the use of fair value measurement, has clearly defined constraints. For example, in real estate investment criteria specified by the fair value measurement model, the following conditions shall be met simultaneously: one is the investmentproperty real estate located in active trading market of real estate; two is the enterprise can from the real estate trading market on the same or similar real estate market prices and other information, thus the investment real estate to make a reasonable estimate of fair value.Visible in the investing real estate standards, ban contains more hypothetical valuation techniques used, only in a certain reliability on the basis that the use of fair value, and not all of the investment real estate can be applied the fair value. So as long as the strictly in accordance with the standards, fair value will really be fair.For instance in non monetary transactions for the use of fair value, the new standards in exchange of non-monetary assets, fair value and change the carrying value of the assets included in the current profits and losses of the difference between the two conditions, namely the exchange must be commercial in nature, and a change of assets or the fair value of the assets surrendered can be measured reliably. Commercial essence refers to, must be changed in the future cash flow of the assets at risk, time and amount of assets surrendered and were significantly different, or substitution of assets and the assets surrendered the present value of estimated future cash flows are different, and the difference between the assets and the change of the fair value of the assets is more significant than the. The new guidelines are also provided to determine whether is commercial in nature, an enterprise shall pay attention to whether or not the transacting parties are related party relationship. Related party relationship may lead to the occurrence of non monetary assets exchange is not commercial in nature. These preconditions, will effectively restricted to non monetary assets exchange way of earnings manipulation behavior. From these rules, we can see that, the application of fair value is strictly restricted conditions, the fair value is not allowed to abuse.The new standards require that the fair value to "reliable" and not "just, fair value estimate" is no longer the eraser ruler. The author thinks, fair value to be profit manipulation tools need to also have three elements: the listing Corporation management deliberate fraud, accounting audit staff lose occupation moral and securities market regulatory failure. In fact with the three elements, any system can effectively play a protective role, therefore, establishing and perfecting accounting standards supporting management system is urgent.Two, the debt restructuring reform from the bottomThe new debt restructuring guidelines stipulated in debt restructuring gains can be included in the current profits and losses. As a debtor's listing Corporation, the new debt restructuring guidelines means that, once the creditor concessions, listing Corporation acquired interests will be directly included in the current income, into a profit report. Debt restructuring is likely to increase profits, improve earnings per share. But this approach achieved with the international convergence of financial reporting standards, reflects the essence of transaction debt restructuring, debt restructuring gains is after all the creditors rather than owners concessions, the past will not pass the profit and loss statement directly included in the capital reserve, it is under the special background of a matter of expediency, now be included in the profit and loss, is not "white" the "black", but the reform from the bottom. The new guidelines on the definition of debt restructuring, made clear only in "the debtor's financial difficulties." the premise condition, can get debt concession confirmed as debt restructuring gains. This condition will be restricted to a certain extent, the new guidelines on abuse, prevent inappropriate acknowledgement of debt reorganization gains.Some people think that some affiliates can also through a remit a debt, a high performance to price manipulation, insider trading, is still small shareholders suffered losses. In fact, this fear is a bit much. This is because, first, for *ST and ST company, fantasy on debt restructuring benefit, reaching for the stars is futile. Because the 2004 amendment of the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchange rules, one is freed, after deducting non-recurring profits and losses, net profit is positive. Debt restructuring to listing Corporation profits, in actual accountant operation, will be included in operating income, which belongs to the non-recurring profit and loss, thus can in St, the stars are deducted from; second, has experienced more than 10 years of stock market investors' groundless talk, analysis and judgment ability and self protection consciousness had very big rise, debt restructuring guidelines requiring companies to disclose the fair value of the methods and basis for the ascertainment, investors can easily recognize the debt restructuring packaging profits, in order to make a rational choice .Investors blindly follow Zhuang, slaughter age has gone for ever.In three, the impairment of Chinese characteristicsNew guidelines for asset impairment provisions, asset impairment loss is confirmed, in the later period may not be back. It is based on the real situation of our country, last ditch of major change, it is with international accounting standards, with substantial differences in the. New guidelines for asset impairment will effectively curb the use impairment as a "secret reserve" adjusting profit situation. Guidelines for the implementation, use impairment adjusting profit space will become more and more small, the provision of manual adjustment of profits will be more and more difficult. Some people write civil point out new guidelines for asset impairment induced by releasing will "go" phenomenon, cause some "hidden profits" of the industry and Related Companies, possible impairment in 2006 will be ready to strike back, "crow change Phoenix" may reproduce. We analyze, first of all, if the listing Corporation snatches in the new guidelines before the implementation of the 2006 year rushs impairment, we must first examine whether such actions are the reasonable basis, namely the original has provision for the impairment of an asset value now is really picks up, and if so, to adjust the asset value will make the accounting information more real, related; secondly, in 2006 large red back impairment must make appropriate evidence of the original provision for the impairment of appropriateness, otherwise the previous provision is the abuse of accounting estimation results, should be in accordance with the accounting error handling, a reversal of impairment cannot be used as the 2006 annual profit. Moreover, the financial sector has been aware of this problem, and takes positive and effective measures, prevent the assault to adjust profit listing Corporation. In addition, some time ago the market that new guidelines will make A shares listing Corporation in 2006 to increase net profit 20000000000 Yuan hearsay, the survey is author's subjective, concerned media specially clarification.Others receivables and other four impairment expressed worry, think accounts receivable (especially the "shareholders of account") will become the "eight project" of the main means of profit manipulation. In fact, in the new guidelines, receivables is as financial assets, and the depreciation detailed provisions, requires that there must be "objective evidence" of impairment to provision for impairment, such evidence includes the debtor serious financial difficulties, is likely to fail or other financial restructuring. Can be said that the criterion is more and more perfect, then the "this year that cannot take back full provision, next year 'efforts' and back", this "to practice deception" approach, which itself has violated rules, to pass the CPA audit and hidfrom investors eye, I'm afraid some difficulty.Through the above analysis, we can see some people on the new criterion a few concerns, many in reality does not exist, or is in the process of the reform of the price to be paid for, and far from their imagination so serious. But these concerns also remind standards departments in the formulation of standards to the full attention of guidelines for the technical and economic consequences, in the setting of the new guidelines in the process, give full consideration to guideline implementation may arise in the course of the various problems, and further make a specific interpretation and explanation, improving guidelines operation, improve accounting information quality.Also need to point out in particular, accounting standards is a production of accounting information of the specification, it is to solve the problem of "how to do". On the accounting standards of the malicious misuse of guidelines for the implementation of the "people", from the perspective of the listing Corporation is the ecological problems, to strengthen supervision, occupation moral construction, improve the ability of investors screening accounting information system engineering to solve, cannot be attributed to the guidelines themselves. And the new accounting and auditing standards system come on stage; it is to promote the improvement of listing Corporation governance ecology effective measure. Say from this meaning, we are not going to worry about me, but "criteria for the beat and breathe out".Note: ① according to the "Shanghai Stock Exchange Listing Rules (2004 Revision)" provisions, *ST indicated the presence of terminating the listing of special processing and ST risk for other special treatment.Main referencesMinistry of finance. In 2006 accounting standards for business enterprises. Economic Science PressYu Monishing. The 2005 fair value in the United States of America's application research. Financial theory, 9Xie Stiffen, wearing Zili.2005 present value and fair value accounting: financial reform is the important premise of twenty-first Century. Theory and practice of Finance and economics, 9中文资料：2006年2月15日，财政部发布了包括1项基本准则和38项具体准则在内的新的一整套企业会计准则体系。

外文翻译--国际会计准则第36号-资产减值本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文题目 International Accounting Standard 36外文出处 International Accounting Standard原文：International Accounting Standard 36 Impairment of AssetsObjective1. The objective of this Standard is to prescribe the procedures that an entity applies to ensure that its assets are carried at no more than their recoverable amount. An asset is carried at more than its recoverable amount if its carrying amount exceeds the amount to be recovered through use or sale of the asset. If this is the case, the asset is described as impaired and the Standard requires the entity to recognise an impairment loss. The Standard also specifies when an entity should reverse an impairment loss and prescribes disclosures.Scope2. This Standard shall be applied in accounting for the impairment of all assets, other than:a inventories see IAS 2 Inventories ;b assets arising from construction contracts see IAS 11 Construction Contracts ;c deferred tax assets see IAS 12 Income Taxes ;d assets arising from employee benefits see IAS 19 Employee Benefits ;e financial assets that are within the scope of IAS 32 Financial Instruments.f investment property that is measured at fair value see IAS 40 Investment Property ;g biological assets related to agricultural activity that are measured at fair value less costs to sell see IAS 41 Agriculture ;h deferred acquisition costs, and intangible assets, arising from an insurer’s contractual r ights under insurance contracts within the scope of IFRS 4 Insurance Contracts; andi non-current assets or disposal groups classified as held for sale in accordance with IFRS 5 Non-current Assets Held for Sale and Discontinued Operations.3. This Standard does not apply to inventories, assets arising from construction contracts, deferred tax assets, assets arising from employee benefits, or assets classified as held for sale or included in a disposal group that is classified as held for sale, because existing IFRSs applicable to these assets contain requirements for recognising andmeasuring these assets.4. This Standard applies to financial assets classified as:a subsidiaries, as defined in IAS 27 Consolidated and Separate Financial Statements;b associates, as defined in IAS 28 Investments in Associates; andc joint ventures, as defined in IAS 31 Interests in Joint Ventures.For impairment of other financial assets, refer to IAS 39.5. This Standard does not apply to financial assets within the scope of IFRS 9, investment property measured at fair value in accordance with IAS 40, or biological assets related to agricultural activity measured at fair value less costs to sell in accordance with IAS 41. However, this Standard applies to assets that are carried at revalued amount ie fair value in accordance with other IFRSs, such as the revaluation model in IAS 16 Property, Plant and Equipment. Identifying whether a revalued asset may be impaired depends on the basis used to determine fair value:a if the asset’s fair value is its market value, the only difference between the asset’s fair value and its fair value less costs to sell is the direct incremental costs to dispose of the asset:i if the disposal costs are negligible, the recoverable amount of the revalued asset is necessarily close to, or greater than, its revalued amount ie fair value . In this case, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, it is unlikely that the revalued asset is impaired andrecoverable amount need not be estimated.ii if the disposal costs are not negligible, the fair value less costs to sell of the revalued asset is necessarily less than its fair value. Therefore, the revalued asset will be impaired if its value in use is less than its revalued amount ie fair value . In this case, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, an entity applies this Standard to determine whether the asset may be impaired.b if the asset s fair value is determined on a basis other than its market value,its revalued amount ie fair value may be greater or lower than its recoverable amount. Hence, after the revaluation requirements have been applied, an entity applies this Standard to determine whether the asset may be impaired.Definitions6. The following terms are used in this Standard with the meanings specified:Carrying amount is the amount at which an asset is recognised after deducting any accumulated depreciation amortisation and accumulated impairment losses thereon.A cash-generating unit is the smallest identifiable group of assets that generates cash inflows that are largely independent of the cash inflows from other assets or groups of assets.Corporate assets are assets other than goodwill that contribute tothe future cash flows of both the cash-generating unit under review and other cash-generating units.Costs of disposal are incremental costs directly attributable to the disposal of an asset or cash-generating unit, excluding finance costs and income tax expense.Depreciable amount is the cost of an asset, or other amount substituted for cost in the financial statements, less its residual value.Depreciation Amortisation is the systematic allocation of the depreciable amount of an asset over its useful life.Fair value less costs to sell is the amount obtainable from the sale of an asset or cash-generating unit in an arm’s length transaction between knowledgeable, willing parties, less the costs of disposal.An impairment loss is the amount by which the carrying amount of an asset or a cash-generating unit exceeds its recoverable amount.The recoverable amount of an asset or a cash-generating unit is the higher of its fair value less costs to sell and its value in use.Useful life is either:a the period of time over which an asset is expected to be used by the entity; orb the number of production or similar units expected to be obtained from the asset by the entity.Value in use is the present value of the future cash flows expectedto be derived from an asset or cash-generating unit.Identifying an asset that may be impaired7. Paragraphs 8 17 specify when recoverable amount shall be determined. These requirements use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset or a cash-generating unit. The remainder of this Standard is structured as follows:a paragraphs 18 57 set out the requirements for measuring recoverable amount. These requirements also use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset and a cash-generating unit.b paragraphs 58 108 set out the requirements for recognising and measuring impairment losses. Recognition and measurement of impairment losses for individual assets other than goodwill are dealt with in paragraphs 58 64.Paragraphs 65 108 deal with the recognition and measurement of impairment losses for cash-generating units and goodwill.In the case of an intangible asset, the term ‘amortisation’ is generally used instead of ‘depreciation’. The two terms have the same meaning.c paragraphs 109 116 set out the requirements for reversing an impairment loss recognised in prior periods for an asset or a cash-generating unit. Again, these requirements use the term ‘an asset’ but apply equally to an individual asset or a cash-generating unit.Additional requirements for an individual asset are set out in paragraphs 117 121, for a cash-generating unit in paragraphs 122 and 123, and for goodwill in paragraphs 124 and 125.d paragraphs 126 133 specify the information to be disclosed about impairment losses and reversals of impairment losses for assets and cash-generating units. Paragraphs 134 137 specify additional disclosure requirements for cash-generating units to which goodwill or intangible assets with indefinite useful lives have been allocated for impairment testing purposes.8. An entity shall assess at the end of each reporting period whether there is any indication that an asset may be impaired. If any such indication exists, the entity shall estimate the recoverable amount of the asset.9. In assessing whether there is any indication that an asset may be impaired, an entity shall consider, as a minimum, the following indications:External sources of informationa during the period, an asset’s market value has declined significantly more than would be expected as a result of the passage of time or normal use;b significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place during the period, or will take place in the near future, inthe technological, market, economic or legal environment in which the entity operates or in the market to which an asset is dedicated;c market interest rates or other market rates of return on investments have increased during the period, and those increases are likely to affect the discount rate used in calculating an asset’s value in use and decrease the asset’s recoverable amount materially;d the carrying amount of the net assets of the entity is more than its market capitalisation.Internal sources of informatione evidence is available of obsolescence or physical damage of an asset.f significant changes with an adverse effect on the entity have taken place during the period, or are expected to take place in the near future, in the extent to which, or manner in which, an asset is used or is expected to be used. These changes include the asset becoming idle, plans to discontinue or restructure the operation to which an asset belongs, plans to dispose of an asset before the previously expected date, and reassessing the useful life of an asset as finite rather than indefinite.g evidence is available from internal reporting that indicates that the economic performance of an asset is, or will be, worse than expected.10. The list in paragraph 9 is not exhaustive. An entity may identifyother indications that an asset may be impaired and these would also require the entity to determine the asset’s recoverable amount.13 Evidence from internal reporting that indicates that an asset may be impaired includes the existence of:a cash flows for acquiring the asset, or subsequent cash needs for operating or maintaining it, that are significantly higher than those originally budgeted;b actual net cash flows or operating profit or loss flowing from the asset that are significantly worse than those budgeted;c a significant decline in budgeted net cash flows or operating profit, or a significant increase in budgeted loss, flowing from the asset;d operating losses or net cash outflows for the asset, when current period amounts are aggregated with budgeted amounts for the future.12. The concept of materiality applies in identifying whether the recoverable amount of an asset needs to be estimated. For example, if previous calculations show that an asset’ s recoverable amount is significantly greater than its carrying amount, the entity need not re-estimate the asset’ s recoverable amount if no events have occurred that would eliminate that difference. Similarly, previous analysis may show that an asset’s recoverable amount is not sensitive to one or more of the indications listed in paragraph 9.13 As an illustration of paragraph 12, if market interest rates or other market rates of return on investments have increased during the period, an entity is not required to make a formal estimate of an asset’ s recoverable amount in the following cases:a if the discount rate used in calculating the asset’ s value in use is unlikely to be affected by the increase in these market rates. For example, increases in short-term interest rates may not have a material effect on the discount rate used for an asset that has a long remaining useful life; orb if the discount rate used in calculating the asset’ s value in use is likely to be affected by the increase in these market rates but previous sensitivity analysis of recoverable amount shows that:i it is unlikely that there will be a material decrease in recoverable amount because future cash flows are also likely to increase eg in some cases, an entity may be able to demonstrate that it adjusts its revenues to compensate for any increase in market rates ; or ii the decrease in recoverable amount is unlikely to result in a material impairment loss.14. If there is an indication that an asset may be impaired, this may indicate that the remaining useful life, the depreciation amortisation method or the residual value for the asset needs to be reviewed and adjusted in accordance with the Standard applicable to the asset, evenif no impairment loss is recognised for the asset.From：IAS36，Impairment of Assets[S].译文：《国际会计准则第36号-资产减值》目的本准则的目的是，规定企业用以确保其资产以不超过可收回价值的金额进行计量的程序。

会计准则外文文献及翻译-财务会计专业(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Buschhüter M, Striegel A. IAS 37 – Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets[M]// Kommentar Internationale Rechnungslegung IFRS. Gabler, 2011:955-974.英文原文Accounting Standard (AS) 37Contingent Liabilities and Contingent AssetsBuschhüter M, Striegel AThis International Accounting Standard was approved by the IASC Board in July 1998 and became effective for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 July 1999.Introduction1. IAS 37 prescribes the accounting and disclosure for all provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets, except:(a) those resulting from financial instruments that are carried at fair value;(b) those resulting from executory contracts, except where the contract is onerous. Executory contracts are contracts under which neither party has performed any of its obligations or both parties have partially performed their obligations to an equal extent;(c) those arising in insurance enterprises from contracts with policyholders;(d) those covered by another International Accounting Standard. Provisions2. The Standard defines provisions as liabilities of uncertain timing or amount. A provision should be recognised when, and only when:(a) an enterprise has a present obligation (legal or constructive) as a result of a past event; (b) it is probable (i.e. more likely than not) that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation;(c) a reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation. The Standard notes that it is only in extremely rare cases that a reliable estimate will not be possible.3. The Standard defines a constructive obligation as an obligation that derives from an enterprise's actions where:(a) by an established pattern of past practice, published policies or a sufficiently specific current statement, the enterprise has indicated to other parties that it will accept certain responsibilities; (b) as a result, the enterprise has created a valid expectation on the part of those other parties that it will discharge those responsibilities.4. In rare cases, for example in a law suit, it may not be clear whether an enterprise has a present obligation. In these cases, a past event is deemed to give rise to a present obligation if, taking account of all available evidence, it is more likely than not that a present obligation exists at thebalance sheet date. An enterprise recognises a provision for that present obligation if the other recognition criteria described above are met. If it is more likely than not that no present obligation exists, the enterprise discloses a contingent liability, unless the possibility of an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is remote.5. The amount recognized as a provision should be the best estimate of the expenditu required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date, in other words, the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle the obligation at the balance sheet date or to transfer it to a third party at that time.6. The Standard requires that an enterprise should, in measuring a provision: (a) take risks and uncertainties into account. However, uncertainty does not justify the creation of excessive provisions or a deliberate overstatement of liabilities;(b) discount the provisions, where the effect of the time value of money is material, using a pre-tax discount rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current market assessments of the time value of money and those risks specific to the liability that have not been reflected in the best estimate of the expenditure. Where discounting is used, the increase in the provision due to the passage of time is recognised as an interest expense;(c) take future events, such as changes in the law and technological changes, into account where there is sufficient objective evidence thatthey will occur; and(d) not take gains from the expected disposal of assets into account, even if the expected disposal is closely linked to the event giving rise to the provision.7. An enterprise may expect reimbursement of some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision (for example, through insurance contracts, indemnity clauses or suppliers' warranties). An enterprise should:(a) recognise a reimbursement when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the obligation. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed the amount of the provision; and(b) recognise the reimbursement as a separate asset. In the income statement, the expense relating to a provision may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement. 8. Provisions should be reviewed at each balance sheet date and adjusted reflect thecurrent best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, the provisioshould be reversed.9. A provision should be used only for expenditures for which the provision was originally recognised.Provisions - Specific Applications10. The Standard explains how the general recognition and measurement requirements for provisions should be applied in three specific cases: future operating losses; onerous contracts; and restructurings. Contingent Liabilities11. An enterprise should not recognise a contingent liability. , unless the12. A contingent liability is disclosed, as required by paragraph 86possibility of an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is remote.13. Where an enterprise is jointly and severally liable for an obligation, the part of tobligation that is expected to be met by other parties is treated as a contingentThe enterprise recognises a provision for the part of the obligation for which an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is probable, except in the extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made.14. Contingent liabilities may develop in a way not initially expected. Therefore, theare assessed continually to determine whether an outflow of resources embodying probable. If it becomes probable that an outflow of economic benefits has become future economic benefits will be required for an item previously dealt with as a contingent liability, a provision is recognised in the financial statements of the period in which the change in probability occurs (except in the extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made).Contingent Assets15. An enterprise should not recognise a contingent asset.16. Contingent assets usually arise from unplanned or other unexpected events that give rise to the possibility of an inflow of economic benefits to the enterprise. An example is a claim that an enterprise is pursuing through legal processes, where the outcome is uncertain. 17. Contingent assets are not recognised in financial statements since this may result in the recognition of income that may never be realised. However, when the realisation of income is virtually certain, then the related asset is not a contingent asset and its recognition is appropriate. 18. A contingent asset is disclosed, as required by paragraph 89 economic benefits is probable.19. Contingent assets are assessed continually to ensure that developments are appropriately reflected in the financial statements. If it has become virtually certain that an inflow of economic benefits will arise, the asset and the related income are recognised in the financial statements of the period in which the change occurs. If an inflow of economic benefits has become probable, an enterprise discloses the contingent asset.Measurement20. The amount recognised as a provision should be the best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date.21. The best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation is the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle the obligation at the balance sheet date or to transfer it to a third party at that time. It will often be impossible or prohibitively expensive to settle or transfer an obligation at the balance sheet date. However, the estimate of the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle or transfer the obligation gives the best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date. 22. The estimates of outcome and financial effect are determined by the judgement of the management of the enterprise, supplemented by experience of similar transactions and, in some cases, reports from independent experts. The evidence considered23. Uncertainties surrounding the amount to be recognised as a provision are dealt with by various means according to the circumstances. Where the provision being measured involves a large population of items, the obligation is estimated by weighting all possible outcomes by their associated probabilities. The name for thistatistical method of estimation is 'expected value'. The provision will therefore be different depending on whether the probability of a loss of a given amount is, for example, 60 per cent or 90 per cent. Where there is a continuous range of possible outcomes, and each point in that range is as likely as any other, the mid-point of thrange is used. 24. Where a single obligation is beingmeasured, the individual most likely outcome may be the best estimate of the liability. However, even in such a case, the enterprise considers other possible outcomes. Where other possible outcomes are either mostly higher or mostly lower than the most likely outcome, the best estimate will be a higher or lower amount. For example, if an enterprise has to rectify a serious fault in a major plant that it has constructed for a customer, the individual most likely outcome may be for the repair to succeed at the first attempt at a cost of1,000, but a provision for a larger amount is made if there is a significant chance that further attempts will be necessary.25. The provision is measured before tax, as the tax consequences of the provision, , Income Taxes. and changes in it, are dealt with under IAS 12,Income Taxes.Risks and Uncertainties26. The risks and uncertainties that inevitably surround many events and the best estimate of a circumstances should be taken into account in reachin the best estmeate of a provision.27. Risk describes variability of outcome. A risk adjustment may increase the amount at which a liability is measured. Caution is needed in making judgements under conditions of uncertainty, so that income or assets are not overstated and expenses or liabilities are not understated. However, uncertainty does not justify the creation of excessive provisions or adeliberate overstatement of liabilities. For example, if the projected costs of a particularly adverse outcome are estimated on a prudent basis, that outcome is not then deliberately treated as more probable than is realistically the case. Care is needed to avoid duplicating adjustments for risk and uncertainty with consequent overstatement of a provision. Present Value28. Where the effect of the time value of money is material, the amount ofa provision should be the present value of the expenditures expected to be required to settle the obligation.29. The discount rate (or rates) should be a pre-tax rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the liability. The discount rate(s) should not reflect risks for which future cash flow estimates have been adjusted. Future Events 30. Future events that may affect the amount required to settle an obligation should be reflected in the amount of a provision where there is sufficient objective evidence that they will occur.31. Expected future events may be particularly important in measuring provisions. For example, an enterprise may believe that the cost of cleaning up a site at the end of its life will be reduced by future changes in technology. The amount recognised reflects a reasonable expectation of technically qualified, objective observers, taking account of all available evidence as to the technology that will be available at the time of theclean-up. Thus it is appropriate to include, for example, expected cost reductions associated with increased experience in applying existing technology or the expected cost of applying existing technology to a larger or more complex clean-up operation than has previously been carried out. However, an enterprise does not anticipate the new technology for cleaning up unless it is supported by development of a completel sufficient objective evidence.32. The effect of possible new legislation is taken into consideration in measuring an existing obligation when sufficient objective evidence exists that the legislation is virtually certain to beenacted. The variety of circumstances that arise in practice makes it impossible to specify a single event that will provide sufficient, objective evidence in every case. Evidence is required both of what legislation will demand and of whether it is virtually certain to be enacted and implemented in due course. In many cases sufficient objective evidence will not exist until the new legislation is enacted.Expected Disposal of Assets33. Gains from the expected disposal of assets should not be taken into account in measuring a provision.34. Gains on the expected disposal of assets are not taken into account in measuring a provision, even if the expected disposal is closely linked to the event giving rise to the provision. Instead, an enterprise recognisesgains on expected disposals of assets at the time specified by the International Accounting Standard dealing with the assets concerned. Reimbursements35. Where some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision is expected to be reimbursed by another party, the reimbursement should be recognised when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the obligation. The reimbursement should be treated as a separate asset. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed the amount of the provision.36. In the income statement, the expense relating to a provision may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement.37. Sometimes, an enterprise is able to look to another party to pay part or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision (for example, through insurance contracts, indemnity clauses or suppliers' warranties). The other party may either reimburse amounts paid by the enterprise or pay the amounts directly.38. In most cases the enterprise will remain liable for the whole of the amount in question so that the enterprise would have to settle the full amount if the third party failed to pay for any reason. In this situation, a provision is recognised for the full amount of the liability, and a separate asset for the expected reimbursement is recognised when it is virtuallycertain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the liability.39. In some cases, the enterprise will not be liable for the costs in question if the third party fails to pay. In such a case the enterprise has no liability for those costs and they are not included in the provision.40. As noted in paragraph 29,severally liable is a contingent liability to the extent that it is expected that the obligation will be settled by the other parties.Changes in Provisions41. Provisions should be reviewed at each balance sheet date and adjusted to reflect the current best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, the provision should be reversed.42. Where discounting is used, the carrying amount of a provision increases in each period to reflect the passage of time. This increase is recognised as borrowing cost.Use of Provisions43. A provision should be used only for expenditures for which the provision was originally recognised.44. Only expenditures that relate to the original provision are set against it. Setting expenditures against a provision that was originally recognised for another purpose would conceal the impact of two different events.Future Operating Losses45. Provisions should not be recognised for future operating losses.46. Future operating losses do not meet the definition of a liability in paragraph 10.the general recognition criteria set out for provisions in paragraph 1447. An expectation of future operating losses is an indication that certain assets of the operation may be impaired. An enterprise tests these assets for impairment under IAS 36, Impairment of Assets.Onerous Contracts48. If an enterprise has a contract that is onerous, the present obligation under the contract should be recognised and measured as a provision. 49. Many contracts (for example, some routine purchase orders) can be cancelled without paying compensation to the other party, and therefore there is no obligation. Other contracts establish both rights and obligations for each of the contracting parties. Where events make such a contract onerous, the contract falls within the scope of this Standard and a liability exists which is recognised. Executory contracts that are not onerous fall outside the scope of this Standard. 50. This Standard defines an onerous contract as a contract in which the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations under the contract exceed the economic benefits expected to be received under it. The unavoidable costs under a contract reflect the least net cost of exiting from the contract, which is the lower ofthe cost of fulfilling it and any compensation or penalties arising from failure to fulfil it.51. Before a separate provision for an onerous contract is established, an enterprise recognises any impairment loss that has occurred on assets dedicated to that contract(see IAS 36, Impairment of Assets). Restructuring52. The following are examples of events that may fall under the definition of restructuring: (a) sale or termination of a line of business; (b) the closure of business locations in a country or region or the relocation of business activities from one country or region to another; (c) changes in management structure, for example, eliminating a layer of management; (d) fundamental reorganisations that have a material effect on the nature and focus of the enterprise's operations.53. A provision for restructuring costs is recognised only when the general recognition are met. Paragraphs 72-83 set out how criteria for provisions set out in paragraph 14the general recognition criteria apply to restructurings.54. A constructive obligation to restructure arises only when an enterprise:(a) has a detailed formal plan for the restructuring identifying at least: (i) the business or part of a business concerned;(ii) the principal locations affected;(iii) the location, function, and approximate number of employees whowill be compensated for terminating their services;(iv) the expenditures that will be undertaken;(v) when the plan will be implemented;(b) has raised a valid expectation in those affected that it will carry out the restructuring by starting to implement that plan or announcing its main features to those affected by it. . Evidence that an enterprise has started to implement a restructuring plan would be provided, 55for example, by dismantling plant or selling assets or by the public announcement of the main features of the plan. A public announcement of a detailed plan to restructure constitutes a constructive obligation to restructure only if it is made in such a way and in sufficient detail (i.e. setting out the main features of the plan) that it gives rise to valid expectations in other parties such as customers, suppliers and employees (or their representatives) that the enterprise will carry out the restructuring.56. For a plan to be sufficient to give rise to a constructive obligation when communicated to those affected by it, its implementation needs to be planned to begin as soon as possible and to be completed in a timeframe that makes significant changes to the plan unlikely. If it is expected that there will be a long delay before the restructuring begins or that the restructuring will take an unreasonably long time, it is unlikely that the plan will raise a valid expectation on the part of others that theenterprise is at present committed to restructuring, because the timeframe allows opportunities for the enterprise to change its plans.57. A management or board decision to restructure taken before the balance sheet date does not give rise to a constructive obligation at the balance sheet date unless the enterprise has, before the balance sheet date:(a) started to implement the restructuring plan;(b) announced the main features of the restructuring plan to those affected by it in a sufficiently specific manner to raise a valid expectation in them that the enterprise will carry out the restructuring. In some cases, an enterprise starts to implement a restructuring plan, or announces its main features to those affected, only after the balance sheet date. Disclosure may be , Events After the Balance Sheet Date, if the restructuring is of required under IAS 10 such importance that its non-disclosure would affect the ability of the users of the financial statements to make proper evaluations and decisions.58. Although a constructive obligation is not created solely by a management decision, an obligation may result from other earlier events together with such a decision. For example, negotiations with employee representatives for termination payments, or with purchasers for the sale of an operation, may have been concluded subject only to board approval. Once that approval has been obtained and communicated to the other parties, the enterprise has a constructive obligation to restructure, if theconditions of paragraph 72 are met.. 59. In some countries, the ultimate authority is vested in a board whose membership gement (e.g. employees) includes representatives of interests other than those of managment.or notification to such representatives may be necessary before the board decision is taken. Because a decision by such a board involves communication to these representatives, it may result in a constructive obligation to restructure.60. No obligation arises for the sale of an operation until the enterprise is committed to the sale, i.e. there is a binding sale agreement.61. Even when an enterprise has taken a decision to sell an operation and announced that decision publicly, it cannot be committed to the sale until a purchaser has been identified and there is a binding sale agreement. Until there is a binding sale agreement, the enterprise will be able to change its mind and indeed will have to take another course of action if a purchaser cannot be found on acceptable terms. When the sale of an operation is envisaged as part of a restructuring, the assets of the operation , Impairment of Assets. When a sale is only are reviewed for impairme-ent under IAS 36part of a restructuring, a constructive obligation can arise for the other parts of the restructuring before a binding sale agreement exists.62. A restructuring provision should include only the direct expenditures arising form the restrict-uring,which are those that are both:(a) necessarily entailed by the restructuring; and(b) not associated with the ongoing activities of the enterprise.63. A restructuring provision does not include such costs as:(a) retraining or relocating continuing staff;(b) marketing; or(c) investment in new systems and distribution networks.These expenditures relate to the future conduct of the business and are not liabilities for restructuring at the balance sheet date. Such expenditures are recognised on the same basis as if they arose independently of a restructuring.64. Identifiable future operating losses up to the date of a restructuring are not included in a provision, unless they relate to an onerous contract as defined in paragraph 10. , gains on the expected disposal of assets are not taken65. As required by paragraph 51into account in measuring a restructuring provision, even if the sale of assets is envisaged as part of the restructuring.Disclosure66. For each class of provision, an enterprise should disclose:(a) the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the period;(b) additional provisions made in the period, including increases toexisting provisions; (c) amounts used (i.e. incurred and charged against the provision) during the period; (d) unused amounts reversed during the period; and(e) the increase during the period in the discounted amount arising from the passage of time and the effect of any change in the discount rate. Comparative information is not required67. An enterprise should disclose the following for each class of provision:(a) a brief description of the nature of the obligation and the expected timing of any resulting outflows of economic benefits;(b) an indication of the uncertainties about the amount or timing of those outflows. Where necessary to provide adequate information, an enterprise should disclose the major assumptions made concerning future events, as addressed in paragraph 48(c) the amount of any expected reimbursement, stating the amount of any asset that has been recognised for that expected reimbursement.68. Unless the possibility of any outflow in settlement is remote, an enterprise should disclose for each class of contingent liability at the balance sheet date a brief description of the nature of the contingent liability and, where practicable:;(a) an estimate of its financial effect, measured under paragraphs 36(b) an indication of the uncertainties relating to the amount or timing of any outflow; (c) the possibility of any reimbursement.69. In determining which provisions or contingent liabilities may be aggregated to form a class, it is necessary to consider whether the nature of the items is sufficiently similar for a single statement about them to fulfil the requirements of paragraphs 85(a)and (b) and 86(a) and (b). Thus, it may be appropriate to treat as a single class of provision amounts relating to warranties of different products, but it would not be appropriate to treat as a single class amounts relating to normal warranties and amounts that are subject to legal proceedings.70. Where a provision and a contingent liability arise from the same set of -86 in a circumstances, an enterprise makes the disclosures required by paragraphs 84 that shows the link between the provision and the contingent liability.71. Where an inflow of economic benefits is probable, an enterprise should disclose a brief description of the nature of the contingent assets at the balance sheet date, and, where practicable, an estimate of their financial effect, measured using the principles set out for provisions in paragraphs 3672. It is important that disclosures for contingent assets avoid giving misleading ndications of the likelihood of income arising.73 In extremely rare cases, disclosure of some or all of the information required by paragraphs 84-89 can be expected to prejudice seriously the position of the enterprise a dispute with other parties on the subject matterof the provision, contingent or contingent asset. In such cases, an enterprise need not disclose the information, but should disclose the general nature of the dispute, together with the fact that, and reason why, the information has not been disclosed. Transitional Provisions74. The effect of adopting this Standard on its effective date (or earlier) should be reported as an adjustment to the opening balance of retained earnings for the period in which the Standard is first adopted. Enterprises are encouraged, but not required, to adjust the opening balance of retained earnings for the earliest period presented and to restate comparative information. If comparative information is not restated, this fact should be disclosed. , Net Profit or Loss for the75. The Standard requires a different treatment from IAS 8requires Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies. IAS 8comparative information to be restated (benchmark treatment) or additional pro forma comparative information on a restated basis to be disclosed (allowed alternative reatment) unless it is impracticable to do so.。