A comparative study of well-founded semantics for disjunctive logic programs

Confucius vs. Socrates: A Comparative Study In the annals of history, two figures stand out as epitomes of wisdom and morality: Confucius and Socrates. While both men lived in different times and cultures, their influence on the world is immeasurable. This essay aims to delve into the differences between these two great philosophers, exploring their varying perspectives on life, morality, and the role of the individual in society.**Philosophical Foundations**Confucius, a Chinese philosopher who lived in the 8th century BCE, founded Confucianism, a philosophy that emphasized the importance of social harmony and personal morality. His teachings were centered on the concept of "ren" or benevolence, which advocated kindness, respect, and love towards others. Confucius believed that by cultivating one's moral character, individuals could contribute to the overall well-being of society.On the other hand, Socrates, a Greek philosopher who lived in the 5th century BCE, is known for his method of inquiry known as "elenchus" or dialectic. He questionedeverything, seeking the truth through rigorous examination and debate. Socrates emphasized the importance of self-knowledge and the ethical life, believing that true wisdom came from knowing oneself and living in accordance with one's principles.**Views on Morality**Confucius' morality was rooted in social harmony. He believed that individuals should follow the "golden rule" of treating others as they would like to be treated, upholding the virtues of loyalty, filial piety, and righteousness. Confucian morality was less focused on abstract principles and more on practical applications, emphasizing the role of the individual in maintaining social order.In contrast, Socrates' morality was more focused on individual character and virtue. He believed that morality was not just about following rules but about living a life of truth and wisdom. Socrates questioned the conventional moral codes of his society, challenging people to think critically and examine their own beliefs. His morality wasless about maintaining social harmony and more about personal growth and authenticity.**Role of the Individual in Society**Confucius advocated a hierarchical social structure in which individuals should play their designated roles in maintaining social order. He believed that each person hada duty to contribute to the welfare of society, whether it was through governance, military service, or family life. Confucius saw the individual as a means to societal harmony, rather than an end in itself.On the contrary, Socrates saw the individual as thecore of society. He believed that true progress and wisdom came from the free exchange of ideas and criticism among individuals. Socrates challenged the authorities of his time, questioning their wisdom and seeking the truththrough dialogue. He saw the individual as an agent of change and progress, not just a cog in the social machine.**Conclusion**Confucius and Socrates, though separated by thousandsof miles and centuries, offer two distinct yetcomplementary perspectives on life and morality. Confucius' emphasis on social harmony and personal morality provides a framework for understanding one's role in maintaining societal well-being. On the other hand, Socrates' focus on individual character and the pursuit of truth challenges us to think critically and question authority. Together, their teachings offer a rich tapestry of wisdom that continues to guide and inspire us in our quest for understanding and enlightenment.**孔子与苏格拉底之比较**在历史的长河中，两位伟人以其智慧和道德成为了时代的标杆：孔子与苏格拉底。

英语复试常见问题30例考研英语复试口语常见问题30例1.Where do you come from?2.What kind of landscape surrounds your hometown?3.What do you do during the Spring Festival?4.Tell me something about the customs of your hometown.5.Could you tell me something about your family?6.What social responsibilities should a post-graduate take?7.Which kind of professor do you like best?8.What does friendship mean to you and what kind of people do you make friend with?9.What is your major? How do you like your major?10.When and where did you graduate? What qualifications have you obtained?11.What impressed you most when you were at university?12.What is the best university in your opinion?13.Do you think the subjects you are studying today are relevant topresent-day society?Why？14.What do you do for a living?15.What are your job prospects?16.If you had the opportunity to change your subject, what would you dowith it?17.What are your spare time interests?18.Where have you been traveling to? Which place interested you most?19.What kind of differences in the system of higher education between China and other countries?20.Do you think you will be able to cope with English-demands of your intended study program?21.What difficulties do you think you'll encounter in your studies?22.Why did you choose our university?23.If there were an opportunity of studying abroad, what would you do?24.Should you study more theory or do more practice? Give your reasons,please。

Speech 1The _1____Greek word___________for “man” is “anthropos” and the word_2______anthropology___________has been in the English language_3_for centuries_______. Butjust what does the word mean? Literally anthropology means“__4_the study of man_______” However, as British_ 5_philosopher_______AlfredNorth Whitehead_6__noted__________, “It is a well founded historicalgeneralization that _7_the last thing to be discovered___in any science is whatscience is really about” And as Paul Bohannan, _8_renowned anthropologist____________, pointedout a number of years ago, “Each science that deal s with people has its own_9__definitions_____of human. An_10__economist__________, “he explains,” defines ahuman as a_11 _choice-making_____________animal. Philosophers _12_define__________manas a _13__rationalizing_________animal…” Anthropology___14 ___attempts______to beall-inclusive-the study of human _15__behavior_________in all places and throughouttime. It_16_specializes________in the _17_describtion______of_18____humanistic, scientific, biological, historical, psychological, and social views of humans._____________________.Now, to _19_paraphrase_________Barbara Miller’s statement in her textbook, culturalanthropology , the popular impression of anthropology is _20_based mainly___onmovies and television shows that _21__anticipated_______anthropologists asadventurers and heroes. Some do have adventures and discover treasures inEgyptian _22__tombs____________and elsewhere, but_23_mostly________, their work isless _24_glamourous_______and involves _25__repetitive___and _26_tedious___activities.Until around the middle of the nineteenth century, anthropology was a termused for all humanists._27__My lecture today explains the fields and branches of anthropology_____. We’re going to_28_begin by____stating that anthropology is the study ofhuman behavior in all places and at all times.Western_29 __civilizations_ takes credit for the development of anthropology,which, _30____as a matter of fact___, was a relatively late science. Earlier Greek andRoman philosophers were more interested in _31__speculating____about the idealsociety _32___rather than_____describing those known to them.After the__33 _onset____of the Age of Exploration, which included thediscovery of the Americas, as well as travel to other distant places, the study ofnon-western people began in earnest. In modern day, anthropology is arecognized _34__social science____with two__35 __broad fields__andseveral_36__branches or sub-fields____.The two broad fields are _37_physical_________anthropology and_38__cultural_anthropology. Let me give you a _39___brief description__ofeach. Physical anthropology is concerned with the development of man asa_40__mammal__. Related subjects are_41__anatomy___, biology, andpaleontology. Physical anthropologists study the _42_evolution__of thehuman_43__species__. One way they do this is by the comparativeanalysis of fossils-preserved _44__remanence____of once-living creatures andliving_45_primates___, which include human beings or Homo sapiens. Common_46__fossils__are shells, bones, and molds or imprints. These are foundburied in the earth or_47__permanently frozen in glaciers_____. Living primatesare analyzed in order to study the mechanics of evolution and_48_genetic_differences among human populations.Next let’s talk about cultural anthropology. This field is the study of learnedbehavior in human societies. Most cultural anthropologists limit themselves toa few_49_geographic areas___, _50__for example___, Margaret Mead in Samoaand New Guinea, and Clyde Kluckhohn with the Navajo Indians in thesouthwestern United States. I should mention that Kluckhohn’s work Mirror forMan is considered_51_one of the best introductions to anthropology______. Cultural anthropology and the _52__scientific_______study of human culture will be discussedin more detail in our next lecture. The subfields of cultural anthropologyare_53___archeology, linguistics and ethnography. _.Archaeology is the study of different cultures through material sources ratherthan direct _54___interviews or observations____of the group under study. _55_one example__of a famous archaeological site discovered in the past century was King Tut’sTomb near Luxor, Egypt, in 1922.Linguistics, as you probably know, is the study of language as_56__communication_____among humans. Culture is learned and_57_transmitted__primarily through language.Ethnography is the systematic description of human societies,58 _mostly_____basedon firsthand fieldwork. Based on ethnographies, anthropologists provideethnologies or explanations of the behavior of different peoples. A secondsubfield of ethnography is social anthropology. Social anthropology is_59_concerned with people_____as social beings. A related subject is, of course,sociology.Let me also mention briefly psychological anthropology, which deals withhuman_60_personality and feelings_____________. These are gr eatly influenced by an individual’s biological and_61 __mental________characteristics, as well as physicalsurroundings and personal_62_experiences____. Related subjects are psychologyand psychiatry.It is important to note that there are several _63_univesals__________common amongall societies;_64_for example__________, the basic similarities in human biology and the existence of two sexes. Another of these is education either formal or informalor both. Education is necessary to provide the young with the_65__skills and attitudes___needed to carry on as_66_adults_______.So, you might ask, what are the practical applications for such a broad field?The answer is that anthropology helps us _67_plan the field____and helps us contribute to the _68_solutions__________of human problems. This newest area of the study of man is applied anthropology._69_a formally___, anthropology waslimited to the academic field. Anthropologists were teachers or museumcurators. But for the past several _70_decades________large numbers of “anthro” graduates have been employed in fields such as _71__urban__planning and administration, _72__health care____, and international development. Most important is that although anthropologists have taken up the task ofdocumenting the _73_processes and changes____of cultures past and present, they also provide the necessary insight into_74_where the human species is hiding___.Speech 2Let me begin the lecture today by asking, _1_what exactly is culture_Thisquestion has been _2_approached_____by anthropologists in many different ways. Murdock, _3_for example__, in outline of world cultures, produced what manyhave called the _4_the ultimate laundry list ___of things cultural, by naming 900-odd _____of human behavior. I won’t _6_attempt____to go into these at this time.wr ote, “culture is that _8_complex_____whole which includes knowledge,_9_belief, art, morals ____, custom, and any other_10_capabilities__and habitsacquired by man as a member of society.” But another _11_definition___ofculture that many find useful is, “the_12_totality___ of learned, sociallytransmitted behavior.” Obviously this definition leaves out much if we feel_13_obligated__to include all the ways of life that have been evolved by peoplein every society.A particular culture, then, would mean the total shared way of life of a givengroup. This would include their ways of thinking, acting, and feeling asreflected in their_14_religion__, law, language, art, and customs, as well asconcrete things such as_15_houses, clothing and tools__. Cultural anthropology isthe study of cultures-living and dead. In its totality, it includes linguistics, thestudy of speech forms, _16__archaeology____( the study of dead cultures),and_17__ethnology__, which is the study of living cultures or those that can beobserved directly.Why study cultural anthropology? One reason noted by Ruth Benedict,another well-known anthropologist, is that the story of humanity from the StoneAge to the present is such a fascinating one of cultural growth. Interestingly,every society has gone through three _18_stages_or steps of cultural growth.These are savagery, barbarism, and finally, civilization. The last is, of course,to varying degrees.We are often reminded of another _19_compelling___reason to learn aboutdifferent cultures-to learn and use a foreign language effectively. Most of usrealize that just knowing the language of another culture is not enoughfor_20__meaningful communication__. You can ask anyone who has tried touse their high school Spanish inside a Spanish-speaking country.Ned Seelye, in his 1993 book Teaching Culture, lists six _21_skills__to nurtureand support intercultural communication:Number 1: Cultivate_22_curiosity__ about another culture and empathy towardits members.Number 2: Recognize that different roles and other social variables such asage, sex, social class, religion, ethnicity, and _23_place of residence___affect the way people speak and behave.Number3: Realize that effective communication requires discovering theculturally _24__conditioned images of people___when they think, act, and react to the world around them.Number4: Recognize that situational _25_variables and conventions __shapepeople’s behavior in important ways.Number5: Understand that people generally act the way they do because theyare _26_excising the options__their society allows for satisfying basicphysical and psychological needs.And, finally, number6: Develop the ability to evaluate the truth of ageneralization about the target culture and to _27_locate___and organizeinformation about the target culture from books, mass media, people, andpersonal observations.Culture and society must coexist. Without living together people cannot createa culture or a way of life. If a_28_group or society is small, isolated_____,and_29_stable__, it might also share a single culture. For example, thinkof the Tasaday, allegedly a Stone Age people in the Philippine rain forest, whowere discovered by anthropologists back in 1971. A side note is that due totheir supposed_30_isolation__, they had no weapons or known words intheir language for “enemy” or “war” In your reading after the lecture, you’ll learnmore about the Tasaday and the controversy surrounding them up to thepresent time.It is important to remember, however, that_31_large societies____, such as thosein Canada, the United States, India, or Egypt, are multicultural or “pluralist”societies. They also tend to have many subcultures. In the long history ofhuman life, multiculturalism is a fairly_32_recent phenomenon___. Those of us in multicultural environments must remember that discovering_33__similarities___among people from different cultures is as important asidentifying differences. For example, in classrooms on just about everyuniversity campus in the world, we find students from manydifferent_34_social and ethnic backgrounds___. What are some of the “universals”that you and other international students have all experienced inyour_35_earlier educational life_____?One common universal is that all cultures use _36_rewards or punishments____to encourage_37_correct behavior__. Another__38 __example__is that societieswithhold certain information from the young. This might include faults in ourleaders or sexual taboos. A third universal is the _39_effort by the controlling group___in a culture to educate the young to _40_strengthen and secure____its dominant position. Inthe majority of contemporary societies this control is reached through politicalmeans__41_and in contrast to military actions of ealier times__,__42 _such as_the Roman Conquests and the Morrish invasions._43__In closing this lecture on societies and culture___, let me _44_remind_you not to forget the contributions of thoughts and actions of the _45_individual person__in a group. Note the observation of Edward Sapir, another famous anthropologist: “it is always theindividual that really thinks and acts and dreams andrevolts.”_46_Now, obviously the concept of culture will be argued by anthropologists for years to come.Speech 3To many people throughout the world, some of the _1_most remarkable _and_2__puzzling monuments_______________ of ancient times are the pyramids of ancient Egypt. You know, almost nothing at all _3_remains__________of the great cities of the kingsof Egypt, the pharaohs. _4_Time and weather________________have been really hard on ancient Egypt’s cities and towns, but several of the_5_temples, statues_____________, and, most important of all, the pyramids have _6_survived______________. Even thoughmany of the pyramids are in_7__ruins__________, they still give us some idea ofthe _8_magnificence ___of ancient Egypt’s civilization-a civilization that, after all,lasted for more than 3000 years. Remember, when we’re talking about_9_ancient____Egypt, we’re talking about at least thirty consecutive_10_dynasties____.A dynasty is a series of kings or queens of the same _11_royal_____family-somethinglike the Romanovs of Europe, the Ming dynasty of China, or the Al-Sauds ofSaudi Arabia.As many of you probably already know, the pyramids were constructed astombs or _12_burial______places for the Egyptian kings and their family members.You see, the ancient Egyptians _13__passionately__________believed in life after death.In fact, their entire culture _14__revolved________around that belief. The kings,queens, and state officials often_15_spend an entire life time___ preparingfor their life after death. They did this by_16_collecting possessions____ or “grave goods,” by__17__building tombs____________, and so forth. The Egyptiansbelieved that they could be assured of an afterlife only if their bodies could bepreserved from_18_decay or destruction____. So when a person died, and_19__especially______________when a pharaoh died, in order to ensure his_20__eternal_________life, he had his body embalmed or mummified. In other words,he had his corpse _21__dried out_________and wrapped in linen to preserve if fromdecay. Then he had his mummy_22_hidden___________. This whole idea mayseem quite strange today, but the ancient Egyptians really believed that ifone’s mummy was destroyed, then his or her_23_soul would be destroyed____,and if, on the other hand, the mummy-the dead body-was preserved, the soulwould be_24_immortal_____. Let me repeat that. If one’s mummy waspreserved, the soul would_25__go on living_________.For another thing, the ancient Egyptians believed that the dead person couldtake his or her earthly possession along to the next world-this is just theopposite of the Western idea that “_26_You can’t take it with you when you go___.” Anyway, the dead person was provided with_27_food, clothing, furniture, weapons__,and even_28_servants________. It was not at all unusual for the pharaoh’s slaves tobe put to death so that they could serve him in his afterlife.So you can see why the pharaohs wanted to have their bodies and theirpossessions hidden to protect them from_29_grave robbers_____. Before they died,they had special tombs built for this purpose-to hide their bodies andtheir_30_treasures_________. In the early years of ancient Egypt, these tombs werethe pyramids-the vast burial chambers that were built to fool the grave robbers. Unfortunately, the grave robbers almost always outsmarted even the_31_most powerful and the most careful ___of pharaohs. They broke intomost of the pyramids or tombs and _32_stole the food and other treasures______they found. They even desecrated and destroyed the mummies of the dead.Needless to say, they would not bother a poor person’s grave. These graverobbers even banded together into_33_organizations or brotherhoods_____. Just imagine, a grave rob bers’ union!Now, as for the actual construction of the mighty pyramids, it was during theFirst and Second Dynasties that the _34_kings and nobles_______of Egypt began to construct the type of tomb called the “mastaba.” The First and SecondDynasties lasted from about 3100 until about 2665 B.C.E. Mastaba, by the way,comes from an Arabic word meaning _35_bench or long seat_____A mastabalooked like a low, flat-topped rectangle-something like a low bench or ashoebox._36_essentially____________, the pointed pyramid was no more than an extension upward of the flat-topped mastaba.The first _37_typical______________pyramid (or, at least what most peoplegenerally think a pyramid looks like) was built during the third Dynasty (whichlasted roughly from about 2664 until 2615 B.C.E.) this pyramid was for KingZoser (that’s spelled Z-o-s-e-r) in about 2650 B.C.E. It was built by an_38_architect________named Imhotep (I-m-h-o-t-e-p). This pyramid was constructedas a series of_39__giant steps or stairs_____. It, along with others of its type, iscalled the Step Pyramid. It was really simply a pile of mastabas, each stepsmaller and higher than the one before. The Step Pyramid of King Zoser was_40__different from___the later pyramids _41__because___________it was never covered with stone to give it a smooth surface.Actually, it was not until the Fourth Dynasty that the_42_most famous___pyramids were built. The three great pyramids of Giza belong to the FourthDynasty pyramids. (The Fourth Dynasty covered the period from 2614 to 2503B.C.E.) They are located near the town of Giza, _43_on the west bank___ofthe Nile River, just outside the _44_capital city_________of Egypt-Cairo. TheGreat Pyramids are really the very __45_best reserved____of all the Egyptian pyramids. The _46_largest_________of these pyramids of is known as the Great Pyramid. And great it is! It was built for King Khufu (that’s K-h-u-f-u). (Khufuwas called Cheops[C-h-e-o-p-s] by the Greeks, and so the pyramid issometimes called the pyramid of Cheops.) It has been _47_estimated__that 2.3million blocks of limestone were used to build the Great Pyramid. The blocksaveraged 2500 kilograms each. The largest stone block_48_weights__________about 15000 kilos. The base of the pyramid covers 5.3hectares-an area large enough to hold ten_49__football fields___________. There’s a story that the conqueror Napoleon once sat in the _50_shadow_______of the Greatpyramid and _51_calculated___________that the mass of stone in the pyramid couldbe used to build a wall _52__3 meters high______________by 0.3 meters thick around the entire country of France. In terms of height, the pyramid was originally 147meters high, but today the top 10 meters are missing, and the_53__entire outer____limestone covering has been stripped away. Itseems that local builders and conquerors found it _54_convenient_ to stripoff the limestone from the pyramids and use it to build with.The Great Pyramid of Khufu is considered a wonder of_55_ ancient architecture_. When you look at it, you _56_will immediately__wonder how on earth the ancient Egyptians ever managed to build such a _57_structure____with only basic mathematics, with no modern machinery (such as cranes, bulldozers, and soforth), and with _58__no iron__tools they had to cut the big limestoneblocks with tools made of_59_coper___, which is a rather soft metal. Butthey managed to do it. The ancient Greek_60__historian___, Herodotus(that’s H-e-r-o-d-o-t-u-s)-Herodotus said that 400000 men worked for twentyyears to build the Great Pyramid. _61_archaeologists___today doubt these figures, but, of course, the true _62__statistics_________cannot ever really be determined. It is thought, though, that at least 100000 people worked to build any singlepyramid._63_Most of these works were slaves_. They worked on thetombs during times when the Nile River overflowed its banks and covered thefields. The Nile’s flooding made farming impossible and made_64_transportation________of the stone to the pyramid site_65_easier_______.The Second and Third Pyramids of Giza were built by Khufu’s successors. Thetomb of Khafre is the Second Pyramid of Giza (Khafre is spelled K-h-a-f-r-e.) Itwas originally three meters_66_lower______ the Great Pyramid; however,today it is only 0.8 meters lower. Its present height is 136.2 meters. The third pyramid, built for Menkaure, covers_67_half the area_____ occupied by theGreat pyramid, and it is only 62.5 meters high. (Menkaure is spelledM-e-n-k-a-u-r-e.)None of the later pyramids that were built during the next thirteen or fourteen centuries were nearly as large or as magnificent as the pyramids of Giza. Andeven though pyramid building continued right up into the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties (that was up through about 1786 B.C.E.), it was becomingincreasingly clear to the pharaohs and the nobles of Egypt that the pyramidmethod of burial _68_provided very little or no protection_____at all for theirroyal corpses. The pyramids were, of course, _69_impressive and lasting monuments__, but they were all too_70_visible____________. They invited grave robbers to try to break into them. And so_71_eventually____________, one of the pharaohs, King Thutmose І, decided to _72_sacrifice publicity_for safety in the construction of his House of Eternity. I don’t need to spell Thutmose for you, do I? Instead ofordering the construction of a pyramid, Thutmose had his tomb dug out of therock of a valley far from the Nile River and far from Cairo. The _73_spot______he chose was some eleven kilometers from the river on its west bank. The area isnow known as the Valley of the Kings. Many pharaohs followed Thutmose’s example. After him, most of the pharaohs_74__abandoned_____ above-ground pyramid construction in favor of underground hiding places as the burial placesfor their_75_precious royal bones__. And yet, what is so _76_ironic____is thateven these tombs did not _77_escape the attack_____of the graverobbers-persistent devils that they were!I’ll end this discussion by pointing out that, when the ancient Greeks first sawthe Great Pyramids of Egypt, the pyramids were already 2000 years old. TheGreeks called them one of the Seven Wonders of the World._78_almost nothing remains____of the other six Wonders-the HangingGardens of Babylon, the Temple of Diana, and so on –but the three mightyPyramids of Giza, as well as thirty-two other _79__recognizable____pyramids,still stand. These pyramids of Egypt are monuments to a great and ancientcivilization and to people’s_80__endless search for eternal recognition and eternal life_.Speech 4The fields of _1_history and archaeology_ go hand in hand. Let me explain what Imean. History is often the story of a _2_particular____person, a person like theEmperor Napoleon. Or, history is the story of a_3__nation___, _4_such as _thecountry of France. _5_On the other hand_____archaeology is the study of thepeople, the_6_customs___, and the life of ancient times. Archaeologists find outabout these ancient times by studying the_7_ruins of cities__________, monuments ortombs, or any written _8_records_____that remain.In today’s lecture I’m going to _9_talk about__a little_10_particular person in ancient Chinese history__, and I’m going to talk about _11_one of the greatest archaeological discoveries_______ofthe late twentieth century. The history part of my talk will be about QinShihuang, who was the founder of the _12_first unified empires__in China. He livedbetween 259 B.C.E and 210 B.C.E., and he is often called the first emperor ofChina. Just as the exploits of the Emperor Napoleon still _13_facinate___manypeople and scholars today, so does the story of Qin Shihuang and his house ofetern ity. Today, I’m also going to be talking about what has been found, to date,in the area of Qin Shihuang’s tombs. We don’t know what _14_additional_____treasuresof Chinese history and culture will be found in the tomb area (or tomb mound)in the future, but what has been discovered so far is an _15_incredible_______find forancient Chinese history and archaeology.To set the historical context for the _16_exhibition_____of Qin Shihuang’s House ofEternity, I’d like to first talk a little bit about_17_the man himself__. His name wasYing Zheng. And before he unified the empire in 221 B.C.E., China had beentorn apart by wars between seven regional kingdoms. Under the leadership ofYing Zheng, one of these regional kingdoms., the Kingdom of Qin,eventually_18_defeated______ the other six kingdoms. Ying Zheng’sdefeat of the other six kingdoms _19_accomplished_______two things: First, itended the power of these other six kingdoms. Second, the _20_unification_________ofthe seven kingdoms started a centralized imperial system that lasted morethan 2000 years.When he became Emperor, Qin Shihuang did a number of things to unify andprotect his_21__empire________. First, he standardized _22_the system for writing__Chinese characters. Prior to his unification of the empire, the writing of Chinesecharacters _23_varied______in the different kingdoms. When Qin Shihuang becameEmperor, he decreed that a standardized system of Chinese characters was tobe used throughout the empire. Next, he decreed that there would be just onesystem of_24_weights and measures_____, and one system of currency, rather than manydifferent systems, as had been the case before unification.To protect his new empire from the barbarian tribes to the north, he ordered theconstruction of the Great Wall of China._25_Now_________, there were alreadysmall walls scattered across the northwest frontier of the empire, but QinShihuang had these walls _26_join together to creat_____1500 miles of__27_fortification______and protection for his empire. Qin Shihuang alsobegan an _28_enormous________road-building project. In the second year afterunification, construction of three major imperial highways was begun. These highways eventually _29_stretched____________6800 kilometers (or 4225 miles) throughout the empire. Just in_30_comparison___________, by the year 150 C.E. the Roman Empire’s road system was about 5984 kilometers or 3718 miles. TheRoman Empire’s system stretched all the way from Scotland to Rome and thento Jerusalem.Qin Shihuang also began another large construction project- the building of histomb or mausoleum. It seems that as soon as the Emperor_31_gain power___, he became preoccupied with death, and with constructing a magnificent House ofEte rnity for his afterlife. At this point, I’m going to segue from talking about the biography of Qin Shihuang to talking about the archaeology part of my lecture.Let’s see. OK. As I mentioned, when Qin Shihuang became emperor, he_32_immediately begin contruction ___of his House of Eternity.And what an incredible House of Eternity it was! Archaeologists believe that700000 laborers were forced to work on the tomb for about eleven years. Theentire area of the tomb covers approximately 56.25 square kilometers. It isbelieved that the tomb was intended to be a microcosmic replica of the Qincapital around the years 221 to 210 B.C.E. Archaeologists also believe thatQin Shihuang’s tomb contained imperial _33_palaces_____filled with raregems and other treasures, and that it also contained_34_gradens and temples_____. It is even believed that the _35_chemcial mercury_____was pumped through the tombto create the image of _36_flowing rivers_____in the tomb area. Can you imagine rivers of mercury in a tomb? A 12000-square-meter area at the site of the tombhas a very high mercury content-in fact, ten times higher than that of thesurrounding area so archaeologists think that it is very likely that the MercuryRivers did, indeed, flow through the tomb area.Without a doubt, _37__the most striking features____of the Emperor Qin’s House of Eternity are the terracotta warriors and horses found in the tomb area. In 1975, Chinese _38_authorities___________built a museum on the excavation site to preserve these terracotta warriors and horses, and the other incredible treasures thatwere being uncovered. Today, the museum covers an area of 16300 squaremeters. That means the area is more than two football fields long! The areais_39__divided into 3 sections_____, or what are called pits: No.1 Pit,No2 Pit, and No.3 Pit. No.1 Pit is the_40__largest______ of the three pits; it’s approximately 960 square meters in size. It first opened to the public onChina’s National Day in 1979. in No.1 Pit, there are columns of soldiers at thefront, followed by war chariots at the back. It is _41_estimated___that there are3210 terracotta foot soldiers in this pit, alone. Two rears later, in 1976, No.2 Pitwas unearthed. It contained nearly a thousand warriors and ninety woodenchariots. This pit was opened to the public in 1994, and today visitors from allover the world go to see Qin Shihuang’s House of Eternity, and to see histerracotta army that was to protect his tomb. Altogether more than 7000terracotta soldiers, horses, chariots, and even _42_weapons_________have beenfound in these three pits, and more will likely be found in the future as。

四川师范大学硕士学位论文中日神话传说比较姓名：仲田和代申请学位级别：硕士专业：中国古代文学指导教师：***20030101中日神话传说比较古代文学专业掰｝究生仲钟表代指导教师李诚这个专题我是研读审国襻诺和目本稀话静过程发现了关于审酲神话的不同的背景。

因为神话能够反映出版当时的文化和政治背景。

特别是网本神话跟日本天皇的掰史有缀大静关系。

但是也有相似的部分。

例如以中国的女娲·伏羲和日本的伊邪那岐《ｉｉ垒鹜鲢２）焦嚣鍪羞ｆｌｉ垒ｉ箜ｉ２棒话受代表豹笺强神话。

本文把问题集中到生国、历史流传、太阳和月亮的性格及中网各代表的神格麓褒焘徽了深入熬毙较磷究，还有羞蔽《吉事记》移《鹜本书纪》编辑的对筏翡政治、文化背景（由于天皇统治日本、遣隋·唐使、当时的日本很重视中豳文化，魏捶文学），也搽索《吉攀记》秘《基本器纪》鼹孛藿舂代襻话瓣共阕煮。

其实《日本书纪》，宦本来用中文写的原因，引用的中国书籍也不少，有《三圈志魏书》、《史记》、《汉警》、《惹汉书》、《艺文类聚》警。

历史流传比较是重点在中日神话的历史化和由于神话的历史化引起的中日专孛话当孛戆悲剧。

孛基都受到了教浍亵思惩款影糖。

孛晷是在矮窳熬舍毽主义下纂改了原来的意思。

日本是因为以天皇煞理，所以洗不掉天皇的政治思想。

生爨§￡较是参考蜀本民族学蠹的论说，鞋嚣零害孛话、曩本营落及孛嚣少数爨族神话传说为材料，从其流传地区、兄妹婚、洪水等的角度来研究。

日本神话是蠢方海洋民族和中国嚣意她区内骧亚洲懿农耢民族夔传谈互提纠缝露蔽焱豹。

日月比较是煎点在太阳和月亮的性别，研究射日故事、左右的位置等日月的谯格。

串方用射豳故事比较多盼少数民族害串话传说，吕方熙日本｛枣话和巷诱镁了３研究。

关于太阳和月亮的性别也参考其他国家的神话，结果，关于性别不能断定。

看左右关系，有了中日的共同点，太阳跟左有关，月亮跟右有关。

这恰好和中国的阴阳思想一致。

还有中日最大的区别是日本神话里没有射日神话。

“德化一中、永安一中、漳平一中”三校协作2023—2024学年第二学期联考高一英语试题（考试时间：120分钟总分：150分）本试卷分为第Ⅰ卷（选择题）和第Ⅱ卷（非选择题）两部分。

第Ⅰ卷（选择题，共85分）第一部分听力(共两节，满分30分)第一节(共5小题；每小题1.5分，满分7.5分)听下面 5 段对话。

每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的 A、B、C 三个选项中选出最佳选项。

听完每段对话后，你都有 10 秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。

每段对话仅读一遍。

1. What is the weather like now?A. Sunny.B. Foggy.C. Rainy.2. What are the speakers going to do this Friday?A. Go to a musical.B. Have a barbecue.C. Look after their nephew.3. What happened to the woman?A. She missed an international call.B. She was given the wrong bill.C. She went to the wrong room.4. Where does the conversation probably take place?A. At home.B. In an office.C. Over the phone.5. What are the speakers mainly talking about?A. A course.B. A trip.C. An app.第二节（共15小题；每小题1.5分，满分22.5分）听下面 5 段对话或独白。

每段对话或独白后有几个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。

听每段对话或独白前，你将有时间阅读各个小题，每小题 5 秒钟；听完后，各小题将给出 5 秒钟的作答时间。

Analysis of the issueIn the transformation from traditional agriculture to modern agriculture, because of the difference in the natural recourse, land system and such social and economic factors among countries,the paths and modes of agricultural modernization in different countries are not all the same. There are three types of agricultural development in industrialized countries.The United States and Canada are in the representative of the first type, this kind of country with little amount of but in huge scale of land ,they have the problem of the shortage of labor resources,the path of agricultural modernization’s construction is to improve labor productivity greatly, and to realize the modernization of agriculture by firstly focusing on the basis of agricultural mechanization and secondly turning emphases to the biotechnology;Japan and Holland are in the representative of the second type, this kind of country usually with more people than land, and so have abundant labor resources, the path of the agricultural construction is to improve the productivity of land greatly,to realize the agricultural scale on the development of mechanical technology which based on biotechnology;Britain and France are in the representative of the third type, between the first and the second. the path of the modern agricultural construction is the improvement on both of the land productivity and the laborproductivity(Xiyuan.Liao,2011).In China, there are several reasons for the restriction in agricultural machine industry.1、the mode of family productionOver the past years, the agricultural production in China has always been leasing of land management model which see the family as a unit , the land separation problem is very serious, the level of agricultural production is relatively stly,our country through the land circulation system, unified the decentralized farming land , modified the farmland infrastructure according to the requirements of modern agricultural production (by water, power, road reconstruction),It has laid a solid foundation and created more favorable conditions for the scale management of agriculture, the promotion of agricultural mechanization, and the scaling and intensive production.At present, many large agricultural provinces have started to increase investment, strengthen the agricultural integration and infrastructure reconstruction,the progress of irrigation’s supporting equipment,and road construction is speeding up,the rate of agricultural mechanization is increasing. But most of the rural areas the agricultural performance is still laying behind.2、The Backward in mechanization of agriculture production levelThe performance of China's agricultural machine industry in the world is not very prominent. the agricultural machine enterprises from The United States and Japan have occupied most of the market in China.in Japan, the largest agricultural machinery manufacturer is Kubota,which funded in 1998, the main products are the semi-feed combine harvester ,the rice transplanter,and the half-feed combine harvester.they has accounted for more than 50% domestic market,in 2008, the production and sales of semi-feed combine harvesters had reached 7000 units.John Deal was founded in 1937 in the United States, the world's leading agricultural and forestry fields of advanced products and services provider, listed on the NYSE.,it is a suppliers and service providers whose products are advanced in construction, lawn and field conservation, landscape engineering and irrigation.it also is the major manufacturers who cooperate in sugar cane producing areas in Guangxi, Guangdong, Yunnan province.Case new Holland is one of most largest agricultural machine manufacturing company, the tractors, combine harvesters and bundling machine sales are in the forefront above the world. Headquartered is in the United States, the products are sold to over 160 countries and regions, by over 11500 distributors above the world, of which agricultural equipment accounted for 76%. Casenew Holland ’s history can be traced back to 170 years ago, there are nearly a hundred years of history in China. last century,the earliest service branch established in China and the earliest tractor introduced to China are both related with Keith brand.Comparatively,the development of agricultural machinery industry in China is a little late, the domestic industry only share a small Chinese market. The rising space of domestic agricultural machine industry is huge.Critical analysisIn China, the promotion of agricultural machine products mainly has the following problems.-----a serious imbalance between the level in mechanization of the different region.In the east region with developed economy, farmer’s income growths rapidly, the purchase of agricultural machineries are in a large number,the development of agricultural mechanization is speeding fastly; compared to the underdeveloped west regions, the amount of agriculture machinery possession is limited, the development of agricultural mechanization is slow. For example, in Guangxi, 2010,the level of rice tractor machine to plough，plant,harvest respectively were 79.4%, 6.3% and 42%, mechanizedfarming level is only 46.3%, which differs from the average difference is 15.7 percentage points; sugarcane only achieved partly plowing,the planting and harvest mechanization level is almost zero.According to statistics, China's arable land in eastern region accounted up 32.1% of the total arable land, and agricultural machines have accounted up 50.2% of the total agricultural machines; the western region accounted for 23.7%, agricultural machines takes up only 15.3%, the relative possessed rate is 2.4:1.Comparison of the level of Agricultural Mechanization in someprovinces---- product structure is not reasonableFirstly, The amount of large and medium-sized machines are in the small scale, the small agricultural machinery are in the large; secondly, the transport machinery are in a large scale but the agricultural machinery in a samll one; thirdly,the agricultural machinery supporting equipments is little and the matching ratio is low; fourth，the high performance machine are less which can adjust to agricultural structure; fifth, the total amount of agricultural machinery growth fast, but the application of advanced technology growth slowly .----defects in the categoriesThere is a big gap in the level of agricultural mechanization between different crops and production link. At present, the most prominent problem is the level of mechanization in paddy fields and sugar cane industry is too low. As a country with more than 24 million acres of cultivated area ,ranking in the third largest sugarcane producer over the world, sugarcane mechanization rate is less than 1%, only touch the equivalent of the national average level of 0.1/100.----Exist such condition that people can not afford to buy, or using badly.The role of agricultural machinery is to purchase, use and obtain benefits. Although the local government undos activelysubsidies, it still exist such condition,that people can not afford to buy, using badly and the problem of poor efficiency, which get in the way of improving the rate of agricultural mechanization. The performance is: first, can not afford to buy. At present, the large and medium size of the general agricultural machines takes 50 thousand to 100 thousand , a sugarcane harvester will need 1.35 million to 1.8 million , on one-time investment, long payback period of investment. Although many places have introduced the subsidies of agricultural purchase , but the effect is not very obvious. Second,using badly.,Agricultural management is lack of funds, the introduction of agricultural machinery, agricultural technology promotion and free training work is difficult to carried out, causing if some farmers could afford to a buy agricultural machine, but he also can not use it well.At the same time, the promotion of agricultural machinery products in China has a deep relationship with the land transfer policy. In China ,under the mode of agricultural operation in the family unit, the mechanization of agriculture is difficult to promote. One family use some agricultural machinery together, in high cost, high vacancy rate, causing the space smaller, such condition is not convenient also. So if we want to implement the mechanization of agriculture, we must make the agriculturalproduction more scaled.Research questionThe study will use literature review, case study and comparative method, several feature Chinese agricultural policy, agricultural region layout, farmland manage—technology,agricultural management way were briefly combed in this paper．The main points were to explore the following questions:1)Is the agricultural subsidies and agricultural technology extension were the effective means to protect the agriculture sustainable development in Chinese and why?2)Is the agricultural regional layout and mechanical management was the basic premise for improving the production efficiency and reducing the production cost and how?3.Is there any realationship between the development of agricultural mechanization and of the agricultural machinery industry?Bibliography1.xiyuan.Liao,hongfang.Shen,zhigang.Wang．The "three step" strategy of agricultural scale management -- from "the production link" to "the circulation of the management right" and then to "the circulation of contractual right".Agricultural economic problems,2011(12)：15—20/xinwen/2016-08/29/content_5103285.htm2.John Stuart Muller. Principle of political economy. China Press,20093.William Roscher. Zhu Shaowen. The historical method of national economics lecture outlines the commercial press,1981：61—63 5．4,.Theodore Schultz, Liang Xiaomin. The transformation of traditional agriculture. The Commercial Press,1987：19～235.Roy Prosterman, Tim Hanstad, Li Ping. The scale management of Chinese agriculture: the policy is appropriate. Chinese rural observation,1996(6)：17-29 7．6.Rui Ding Jie, Kangsai advantages. The reform of twenty-first Century China into the rural land system of Philippines land reform and thinking. China economic press,2000：45～477.Yang Guoyu, Hao Xiuying. Theoretical thinking on agricultural scale management.,2005(12)：42-45 9．8.Zhang Hongyu. Modern agriculture and appropriate scale management. Rural economy,2012(5)：3—69.Zhang Peigang, Qi Fang Chinese. In the process of agricultural industrialization. Seeking truth,1996(1)：37—45 11．10.Liu Fengqin. Definition of the efficiency of agricultural land scale. Study on financial and economic issues,2011(7)：109—116 11.Yang Runguang. Agricultural scale management is amust,2004(1)12．Wang Wenjing. An introduction to agricultural economy in the world.,1991：69～8513.Li Zhu's turn. The Enlightenment of American farmland system to the reform of the rural land system in China,2003(2)：181～182 14.Sun Ruiling. Research on the path and pattern of modern agriculture construction,2008：19 16．15.Wang Lijuan, Huang Zuhui, Gu Yikang, Huang Baolian, Hu Bao. The case and Revelation of the rural land transfer in the typical countries (regions),2012(4)：49～5516.Deng Xiaohong, Xiong Hongfang. The revelation of the land circulation system in the United States of America to China,2004(11)：6l一62 18．17.Liu Yurong. Comparison of rural land transfer system in the United States and Japan and Its Enlightenment to China,2008,19(11)：18—19,2118.Sun Li. A comparative study of the development of modern agriculture and policy adjustment and the Northeast Normal University,2007：37-4119.High strength, Takahashi Goro.the reform of the rural land system and Its Enlightenment to China,2012(5)：60—64 21．20.Xiao Qifang, Zhang Huanzhao. Analysis of the Japanese city,land system and social security system for farmers association of Asia Pacific economy,2008(3)：64-6821.Xu Tian Xiao, Japan's reform of land system and its significance for China's reference,2009(36)：285—28622.Hu Xia. The experience and Enlightenment of Japanese agriculture expanding operation scale,2009(3)：61-65。

4月23日托福阅读答案解析词汇题：attest to=provide evidence offragments=piecespainstaking=taking great effort tosubstantial=considerableconfiguration=arrangementprecise=accuratedistinctive=recognizablein contrast to=as opposed todispersal=distributionimitator=someone who copied his workassociated with=related to第一篇：题材划分：社科类文章主要内容：制造表的发展。

先说以前一个master一年只能做十几个表，特别painstaking只有富人才能买得起。

后来有个人叫Elf，他简化了钟表制造的材料，创新了一些设备，行了一系列变革，通过专业化啊水力啊，让表产量变大，又轻，又便宜。

本来特别重，不好运输，他就把弄得更轻了，可以挂住，不用专门做cabinet了。

然后使钟表让中产阶级也买得起，从精细制造变成mass production。

后来他为了peddler就继续发明创造，然后在1816年造出了shelf clock获得专利，但是还是有很多人抄袭模仿，这些模仿也在一定程度上促进了钟表的精细化。

他有个员工叫Jerome，借鉴了上一个老板的经验，然后和Elf一起将钟表变得美观时尚又物廉价美。

解析：整体文章词汇相对较简单，没有生涩难懂的学术词汇，只是第一篇相对而言比较难进入状态，所以一定要调整好自己的心态。

相似TPO练习推荐：TPO30- The Invention of the Mechanical ClockTPO16- Development of the Periodic Table相关文章：The Invention of the Mechanical ClockIn Europe, before the introduction of the mechanical clock, people told time by sun (using, for example, shadow sticks or sun dials) and water clocks. Sun clocks worked, of course, only on clear days; water clocks misbehaved when the temperature fell toward freezing, to say nothing of long-run drift as the result of sedimentation and clogging. Both these devices worked well in sunny climates; but in northern Europethe sun may be hidden by clouds for weeks at a time, while temperatures vary not only seasonally but from day to night.Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space. They set a time to go to sleep. All this was compatible with older devices so long as there was only one authoritative timekeeper; but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals, discrepancy brought discord and strife. Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurement and found it in the mechanical clock.We do not know who invented this machine, or where. It seems to have appeared in Italy and England (perhaps simultaneous invention) between 1275 and 1300. Once known, it spread rapidly, driving out water clocks but not solar dials, which were needed to check the new machines against the timekeeper of last resort. These early versions were rudimentary, inaccurate, and prone to breakdown.Ironically, the new machine tended to undermine Catholic Church authority. Although church ritual had sustained an interest in timekeeping throughout the centuries of urban collapse that followed the fall of Rome, church time was nature’s time. Day and night were divided into the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal; and then of course the length of these hours variedwith the seasons. But the mechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning. The Catholic Church resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about a century. From the start, however, the towns and cities took equal hours as their standard, and the public clocks installed in town halls and market squares became the very symbol of a new, secular municipal authority. Every town wanted one; conquerors seized them as especially precious spoils of war; tourists came to see and hear these machines the way they made pilgrimages to sacred relics.The clock was the greatest achievement of medieval mechanical ingenuity. Its general accuracy could be checked against easily observed phenomena, like the rising and setting of the sun. The result was relentless pressure to improve technique and design. At every stage, clockmakers led the way to accuracy and precision; they became masters of miniaturization, detectors and correctors of error, searchers for new and better. They were thus the pioneers of mechanical engineering and served as examples and teachers to other branches of engineering.The clock brought order and control, both collective and personal. Its public display and private possession laid the basis for temporal autonomy: people could now coordinate comings and goings without dictation from above. The clock provided the punctuation marks for group activity, while enabling individuals to order their own work (and that of others) so as to enhance productivity. Indeed, the very notion of productivity is a by-product of the clock: once on can relate performance to uniform time units, work is never the same. One moves from the task-oriented time consciousness of the peasant (working on job after another, as time and light permit)and the time-filling busyness of the domestic servant (who always had something to do) to an effort to maximize product per unit of time.第二篇题材划分：历史类文章主要内容：在泰国附近出现的一个D文明，语言和Mon语言有联系。

外文翻译Imperfect information, dividend policy, and "the bird in thehand" fallacyMaterialSource:The Bell Journal of Economic Author: Sudipto BhattacharyaThis paper assumes that outside investors have imperfect information about firms' profitability and that cash dividends are taxed at a higher rate than capital gains. It is shown that under these conditions, such dividends function as a signal of expected cash flows. By structuring the model so that finite-lived investors turn over continuing projects to succeeding generations of investors, we derive a comparative static result that relates the equilibrium level of dividend payout to the length of investors' planning horizons.This article develops a model in which cash dividends function as a signal of expected cash flows of firms in an imperfect-information setting. We assume that the productive assets in which agents invest stay in place longer than the agents live and that ownership of the assets is transferred, over time, to other agents. The latter are a priori imperfectly informed about the profitability of assets held by different firms. The major signaling costs that lead dividends to function as signals arise because dividends are taxed at the ordinary income tax rate, whereas capital gains are taxed at a lower rate. Within this framework, this paper explains why firms may pay dividends despite the tax disadvantage of doing so.Recently, Leland and Pyle (1977) and Ross (1977) have used the paradigm of Spence's signaling model (1974) to examine financial market phenomena related to unsystematic risk borne by entrepreneurs and firm debt-equity choice decisions, respectively. In its spirit and cost structure, our model is closely related to the Ross model (1977).The essential contributions of our model are the following. First, we develop a tax-based signaling cost structure founded on the observation that signaling equilibria are feasible, even if signaling cost elements that are negatively related to true expected cash flows are small, provided there are other signaling costs that are not related to true cash flow levels. Second, we develop the model in an intertemporal setting that allows us to identify the relative weights placed on the benefits (increase in value) and costs of signaling with dividends. Our modelsuggests an interesting comparative static result concerning the shareholders' planning horizon; namely, the shorter the horizons over which shareholders have to realize their wealth, the higher is the equilibrium proportion of dividends to expected earnings. Other comparative static properties of the dividend-signaling equilibrium, with respect to major variables like the personal income tax rate and the rate of interest, are also developed and are shown to be in accord with the empirical results of Brittain (1966).To keep the analysis manageable, and to highlight the essential characteristics, we employ two major analytical simplifications. First, we assume that the valuation of cash flow streams is done in a risk-neutral world. Second, we allow the "urgency" of the agents' need to realize their wealth to be parameterized by the length of the planning horizons over which they maximize expected discounted realized wealth, with no detailed consideration of the intertemporal pattern of asset disposal. These assumptions are further discussed below, after the basic model is developed. The general structure of the dividend-signaling model and the conditions for the existence of dividend-signaling equilibria are developed in Section 2.In Section 3 we analyze an example with uniformly distributed cash flows to facilitate discussion of comparative static properties and issues related to multiperiod planning horizons and dynamic learning possibilities. Section 4 contains the concluding remarks and suggestions for further research.In this section we outline the nature of the dividend-signaling model and the signaling cost structure. The model applies to a setting in which outside investors cannot distinguish (a priori) the profitability of productive assets held by across section of firms. Existing shareholders of firms care about the market value "assigned" by outsiders, because the planning horizon over which they have to realize their wealth is shorter than the time span over which the firms' assets generate cash flows. The simplifying assumption of risk-neutrality eliminates the diversification motive. The usual noncooperative evolution arguments of the Spence-type (1974) suggest a signaling equilibrium, if a signal with the appropriate cost-structure properties exists. Dividends are shown to satisfy the requirements.We ignore the incorporation of other sources of information (e.g., accountants' reports) on the ground that, taken by themselves, they are fundamentally unreliable "screening" mechanisms because of the moral hazard involved in communicating profitability. Hence, the model of this paper is somewhat exploratory in nature, a property that it shares with most other signaling models in which the costliness ofsignals derives from exogenous consideration.To preserve the simplicity of the model's structure, we assume that assets owned by firms generate cash flows that are perpetual streams, which are, in most of what follows, taken to be intertemporally independently identically distributed. In this section, and for most of the paper, we assume that existing shareholders have a single-period planning horizon. The firms are assumed to have sufficient investment opportunities, so that all of the cash flows from existing assets can be rationally reinvested. This simplifying assumption can be relaxed somewhat. The communication of even ex post cash flows from existing assets is assumed to be costly, because cash payouts in the form of dividends on regular share repurchases are assumed to be taxed at a higher personal tax rate than capital gains. In the absence of explicit cash payout, before taking on outside financing for new investments, ex post cash flows cannot be communicated without moral hazard, because one of the "inside" variables that a firm cannot readily communicate without moral hazard is the level of new investment.It is assumed that the signaling benefit of dividends derives from the rise in liquidation value V (D) caused by a committed, and actually paid, dividend level D. We develop the model in terms of a marginal analysis for a new project taken on by a firm. This simplification serves two purposes. First, not analyzing dividend decisions vis-à-vis existing and new asset cash flows enables us to postpone discussion of dynamic learning issues to the example in Section 3. Second, this mode of analysis permits us to retain simplicity and flexibility with respect to the modeling of costs incurred in making up shortfalls of cash flows relative to promised dividends. For example, one way of making up such short-falls is likely to be the postponement of investment/replacement plans, although fundamentally we adhere to the sound partial equilibrium practice of analyzing the dividend decision when the investment policy is given. It is assumed that dividend decisions are taken by shareholders' agents, whom we term insiders or managers. These agents optimize the after-tax objective function of shareholders, possibly because their own incentive compensation is tied to the same criterion. The insiders are the only people who know the cash flow distributions of their projects.Having discussed the general structure of the model and the costs that permit dividends to function as a signal, we now use a simple example to examine in more detail the nature of equilibrium and its comparative statics. Suppose the incremental cash flow of the project whose value is being signaled is, in any given period,distributed uniformly over [0, t] with mean t/2.All projects are perpetuities and, forthe time being, the cash flows of each project are taken to be intertemporallyindependently identically distributed. In the cross section of firms the value of t isassumed to vary between t min and t max，but investors cannot discriminate amongprojects with different t's held by different firms. It is further assumed that t=0.This is partly for analytical convenience but, vis-à-vis a marginal project in minany given firm, this is a natural assumption since one of the "inside" variables that afirm cannot costlessly communicate to the market without moral hazard is theamount of investment it undertakes. Initially, we continue to assume shareholdershave a one-period planning horizon.The signaling cost structure that we have developed is not only realistic(dividends linked only to expected cash flows), but also the only simple structureconsistent with the assumption of an exogenously costly dividend-signalingequilibrium. Superficially, another simple possibility that satisfies the marginal-costcharacteristics required for signaling is a "lower-truncated" structure with cash flowX in dividends paid if and only if X is less than some "promised" D! Since the moralhazard in costlessly communicating X to outsiders is the basis for the dissipativesignaling equilibrium, this is not going to be a very enforceable structure. In adifferent context Ross (1977) has developed a financial-signaling model of leveragebased on a "lower-truncated" cost structure of significant bankruptcy penalties formanagers. A difficulty with such a structure is that unless enforceable penalties ofsimilar magnitude relative to the benefits of nonbankruptcy exist for shareholders,there is an incentive for shareholders to make side payments to managers to inducefalse signaling by employing higher levels of debt. In anotherpaper(Bhattacharya,1977), I have developed a model of nondissipative-notexogenously costly-signaling of insiders' information about future cash flows, basedon expectations revision in the market, in a setting in which there is no tax cost todirectly communicating ex post cash flows. As noted in Section 2, it is my belief thata synthesis of the two types of models, which should allow us to provide a partialrole for sources of ex post earnings information like accounting reports, is aninteresting, if difficult, problem for further research.Convergence to equilibrium in financial-signaling models is an interesting issueprimarily because the time structure of events is likely to be different from that inthe job-market signaling model of Spence (1974).In both our model and that of Ross(1977), the signaling cost arises in the future, whereas the benefit, the rise in value,is likely to get established in current as well as liquidation values. If unconstrained liquidation with no effect on value is posited, then current shareholders, and their agents, clearly have an incentive to signal falsely and sell out at an inconsistently high value. One must assume that premature or excessive-relative to normal trading by "retiring" stockholders-liquidation bids by shareholders would significantly affect market value so as to virtually eliminate such problems. It is also likely that observations of insider trading, conditional on their signaling decisions in the current shareholders' interest, or eliciting (conditional) insider bids in a tâtonnement model will play a significant role in convergence to the equilibrium valuation schedule as a function of the signal. These are clearly issues that need further study, as do the issues related to multiperiod planning horizons discussed in Section 3.译文不完全信息，股利政策，和“一鸟在手”的谬论资料来源: 贝尔经济杂志作者：巴特查亚本文假设外部投资者对公司的盈利能力持有不完全信息和现金股息比资本利得税率更高。

期末考试《英语课程与教学论》满分100分I. Multiple ChoiceSelect the best answer for each of the questions, and there is only one correct answer to each question. (每题2分，共40分)1. Emphasizing on certain practice techniques such as mimicry; memorization and pattern drills is the featureof ＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. The Direct MethodB. The Audio-lingual MethodC. Situational Language TeachingD. Communicative Language Teaching2. The emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language shows the feature of ＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. The Direct MethodB. The Audio-lingual MethodC. Situational Language TeachingD. Communicative Language Teaching3. ＿＿＿＿＿＿is supported by the fact that learners from the same language background may come up withdifferent errors, and conversely speakers of different language backgrounds can make similar errors.A. The teacher-centerednessB. The student-centerednessC. The hypothesis-testing processD. The structural syllabus4. The latter has evolved into a learner-centered approach to encompass not only the student as a learner, butalso the teacher, the parents and the citizen of the ＿＿＿＿＿＿of the learning process.A. Social contextB. Educational contextC. Smaller contextD. Larger context5. Which of the following expressions is not correct? ＿＿＿＿＿＿A. Different sentences structures can be used to express the same concept.B. One sentence structure can have more than one communicative function.C. One communicative function be expressed by a number of linguistic forms.D. One form can have more than one meaning, but one meaning or concept can be expressed by only one form.6. Which of the following sounds does not have the pronunciation /u:/?＿＿＿＿＿＿A. foodB. stoodC. chooseD. smooth7. Among the following examples of integration, which one is the example of integrating speaking with listening?A. dictationB. answer questions orallyC. discussion followed by readingD. note-taking while listening8.Every good writing assignment includes several elements, in the following, which one is one of those elements?A. missionB. audienceC. materialsD. topic9.Which of the following is NOT one of the hypotheses put forward by Stephen Krashen?A. The acquisition-learning hypothesis.B. The natural order hypothesis.C. The input hypothesis.D. The hypothesis of linguistic universals.10. In the Natural Approach, the teacher can make use of various ways except ＿＿＿＿＿＿in order to help the students to be successful.A. keeping their attention on key lexical itemsB. explaining grammatical rulesC. using appropriate gesturesD. using context to help them understand11. At which stage does the teacher provide opportunities for the students to use language as a vehicle for communication? ＿＿＿＿＿＿A. at the warming-up stageB. at the presentation stageC. at the practice stageD. at the production stage12. Effective learning depends to a large extent on＿＿＿＿＿＿of the class.A. course arrangementB. learners’ performanceC. encouraging atmosphereD. teacher’s management13. ＿＿＿＿＿＿are popular among students because they are associated with fun and games and they are considered to be fashionable.A.tape recordersB. walkmansC. video playersD. computers14.＿＿＿＿＿＿makes the web more easily interactive than a book or magazine.A. telephone numberB. publisher’s addressC. e-mail addressD. postcode15.Observe materials used in class teaching carefully with the purpose of identifying the teaching goals they achieve. Those materials may include except＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. excerpts from other didactic materialsB. learners’ bookC. adapted materials in the foreign languageD. complementary materials to the book16.When w e talk about the teachers’ body language, which one is not the proper＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. “bury yourself” in your notes and plansB. do not stand in one place for a long timeC. make frequent eye contact with all students in the classD. let your body posture exhibit an air of confidence17. Which kind of techniques can not be used to get formative assessment? ＿＿＿＿＿＿A. observationB. classroom discussionC. questioningD. results from oral tests18.Summative assessment is used to assess learners’＿＿＿＿＿＿over a period of time.A. knowledgeB. skillsC. abilitiesD. achievements19.＿＿＿＿＿＿relates to the truthfulness of the data.A. ValidityB. reliabilityC. subjectD. Object20.＿＿＿＿＿＿is an intensive study of a specific individual or specific context, which is usually based on the assumptionA. Action researchB. Teaching journalC. Lesson reportD. A case studyII. Multiple ChoiceSelect the best answer for each of the questions, and there are more than one correct answer to each question. （每题2分，共20分)1. The decision of language policy includes＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. at what age to begin the course of a foreign languageB. the number of hours per week devoted to teaching itC. whether it will be made available to all or only certain students in the school systemD. how many children should be involved2. Which of the following is true?A. Interlanguage is a product of communicative strategies of the learner.B. Interlanguage is a product of mother tongue interference.C. Interlanguage is a product of overgeneralization of the target language rules.D. Interlanguage is the representation of learners’ unsystematic L2 rules.E. Interlanguage is the representation of learners’ unsystematic L1 rules.3. Contents of structural syllabus usually consist of discrete sentences, yes/no and questions, ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿, ＿＿＿＿＿＿, and relative clauses; plus inductively or deductively, presented pedagogic“grammar points”,with structures being generally presented one at a tim e.A. articlesB. situationsC. prepositionsD. conditionals4. There are three strategies for expanding your English vocabulary, they are＿＿＿＿＿＿A. contextualizationB. discriminationC. affixationD. substitution5. When students do listening exercises, what may make them feel it’s difficult to do listening comprehension? ＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. Inadequate vocabularyB. Inability to perform tasksC. Anxiety and nervousnessD. Lack of face-to-face interaction6. What are the challenges in teaching large classes? ＿＿＿＿＿＿A. Let every student like you.B. Keep good discipline.C. Give individual student attention.D. Manage classroom disruption.7. By＿＿＿＿＿＿and ＿＿＿＿＿＿, EFL students can communicate with people they have never met and who they will probably never meet.sending e-mails B. telephoningC. joining newsgroupsD. introduction8. As teachers, we need to know when students are more likely to be engaged in learning. Generally, they become engaged when＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. the work builds on their prior attainment; they are able to do the work but find it challenging.B. they have opportunities to ask questions and try out ideas.C. they get a feeling of satisfaction and enjoyment from the work.D. they are emotionally, physically and intellectually involved by the tasks.9. When carry out an assessment, which of the following factors should be taken into consideration＿＿＿＿＿＿.A. cultureB. genderC. family D community situations10. Which procedures are recommended in preparing self-report forms (Richards and Lockhart, 1996)A. identify in as much as possible the philosophy underlying the courseB. identify different kinds of teaching activities, proceduresC. prepare a lesson report formD. prepare videosIII. True or False1分，共10分）1. Sociolinguistics is a branch of science where sociology and linguistics meet.2. A general assumption is that the learning that takes place in natural and educational settings are the same in nature.3. In student-centered approach, students are treated as “empty vessels” and learning is viewed as an additive process with new information that is geared to the “average” s tudents.4. Discrimination can be used as a strategy to expand your English vocabulary.5. Good writing begins with good assignments.6.Teacher should present herself to students as a person rather than just a reader of texts and a vessel of knowledge7.The use of the Internet is not advisable because it cannot help improve the students’ English level.8. The physical feature of learning environment cannot offer clues about the teaching.9. The diagnostic use of assessment to provide feedback to teachers and students over the course of instruction is called summative assessment.10. The simplest type of experiment involves two “equivalent” groups.III. Answer the questions (每题15分，共30分)1. Case analysisMiss Li. is an English major student who wants to be an English teacher, but she doesn’t know how to strive for it. Can you help her?Because Mr. Wang is all in Chinese, Mr. Wang is not an English teacher.Because the English teacher is a student's brother, Lee teacher is a woman, so the teacher is not the Englishteacher.So English teacher can only be Liu.Also because the teacher Li asked the math teacher a question, it is impossible that Li is a maths teacher.The math teacher can only be a teacher.Therefore, Li is a Chinese teacher.2. It is very important to show meanings of a lexical item in the process of teaching; can you talk about how to show to show meanings of a lexical item?Vocabulary teaching is an important part of English teaching, in the primary stage, vocabulary is the most frequent contact with the primary school students in English learning, will encounter a variety of problems, especially vocabulary. Now, in the majority of primary school English vocabulary teaching, our teacher or the most use a traditional way of vocabulary teaching: first to read over the vocabulary pronunciation, students read several times, finally in class by rote or copying to memory words. Under the influence of the traditional English vocabulary teaching, students can only rely on one letter of the machine to memorize vocabulary, not only difficult but also easy to forget. This teaching method makes students into a boring vocabulary memory. How to help students to memorize and master the word efficiently becomes an urgent problem to be solved.。