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小学语文阅读作业设计论文3篇小学语文阅读作业设计的探索作业是老师了解学生学习情况的重要途径，一份构思巧妙、形式丰富的阅读作业设计，可以促进学生思维、智力、兴趣等方面健康发展，同时也能培养学生的阅读能力。
因此，我们对小学语文中段阅读作业设计进行实践和探索，设计出符合新课程标准的阅读作业，充分发挥学生阅读的主动性，发挥阅读作业的积极作用，计划从以下方面进行优化：一、阅读作业功能的优化传统的语文阅读作业往往只注重对知识的理解和巩固，优化后的阅读作业将更重视学生的阅读兴趣和需要，注重学生的个性发展，让阅读作业成为学生发展的平台，为学生提供自我阅读、自我成长、自我反思的空间，为教师提供了解学生阅读能力的途径。
二、阅读作业形式的优化新课程要求我们以学生的发展为本，培养学生的实践能力和创新能力。
过去的小学语文阅读作业形式单一、内容单调，优化后的小学语文阅读作业力求形式多样，内容丰富，以促进学生全方位的发展。
既有基础性的知识练习，也有探索性的阅读活动，这些活动相辅相成，互相补充。
阅读作业内容不局限于教材，鼓励学生在阅读中运用所学知识，并联系生活实际，充分考虑每个学生的个性特征、阅读能力和知识背景，让每位同学有机会展示自己的阅读收获。
针对传统语文阅读作业存在的问题，我将着力从以下方面对小学中段语文阅读作业设计进行探索:一、依据中段语文教材，进一步优化设计课内阅读作业深入研究部编版中段语文教材中的阅读篇目，结合单元主题和要素，将课内阅读作业分为三类，优化设计出阅读前预习作业、阅读中专题作业和阅读后拓展作业。
阅读前预习作业的内容优化为预习清单，涵盖资料搜集、内容梗概等；阅读中的专题作业优化为阅读任务清单，涵盖主题概括、精彩语段赏析、人物形象感知等；阅读后拓展作业优化为阅读收获清单，涵盖分享感悟、想象补白、改编续写等。
例如，在学习《短诗三首》一课前，我出示的预习清单为：1.我能读准字音，读通句子，把诗歌读通顺、流利。
2.本文的三首短诗出自冰心的第一部诗集《（）》，对（）、（）和（）的赞美是其永恒的话题。
课外阅读作业
（实用版）
目录
1.课外阅读的定义和重要性
2.课外阅读的种类和选择
3.如何有效地完成课外阅读作业
4.课外阅读对学生的好处
正文
课外阅读作业是学生在课堂教学之外进行的一种自主学习方式。
通过课外阅读，学生可以拓宽知识面，提高阅读理解能力，培养独立思考和批判性思维能力，对于学生的综合素质提升具有重要意义。
课外阅读的种类繁多，包括文学作品、科普读物、历史传记、哲学著作等。
选择合适的课外阅读材料对于学生的学习效果至关重要。
学生应根据自己的兴趣爱好和知识需求，选择适合自己的阅读材料。
同时，老师和家长也应给予指导和建议，帮助学生选择合适的阅读内容。
完成课外阅读作业需要一定的方法和技巧。
首先，学生应制定合理的阅读计划，确保在规定时间内完成阅读任务。
其次，学生应在阅读过程中积极思考，对阅读材料进行深入理解，提高阅读效率。
此外，学生还应学会做阅读笔记，记录阅读过程中的感悟和心得，便于日后复习和总结。
课外阅读对学生的好处是显而易见的。
首先，通过课外阅读，学生可以丰富知识储备，提高写作水平。
其次，课外阅读有助于培养学生的审美情趣和人文素养。
最后，课外阅读可以让学生学会独立思考，提高解决问题的能力。
总之，课外阅读作业是一种有益于学生全面发展的学习方式。
学生应充分利用课外时间，积极参与阅读活动，培养良好的阅读习惯。
阅读作业攻略阅读作业是学生们每天都会面对的任务之一，它不仅是对知识的检验，也是培养阅读能力和思维能力的重要途径。
下面将为大家分享一些有效的阅读作业攻略，以帮助大家高效地完成阅读作业。
一、准备阅读前在进行阅读作业前，我们需要做些准备工作，以提高阅读效率。
1. 创建良好的学习环境：选择一个安静、整洁的学习环境，避免干扰和打扰。
2. 阅读材料选择：阅读材料应符合个人的阅读水平和兴趣爱好。
选择一本合适的阅读材料，对于理解和完成作业会有很大的帮助。
3. 阅读前预习：在开始阅读之前，可以先浏览一遍文章的标题、导语和重点段落，了解大致内容和结构，这样在阅读过程中能更快速地理解和归纳信息。
二、阅读过程中在进行阅读作业时，掌握一些有效的阅读技巧是非常重要的。
1. 理清思路：阅读时应首先明确自己的阅读目的，然后按照文章的逻辑结构进行有针对性的阅读。
可以使用标记、划线等方式帮助自己记忆和理解文章内容。
2. 利用标题和首尾段落：文章的标题和首尾段落通常会包含文章的核心信息和观点，可以先读标题和首尾段落，快速获取文章的主要观点，然后再进行细读。
3. 理解句子间关系：通过理解句子间的关系，可以更好地理解文章的逻辑和论证过程。
例如，注意因果关系、对比关系、总结关系等，以帮助理解文章内容。
4. 查找关键词：在阅读过程中遇到不理解的词汇或短语，可以通过上下文或查字典等方式进行解释和理解，以确保对文章的整体理解。
5. 做笔记和总结：在阅读完毕后，可以总结文章的主要内容和观点，并将重要的信息记录下来，以备之后的复习和作业使用。
三、阅读后的复习和总结阅读后的复习和总结是巩固阅读能力和提高理解能力的重要环节。
1. 复习文章内容：阅读后，应巩固对文章的理解，可以通过回答问题、解释主要观点或以其他方式，对文章进行复述和总结。
2. 分析阅读难点：复习阅读材料时，可以总结文章中出现的难点和问题，并思考如何改进自己的阅读能力和解题能力。
3. 组织思维：在进行复习和总结时，可以将自己的理解和观点进行逻辑组织和整理，以便更好地表达自己的想法。
类文阅读-1 天窗风景谈（节选）茅盾如果你同意，二三十棵桃树可以称为林，那么这里要说的，正是这样一个桃林。
花时已过，现在绿叶满株，却没有一个桃子。
半盘旧石磨，是最漂亮的圆桌面，几尺断碑，或是一截旧阶石，那又是难得的几案。
现成的大小石块作为凳子，而这样的石凳也还是以奢侈品的姿态出现。
这些怪样的家具之所以成为必要，是因为这里有一个茶社。
桃林前面，有老百姓种的荞麦，也有大麻和玉米这一类高秆植物。
荞麦正当开花，远望去就像一张粉红色的地毯，大麻和玉米就像是屏风，靠着地毯的边缘。
太阳光从树叶的空隙落下来，在泥地上，石家具上，一抹一抹的金黄色。
偶尔也听得有草虫在叫，带住在林边树上的马儿伸长了脖子就树干搔痒，也许是乐了，便长嘶起来。
“这就不坏！”你也许要这样说。
可不是，这里是有一般所谓“风景”的一些条件的！然而，未必尽然。
在高原的强烈阳光下，人们喜欢把这一片树荫作为户外的休息地点，因而添上了什么茶社，这是这个“风景区”成立的因缘，但如果把那二三十棵桃树，半爿磨石，几尺断碣，还有荞麦和大麻玉米，这些其实到处可遇的东西，看成了此所谓风景区的主要条件，那或者是会贻笑大方的。
中国之大，比这美得多的所谓风景区，数也数不完，这个值得什么？所以应当从另一方面去看。
1.选择合适的词填空。
①A.姿势 B.姿态体育老师耐心纠正同学们做操的（）。
同学们斗志昂扬，准备以全新的（）迎接新学期的到来。
②A.强烈 B.剧烈他扭伤了脚,感到一阵阵（）疼痛。
（）的光束可能引起烧伤。
2.隙：部首查字法，先查部首，再查画。
3.文中描写的茶社里的桌面、几案、凳子分别是、、和。
4. “中国之大，比这美得多的所谓风景区，数也数不完，这个值得什么？所以应当从另一方面去看。
”这句话运用的表达方式，表明作者的态度是。
5.仔细阅读文中画线的句子，想一想这个“风景区”成立的因缘是什么？类文阅读-2 三月桃花水雨的四季（节选）刘湛秋我喜欢雨，无论什么季节的雨，我都喜欢。
统编版四年级语文（下）暑假阅读理解作业（二）大禹治水大禹接受治水任务时，结婚才四天。
可是为了天下黎民百姓，大禹毫不犹豫地告别了新婚的妻子涂山氏，与大臣益、后稷(jì)一起启程赴任。
大禹到任后，就积极着手制订治水方案。
他吸取父亲鲧(gǔn)治水的经验教训，努力实践，终于找到了合理的治水方法。
他认为，父亲用堵的方法治水是行不通的，必须用疏通的方法，劈开大山，开挖大河，让洪水顺着河道流入大湖和大海，只有这样，才能根治洪水。
于是，大禹便带着成千上万的民工去开山挖河，治理洪水。
他沿途测量地形地貌，查清何处需要开山，何处需要挖河。
他牢记鲧治水失败的教训，决心治好洪水。
因此，他不辞辛劳，日夜苦干。
不论是酷暑还是寒冬，大禹不避风霜雨雪，总是在奔波劳碌，忙于治水。
他的儿子生下来后，他也没回家去看一眼。
有一次，天下着大雨，他带着治水的队伍路过家门，听见儿子在家里啼哭，他的心被牵动了。
哪个做父亲的不爱自己的子女呀，他多么想进家门去看一看，多么想去亲亲儿子可爱的小脸蛋。
可是，治水的工程在等着他，天下的黎民百姓在看着他，他必须以国家、人民利益为重。
他深情地望了望家门，心里默默地说：“儿子，等着我，等我治好洪水再来看你。
”他毅然转过身，带着治水的人顶风冒雨上路了。
在治水期间，大禹曾经三次路过家门，可是他一次也没有进家里去看一下。
传说，大禹的妻子涂山氏十分想念丈夫，常常到高山上眺望，盼望丈夫归来，最后竟化为一块石头。
这石头的形状酷似涂山氏，仿佛在翘(qiáo)首远望，人们称之为“望夫石”。
大禹带着治水的人，疏导了九条河道，劈开了九座大山，修治了九个大湖，筑起了无数堤坝。
洪水终于被驯服了，顺着河道流向大湖、大海。
艰苦卓绝的治水斗争终于取得了彻底的胜利。
(有删改)1获取信息大禹吸取父亲的治水经验和教训，找到的治水方法是什么?用“”在文中画出来。
2创意运用大禹的妻子涂山氏十分想念丈夫，常常到高山上眺望，她心里会想些什么呢?3评价鉴赏读完文章，你觉得大禹是一个怎样的人?请结合文章内容回答。
月光下的肚肚狼阅读作业
《月光下的肚肚狼》阅读作业
一、填空题
1. 《月光下的肚肚狼》的作者是__________。
2. 肚肚狼是一只______，它住在大______的______街。
3. 肚肚狼有一个特别的身份，它是一只______。
4. 肚肚狼变身成为______的过程是：先变成______，然后变成______，最后变成了______。
5. 肚肚狼变身时，它的衣服会变成______色的。
6. 肚肚狼为了帮助别人，放弃了变身的机会，最后它变成了______。
二、简答题
1. 简述《月光下的肚肚狼》的故事梗概。
2. 你认为《月光下的肚肚狼》的主题是什么？
3. 描述一下你心中的肚肚狼形象。
4. 谈谈你对《月光下的肚肚狼》中变身情节的看法。
5. 如果你是作者，你会给《月光下的肚肚狼》写一个怎样的结局？
三、论述题
1. 谈谈你对《月光下的肚肚狼》中人物塑造的理解。
2. 解析《月光下的肚肚狼》中的象征手法。
3. 分析《月光下的肚肚狼》中的情感表达。
4. 谈谈《月光下的肚肚狼》中的文化内涵。
阅读理解（作业）A 篇Once there was a man traveling in a faraway village. As he was passing the elephants, he suddenly stopped. He found that these huge elephants were being held by only a small rope tied to their front leg. No chains(锁链)，no cages. It was clear that the elephants could, at any time, break away from their ropes but for some reason, they did not.He saw a trainer nearby and asked why these animals just stood there and didn’t try to get away. “We ll,”the trainer said, “when they are very young and much smaller we use the same size rope to tie them and, at that rage, it’s enough to hold them. As they grow up, they still believe they cannot break away. They believe the rope can hold them, so they never try to break free.”How could it be? These animals could at any time break free from their ropes. But because they always stuck right where they were, they believed they couldn’t.Just like the elephants, how many of us go through life believing that we cannot do something, just because we failed at it once before?. We should never give up the struggle(挣扎) in life. ( )1. What did the writer see in the village?A. ChainsB. ElephantsC. CagesD. Farmers ( )2. Why do the elephants never try up to break free from the ropes?A. Because they think they can not.B. Because they are too old to do it.C. Because they like their living places.D. Because they get on well with the trainer.( )3. How did the man feel after he heard what the trainer said?A. MovedB. SurprisedC. AngryD. Nervous ( )4. Which of the following is the missing part in the last paragraph?A. Failing is part of learning.B. We should be different from others.C. Helping animals is helping ourselves.D. Traveling always makes people relaxed.( )5. What is the best title for this test?A. Pleasant tripB. A Cruel TrainerC. Elephant TrainingD. The Elephant RopeB 篇Once upon a time, a boy was walking through a wood and he thought he could hear a sad cry. Following the sound he came to a big, round, mysterious, grey fountain. The sad sound seemed to be coming from the fountain pool. The boy swept aside the pool’s dirty surface water and saw a group of grey fish swimming in a slow circle through the pond.Amused by this, the boy tried to catch one of these incredible talking fish. But when he stuck his arm into the water it turned grey right up to the elbow. As this happened, a huge sadness entered into him, and he suddenly understood how sad the fish were feeling.He quickly pulled his arm out of the water, and ran from that place. But the arm stayed grey, and the boy continued feeling sad. He tried so many times to cheer himself up, but nothing worked. That was, until he realized that if he were to make the Earth happy then that happiness would be, in turn, transmitted back to him, through the earth on his arm.From then on, he set about looking after countryside. He cared for the plants, and he did what he could to keep the water from being polluted. He encouraged others to do the same. He was so successful that his arm started to recover its normal color. When the grey had disappeared completely, he started feeling happy again, and he decided to go and visit the fountain. When he was still some way from the fountain he could hear the fish singing happily.( )6. What happened to the boy when he stuck his arm into the water?A. He caught some fish.B. His arm was bitten by the fish.C. He felt great sadness.D. Nothing special happened.( )7. The underlined word “recover” means “” in Chinese.A. 转变B. 进化C. 变异D. 恢复( )8. Which of the following didn’t happen after the boy left the fountain?A. He started to look after the countryside.B. He stopped the water from being polluted.C. He encouraged people to protect the earth.D. His arm kept grey and he never felt happy.( )9. What can we learn from the passage?A. We should protect the earth.B. We shouldn’t catch fish.C. Even the fountain may cry.D.We should visit the fountain.( )10. What is the best title of the passage?A. The Beautiful Countryside.B. The Talking Fish.C. The Sad Cry.D. The Grey Fountain.C 篇Little Tommy was doing very badly in math. His parents had tried everything—tutors ( 家庭教师), cards, special learning centers—in short, everything they could think of. Finally they took Tommy to a catholic (天主教的) school.After the first day, little Tommy came home with a very serious look on his face. He didn’t kiss his mother hello. Instead, he went straight to his room and started studying. Books and papers were spread (铺开) out all over the room and little Tommy was hard at work. His mother was surprised. She called him down to dinner and as soon as he finished eating, he went back to his room, without a word. In no time he was back hitting the books as hard as before. This went on for some time, day after day while the mother tried to understand what was happening.Finally, little Tommy brought home his report card. He quietly put it on the table and went up to his room and hit the books. His mom looked at it and to her surprise, little Tommy got an A in math. She could no longer hold her curiosity (好奇心). She went to his room and asked, “Son, what was it? Was it the nuns (修女)?”Little Tommy looked at her and shook his head, “No. ”“Well the n,” she asked again. “WHAT was it?”Little Tommy looked at her and said, “Well, on the first day of school, when I saw that man nailed (钉) to the plus sign (加号), I knew they weren’t joking. ”( )11. Why did Tommy’s parents send him to a catholic school?A. Because he could eat well there.B. Because he could learn more about nuns.C. Because his parents wanted him to do better in his math.D. Because his parents didn’t want him to learn math any more. ( )12. Tommy’s mother felt surprised that his son .A. was still the same as usualB. ate so much at dinnerC. kissed her hello after schoolD. worked hard but said little( )13. “Hitting the books” means “” in Chinese.A. 用功B. 捶书C. 发泄D. 振作( )14. The last sentence in the passage shows that .A. Tommy felt sorry for the mailB. Tommy was afraid of being nailedC. Tommy didn’t like the plus signD. Tommy liked playing jokes on others( )15. From the passage, we can infer (推断) that .A. teachers should be strict with their studentsB. mistaking (误解) might do good sometimesC. a catholic school is much better than other onesD. nuns are good at helping children with their mathD 篇In today’s world of modern science and medicine, a more traditional treatment is once again becoming popular —animal friendship.It is now well-known that people with problems such as heart disease or cancer live longer and get better more quickly if they have pets. Keeping pets lowers blood pressure and makes people less worried. Animals are increasingly important in treating older peoplewho have memory loss and other brain problems. These people often feel nervous and upset. Activities with animals help them improve their physical condition and also give them joy, entertainment and loving friendship.Here is a case that shows the benefits of animals. John was a six-year-old mute. He had no physical problems. He just refused to talk. His older cousin, Ned, had a parrot called Sally, and John used to visit it. When he arrived, Ned used to say, “Hi, John!” We all know parrots copy what they hear. After a few visits, Sally began saying “Hi, John!” when John came into the room. Then, one day, John turned to the parrot and replied “Hi, Sally!” Staying with the parrot encouraged John to begin talking.Another use of animal helpers is in schools. In some cases, animals are used to help children with physical or personal problems. In other cases, they are used to teach children to get on and share with others, and even to teach them about animals.If you want to know more about animal helper programmes, you can get in touch with organizations like Riding for the Disabled or do a search under “a nimal therapy” on the Internet. You don’t have to be an animal trainer or a doctor to join in.( )16. Which is NOT mentioned as an illness that animals can help with?A. Heart diseaseB. CancerC. FeverD. Blood pressure( )17. The underlined word “mute” in Paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to “”.A. a person who speaks slowlyB. a person who does not speakC. a person who cannot hearD. a person who enjoys talking( )18. The purpose of Paragraph 3 is to .A. show how animals can help with illnessesB. discuss the problems of keeping petsC. discuss how to train animal helpersD. introduce some new medical research( )19. How can animals help school children according to the passage?A. They can improve children’s memory.B. They can make children more popular.C. They can increase children’s blood pressure.D. They can teach children to share with each other. ( )20. What is the best title of this passage?A. Be kind to animalsB. Talking to animalsC. The most dangerous diseasesD. Get healthy with animal helpers【参考答案】A 篇1—5：BABADB 篇6—10：CDDADC 篇11—15：CDABBD 篇16—20：CBADD。
课外阅读作业摘要：一、课外阅读的意义1.提高语文素养2.丰富知识储备3.培养独立思考能力4.拓展视野，了解不同文化二、课外阅读的内容1.经典文学作品2.各类报纸、杂志3.网络文章和电子书4.跨学科的阅读材料三、课外阅读的方法1.选择合适的阅读材料2.制定阅读计划3.培养阅读习惯4.学会做读书笔记四、课外阅读的实践1.定期参加读书活动2.分享阅读心得3.参与课堂讨论4.学以致用，将阅读内容融入生活正文：课外阅读作业在我国教育体系中占有举足轻重的地位。
通过课外阅读，学生可以提高自己的语文素养，丰富知识储备，培养独立思考能力，并拓展视野，了解不同的文化。
因此，如何有效地完成课外阅读作业，成为了学生、家长和老师共同关注的问题。
首先，课外阅读的内容应涵盖多个领域。
经典文学作品是提高学生审美能力和文学素养的重要途径，例如《红楼梦》、《西游记》等。
各类报纸、杂志可以让学生了解时事，关注社会热点，如《人民日报》、《中国青年报》等。
网络文章和电子书则是了解新兴事物、传播迅速的好选择。
此外，跨学科的阅读材料可以帮助学生开拓思维，提高综合素质。
其次，课外阅读的方法对于提高阅读效果至关重要。
学生应根据个人兴趣和需求选择合适的阅读材料。
在制定阅读计划时，要充分考虑时间分配和阅读目标，使之具有可行性和科学性。
培养阅读习惯需要持之以恒，逐步形成稳定的阅读时间和场所。
学会做读书笔记可以让学生更好地消化吸收阅读内容，为写作提供素材。
最后，课外阅读的实践是将阅读成果转化为实际能力的途径。
学生可以定期参加读书活动，分享阅读心得，锻炼口头表达能力。
在课堂上，学生可以将阅读内容融入讨论，提高课堂参与度。
将阅读内容学以致用，将其融入日常生活，则是检验阅读效果的最佳方式。
总之，课外阅读作业对于学生的成长和发展具有重要意义。
阅读作业记录单我的收获怎么写
随着高等教育的普及，越来越多的学子选择将阅读作业作为学习工作
的一部分，并且积极投入其中。
作为一个在校学生，我也有许多阅读作业，每次完成作业之后，我都会认真反思，记录下自己的收获，以下是我在阅
读作业记录单上写下的收获：
首先，我从阅读作业中学会了如何有效地收集信息，规范化自己的阅
读经验，扩大自己的知识面。
我学会了如何根据文献内容，将文献的思想
概括出来，并将其与概念、事情和历史等等结合起来。
这样，我就可以更
深入地学习文献，提高自己的阅读理解能力，迅速掌握文献的核心内容。
其次，我学会了如何将知识与实践有机结合起来。
阅读作业的重点在
于将文献资料与实践结合，而实践可以有效地促进理解，加深印象，更好
地开展延伸思考。
因此，在完成阅读作业时，我会尝试将文献资料与实践
结合，以便更有效地提升自己的理解能力。
最后，我还学会了如何形成自己的思维模式。
四年级语文春季学期阅读理解假期作业练习专项题及答案人教版班级：________ 姓名：________ 时间：________一、阅读短文，完成练习。
蜡烛一盏台灯摆在整洁的书桌上，它头上有一顶粉红的纱罩，腰干健美，亭亭玉立，非常引人注目。
每当夜幕降临的时候，它便发出银白色的光辉，照亮了它自己，也照亮了整个房间。
台灯觉得世界上什么东西都比不上它，就高傲地向被放在墙角的小蜡烛炫耀自己说：“你看我多么了不起，不但长得漂亮，而且很有用。
可你呢？土里土气，在桌上也占地方，简直是废物，有什么用？”蜡烛看了一眼趾高气扬的台灯，谦虚地说：“朋友，我承认你很漂亮，也很有用，可你应好好想一想，你也有短处，怎么能这样高傲呢？”台灯早就不耐烦了，大声喊道：“行了，有什么好想的，我本来就比你强嘛！”一天晚上，台灯又要炫耀自己，忽然闪了三下，就再也不发光了。
刹那间，整个房间被黑暗笼罩了——原来线路出了问题。
这时，人们多么需要光啊！哪怕是一点点，也是珍贵的。
主人把默默无闻的蜡烛拿了出来，点燃它，立刻照亮了房间，也照亮了自命不凡的台灯。
但是，蜡烛没有为此而卖弄自己，还是谦虚地对台灯说：“我发出的光太暗淡了，的确没有你明亮，我很惭愧，我没有对人类作出较大的贡献。
”蜡烛说完，便默默地燃烧自己，照亮他人，一直到生命之火熄灭，才悄悄离开人间。
台灯很受感动，心想：“我要学习蜡烛精神，‘春蚕到死丝方尽，蜡炬成灰泪始干’，不炫耀、不骄傲，不计较个人得失，踏踏实实为人类作贡献。
”1．在文中找出下列词语的反义词。
谦虚——________ 黑暗——________2．在文中找出三个描写台灯很骄傲的词语，再找出三个描写蜡烛很谦虚的词语。
台灯________蜡烛________3．将句子写完整。
蜡烛具备的精神是________。
4．联系上下文，用文中具体的事例理解下面诗句的含义。
春蚕到死丝方尽，蜡炬成灰泪始干。
_____________________________________________二、阅读短文，回答问题。
Test 1Reading Passage 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-15 which are based on Reading Passage 32 below:A spark, a flint: How fire leapt to lifeThe control of fire was the first and perhaps greatest of humanity’s steps towards a life-enhancing technology.To early man, fire was a divine gift randomly delivered in the form of lightning, forest fire or burning lava. Unable to make flame for themselves, the earliest peoples probably stored fire by keeping slow burning logs alight or by carrying charcoal in pots.How and where man learnt how to produce flame at will is unknown. It was probably a secondary invention, accidentally made during tool-making operations with wood or stone. Studies of primitive societies suggest that the earliest method of making fire was through friction. European peasants would insert a wooden drill in a round hole and rotate it briskly between their palms This process could be speeded up by wrapping a cord around the drill and pulling on each end.The Ancient Gre eks used lenses or concave mirrors to concentrate the sun’s rays and burning glasses were also used by Mexican Aztecs and the Chinese.Percussion methods of fire-lighting date back to Paleolithic times, when some Stone Age tool-makers discovered that chipping flints produced sparks. The technique became more efficient after the discovery of iron, about 5000 vears ago In Arctic North America, the Eskimos produced a slow-burning spark by striking quartz against iron pyrites, a compound that contains sulphur. The Chinese lit their fires by striking porcelain with bamboo. In Europe, the combination of steel, flint and tinder remained the main method of firelighting until the mid 19th century.Fire-lighting was revolutionized by the discovery of phosphorus, isolated in 1669 by a German alchemist trying to transmute silver into gold. Impressed by the element’s combustibility, several 17th century chemists used it to manufacture fire-lighting devices, but the results were dangerously inflammable. With phosphorus costing the equivalent of several hundred pounds per ounce, the hrst matches were expensive.The quest for a practical match really began after 1781 when a group of French chemists came up with the Phosphoric Candle or Ethereal Match, a sealed glass tube containing a twist of paper tipped with phosphorus. When the tube was broken, air rushed in, causing the phosphorus to selfcombust. An even more hazardous device, popular in America, was the Instantaneous Light Box — a bottle filled with sulphuric acid into which splints treated with chemicals were dipped.The first matches resembling those used today were made in 1827 by John Walker, an English pharmacist who borrowed the formula from a military rocket-maker called Congreve. Costing a shilling a box, Congreves were splints coated with sulphur and tipped with potassium chlorate. To light them, the user drew them quickly through folded glass paper.Walker never patented his invention, and three years later it was copied by a Samuel Jones, who marketed his product as Lucifers. About the same time, a French chemistry student called Charles Sauria produced the first “strike-anywhere” match by substituting white phosphorus for the potassium chlorate in the Walker formula. However, since white phosphorus is a deadly poison, from 1845 match-makers exposed to its fumes succumbed to necrosis, a disease that eats away jaw-bones. It wasn’t until 1906 that the substance was eventually banned.That was 62 years after a Swedish chemist called Pasch had discovered non-toxic red or amorphous phosphorus, a development exploited commercially by Pasch’s compatriot J E Lundstrom in 1885. Lundstrom’s safety matches were safe because the red phosphorus was non-toxic; it was painted on to the striking surface instead of the match tip, which contained potassium chlorate with a relatively high ignition temperature of 182 degrees centigrade.America lagged behind Europe in match technology and safety standards. It wasn’t until 1900 that the Diamond Match Company bought a French patent for safety matches — but the formula did not work properly in the different climatic conditionsprevailing in America and it was another 11 years before scientists finally adapted the French patent for the US.The Americans, however, can claim several “firsts” i n match technology and marketing. In 1892 the Diamond Match Company pioneered book matches. The innovation didn’t catch on until after 1896, when a brewery had the novel idea of advertising its product in match books. Today book matches are the most widely used type in the US, with 90 percent handed out free by hotels, restaurants and others.Other American innovations include an anti-after-glow solution to prevent the match from smoldering after it has been blown out; and the waterproof match, which lights after eight hours in water.Questions 1-8Complete the summary below. Choose your answers from the box at the bottom of the page and write them in boxes 1 8 on your answer sheet.NB There are more words than spaces so you will not use them all You may use any of the words more than once.EARLY FIRE-LIGHTING METHODSExample: Primitive Societies saw fire as a ….….…..… gift.Answer: heavenly They tried to ...... (1) ...... burning logs or charcoal ...... (2) ...... that they could create fire themselves. It is suspected that the first man-made flames were produced by ......(3) ......The very first fire-lighting methods involved the creation of ...... (4) ...... by, for example, rapidly ...... (5) ...... a wooden stick in a round hole. The use of ......(6) ...... or persistent chipping was also widespread in Europe and among other peoples such as the Chinese and ...... (7) ........ European practice of this method continued until the 1850s ....... (8) ....... the discovery of phosphorus some years earlier.List of WordsMexicans random rotatingdespite preserve realisingsunlight lacking heavenlypercussion Chance frictionunaware without makeheating Eskimos surpriseduntil smokeQuestions 9-15Look at the following notes that have been made about the matches described in Reading Passage 32. Decide which type of match (A-H) corresponds with each description and write your answers in boxes 9-15 on your answer sheet.NB There are more matches than descriptions so you will not use them all. You may use any match more than once.Example Answercould be lit after soaking in water HNOTES9 made using a less poisonous type of phosphorus10 identical to a previous type of match11 caused a deadly illness12 first to look like modern matches13 first matches used for advertising14 relied on an airtight glass container15 made with the help of an army designTypes of MatchesA the Ethereal MatchB the Instantaneous Light boxC CongrevesD LucifersE the first strike-anywhere matchF Lundstrom’s safety matchG book matchesH waterproof matchesTest 2Reading Passage 1You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-12 which are based on Reading Passage 34 below.Right and left-handedness in humansWhy do humans, virtually alone among all animal species, display a distinct left or right-handedness? Not even our closest relatives among the apes possess such decided lateral asymmetry, as psychologists call it. Yet about 90 per cent of every human population that has ever lived appears to have been right-handed. Professor Bryan Turner at Deakin University has studied the research literature onleft-handedness and found that handedness goes with sidedness. So nine out of ten people are right-handed and eight are right-footed. He noted that this distinctive asymmetry in the human population is itself systematic. “Humans think in categories: black and white, up and down, left and right. It”s a system of signs that enables us to categorise phenomena tha t are essentially ambiguous.’Research has shown that there is a genetic or inherited element to handedness. But while left-handedness tends to run in families, neither left nor right handers will automatically produce off-spring with the same handedness; in fact about 6 per cent of children with two right-handed parents will be left-handed. However, among two left-handed parents, perhaps 40 per cent of the children will also be left-handed. With one right and one left-handed parent, 15 to 20 per cent of the offspring will be left handed. Even among identical twins who have exactly the same genes, one in six pairs will differ in their handedness.What then makes people left-handed if it is not simply genetic? Other factors must be at work and researchers have turned to the brain for clues. In the 1860s the French surgeon and anthropologist, Dr Paul Broca, made the remarkable finding that patients who had lost their powers of speech as a result of a stroke (a blood clot in the brain) had paralysis of the right half of their body. He noted that since the left hemisphere of the brain controls the right half of the body, and vice versa, the brain damage must have been in the brain’s left hemisphere. Psychologists now believe that among right-handed people, probably 95 per cent have their language centre in the left hemisphere, while 5 per cent have rightsided language. Left-handers, however, do not show the reverse pattern but instead a majority also have their language in the left hemisphere. Some 30 per cent have right hemisphere language.Dr Brinkman, a brain researcher at the Australian National University in Canberra, has suggested that evolution of speech went with right-handed preference. According to Brinkman, as the brain evolved, one side became specialised for fine control of movement (necessary for producing speech) and along with this evolution came righthand preference. According to Brinkman, most left-handers have left hemisphere dominance but also some capacity in the right hemisphere. She has observed that if a left-handed person is brain-damaged in the left hemisphere, the recovery of speech is quite often better and this is explained by the fact thatleft-handers have a more bilateral speech function.In her studies of macaque monkeys, Brinkman has noticed that primates (monkeys) seem to learn a hand preference from their mother in the first year of life but this could be one hand or the other. In humans, however, the specialisation in (unction of the two hemispheres results in anatomical differences: areas that are involved with the production of speech are usually larger on the left side than on the right. Since monkeys have not acquired the art of speech, one would not expect to see such a variation but Brinkman claims to have discovered a trend in monkeys towards the asymmetry that is evident in the human brain.Two American researchers, Geschwind and Galaburda, studied the brains of human embryos and discovered that the left-right asymmetry exists before birth. But as the brain develops, a number of things can affect it. Every brain is initially female in its organisation and it only becomes a male brain when the male foetus begins to secrete hormones. Geschwind and Galaburda knew that different parts of the brain mature at different rates; the right hemisphere develops first, then the left. Moreover, a girl’s brain develops somewhat faster than that of a boy. So, if something happens to the brain’s development during pregnancy, it is more likely to be affected in a male and the hemisphere more likely to be involved is the left. The brain may become less lateralised and this in turn could result in left-handedness and the development of certain superior skills that have their origins in the left hemisphere such as logic, rationality and abstraction. It should be no surprise then that among mathematicians and architects, left-handers tend to be more common and there are more left-handed males than females.The results of this research may be some consolation to left-handers who have for centuries lived in a world designed to suit right-handed people. However, what is alarming, according to Mr. Charles Moore, a writer and journalist, is the way the word “right” reinforces its own virtue. Subliminally he says, language tells people tothink that anything on the right can be trusted while anything on the left is dangerous or even sinister. We speak of lefthanded compliments and according to Moore, “it is no coincidence that lefthanded children, forced to use their right hand, often develop a stammer as they are robbed of their freedom of speech”. However, as more research is undertaken on the causes of left-handedness, attitudes towards left-handed people are gradually changing for the better. Indeed when the champion tennis player Ivan Lendl was asked what the single thing was that he would choose in order to improve his game, he said he would like to become a lefthander.[ Geoff Maslen ]Questions 1-7Use the information in the text to match the people (listed A-E) with the opinions (listed 1-7) below. Write the appropriate letter (A-E) in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet. Some people match more than one opinion.A Dr BrocaB Dr BrinkmanC Geschwind and GalaburdaD Charles MooreE Professor TurnerExample Answer Monkeys do not show a species specific preference for B left or right-handedness.1.Human beings started to show a preference for right-handedness whentheyfirst developed language.2.Society is prejudiced against left-handed people.3.Boys are more likely to be left-handed.4.After a stroke, left-handed people recover their speech more quickly thanrighthanded people.5.People who suffer strokes on the left side of the brain usually lose theirpower of speech.6.The two sides of the brain develop different functions before birth.7.Asymmetry is a common feature of the human body.Questions 8-10Using the information in the passage, complete the table below. Write your answers in boxes 8 10 on your answer sheet.Percentage of children left-handedOne parent left-handedOne parent right-handed ........(8)........ Both parents left-handed .........(9)........ Both parents right-handed .......(10).......Questions 11-12Choose the appropriate letters A-D and write them in boxes 11 and 12 on your answer sheet.11 A study of monkeys has shown thatA monkeys are not usually right-handed.B monkeys display a capacity for speech.C monkey brains are smaller than human brains.D monkey brains are asymmetric.12 According to the writer, left-handed peopleA will often develop a stammer.B have undergone hardship for years.C are untrustworthy.D are good tennis players.。
