Chapter1词汇的基本概念
一、定义
㈠实词content words denote clear notions.包括N, V, Adv, Adj, Numerals
㈡功能词funtional words don't have notions of their own,also called Empty words
㈢本族词native words are words brought to UK in5th century by German tribes(AngloSaxon words㈣当时的Anglo-saxon words只有5万至6万左右)
㈤基本词汇the basic wordstock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language(basic wordstock is true of native words)
㈥词汇(V ocabulary)V ocabulary is the most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language,it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period
㈦词word具有一定声音、意义和语法功能，能独立运用的最小的语言单位
A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
二、Word分类:
1.根据use frequency：Basic word stock和nonbasic vocabulary
根据notion：content words和functional words（does more work of expression在英语on average than实词）根据origin：
㈠native words(特征neutral in style and frequent in use)
㈡borrowed words(loan words/borrowings)
⑴同化词Denizens拼写和读音完全符合本族词规范的在早期被借入的词
Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into the english language
⑵非同化词aliens保留起原来的发音和拼写
Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling
⑶译借词Translation-loans通过翻译引进的词
Translation-loan are words and expressions formed from the exsiting material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language
⑷借义词Semantic-loans借义不借词形
English has borrowed a new meaning for an existing word in the language.
2.根据使用位臵分类的特征:
a全民性All national character（鉴别基本词汇的标准）b稳定性Stability
c多产性Productivity d多义性Ploysemy e搭配性Collocability
3.非基本词汇包括:
Teminology术语slang俚语argot黑话jargon行话
dialectal words方言archaisms古语词neologisms新词语
三、问答
㈠the internal reason of difference between sound and form
⑴the internal reason for this’s that the English alphabet was adopted from Romans,which doesnot have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language,so that some letters mus do double duty or work together in combination
⑵another reason is that the pronuncation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years
⑶some of the differences were created by the early scribs(in the late1500,printing became well established)
⑷lots of borrowings is an important channel of enriching English vocabulary.
㈡how do you account for the role of Native W ords in English in relation to Loan-words
⑴Native words are those of Anglo-saxon origin,which are small in number,Loan-words are borrowed from other language.
⑵it’s estimated loan -words constitue about80%of the modern English vocabulary,native words canot compare with loan-words in number,but have a more important role in the language
⑶native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock whereas only a limited number of borrowed words belong to the common core.
㈢illustrate the relationship between sound and meaning
⑴sound is the physical aspect of a word and meaning is what the sound refers to
⑵sound and meaning are not intrinsically related and their connection is arbitary and conventional
Chapter2.-3词汇的发展及构成Ⅰ
一、定义
1创新Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots,affixes and other element
2语义变化semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need(在number and form 上无变化)
3词素morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words
4词素变体allomorphs is one of the variants that realize a morpheme
举例:如复数词素-s 在不同语境中有不同的形式:cats/s/,bags/z/和matches/iz/就是词素变体
5复合词根bound root is a bound form and has to combiene with other morphemes to make words
6词缀Affixes are forms that attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function
7曲折词缀Inflectional affixes(特点是small 和stable)it attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationship
8派生词缀Derivational affixes added to other morphemes to creat new words
二、要点
1.印欧语系indo-european language family(Europe,the Near East,India)
Balto-s
lavic
Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Bulgarian, Slovenian, Russian
latin,Greek,French,San skrit 给英语的影响最大 Armen
ian
Indo-Ir
anian
Hindi, Persian Albani
an
Celtic
Irish, Scottish, Breton Helleni
c
Greek Germa
nic
Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, English, German Italic(
Latin)
Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Roumanian, French 2.英语发展的三个阶段
⑴old English (450-1150)当时大约有5---6万单词
①the frist people known to inhahit the land 英国是celts,后来410年被Roman 征服
② the 2nd major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman legions.
③Now the people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as Old English.
④the end of6th century,the introduction of Christianity had a great impact on the English V ocabulary
⑵Middle English(1150-1500)
①Old English began to undergo a great change when Norman invaded England from France in1066,till then,although there were borrowings from Latin,the influence on english was mainly Germanic.当时大批法语被用于english,至今70%仍留用.
②在13世纪末,英语才恢复为学校,法庭和官方语言
另外old English was a language of full endings,middle English was one of leveled endings,in modern English,word endings were mostly lost with just a few exception,it can be concluded that english has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language
例如: old English Middle English Modern English
Leorn-ian Lern-en Learn
⑶modern English(1500till now)
①modern english共分2个阶段1500-1700和1700至今
②modern English began with the establishement of Priting in England
③More than25%modern enlish words come almost from classical languages
④although borrowing remained an important channel of vocabulary expression,yet more words are created by means of word-formation
3.Three reasons for the growth of modern English vocabulary
①rapid development of modern science and technology
②Political,social and economic changes
③Contact with other languages and cultures
4.Modes of the development of modern English vocabulary
①creation ②Semantic change ③borrowing(在英语的发展中起vital role)
另外.Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English
5.词的构成
morpheme
Free morpheme
(free root)
Bound morpheme(cant occur as separate words are bound)
Those morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free
grammatical units in setence有完整的形式和意义,可起一个词的作用
Bound root affix
It is that part
of the word that
carries the
fundamental
meaning ,it has to
combine with other
morphemes to make
words
Inflectio
nal affix
Derivational affix
pr
efix
suffix
三、问答
区别Root and Stem
1.a root is the basic form of a word which canot be further analysed without total loss of identity,whether free or bound root,generally carries the main component of meaning in a word
2.a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added
3.a stem can replace root and also refer to any form which is larger than root.
Chapter4 词汇的构成Ⅱ
一、定义
1.Afffixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.
2.Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.it doesn’t change the word-class of the stem,but modify its meaning.
3.Suffixation is the fo rmation of new words by adding suffixes to stems, it’s to change the grammatical functions of stems.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/e914636537.html,pound is the formation of new words by joining tow or more stems words formed.
5.Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.词性变，拼写不变
6.Zero-Derivation:Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adopted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix.
派生过程，在这个过程中不断增加词缀而派出一个词就被转变成一个新词。
7.Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of 2 words or a word plus a part of another word. Word formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau.
8.clipping is the way of making a word to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.
9.Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.
Depending on the pronunciation of words,it’s divided to Initialisms and Acronyms
Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronuced as a normal word.
10.Backformation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation,it’s the formation of creating wo rds by removing the supposed suffixes.
二、要点
1.the Expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.
2.the most productive are affixation(30-40%),compounding(28-30%) and conversion(26%).others are shortening,clipping,acronymy,blending.
3.前缀法分9种：
⑴Negative prefixes:
a-(apolitical), dis-(disobey) in-(injustice)
⑵Reversative prefixes:
de-(decompose) dis-(disunite) un-(unhorse下台)
⑶Pejorative prefixes:
mal-(malpractice) mis-(misconduct胡作非为) pseudo-(pseudo-science)
⑷Prefixes of degree:
arch-(archbishop) extra-(extra-strong), hyper-(hyperactive) ultra-(ultra-conservative)
⑸prefixes of orientation and attitude:
anti-(anti-nuclear) contra-(contra-flow) pro-(pro-student)
⑹Locative prefixes:
extra-(extraordinary超常的) intra-(intra-party党内的)
⑺Prefixes of time and order
ex-(ex-professor) for-(for-tell)
⑻Number prefixes:
Bi-(bilingual) , semi-(semi-naked) uni-(uni-form)
⑼Miscellaneous prefixes:
auto-(auto-biography自传) neo-(neo-Nazi新纳粹), Pan-(pan-European泛欧)
4.后缀法分4种：
⑴N. suffixes：
①Denominal Nouns
如-eer,profiteer和concrete nouns如-age,wastage
②Deverbal Nouns
如-ant,assitant, -ence, persistence
③De-adjective Nouns
如-ity, popularity
④Noun and adjective suffixes
有少数加在民族，国家名后可同时作noun和adj,如-ese,chinese
⑵Adjective suffixes
①Denominal suffixes:
-ed(wooded),-less(priceless)
②Deverbal suffixes:
-able(washable).-ive(decisive)
⑶Adverb suffixes:
-ward(homewards向家地方向),-wise(education-wise在教育方面)
⑷V erb suffixes:
-ate(originate源于)，-fy(solidify)
另外-ink(献身于….的人，….的分子)如folknik喜爱民间音乐的人peacenik献身于和平的人
https://www.doczj.com/doc/e914636537.html,pound Characteristics
语音、语义和语法
⑴Phonetic features
the word stress usually occurs on the 1st element whereas in noun phrase,the2nd element is stressed if there is only one stress,in case of 2stresses,the compound has the primary stress on the 1st element and the secondary stress.
若只有一个重音，则落在第一个音节上（除名词），若2个重音，则依次落重音
⑵Semantic Features
Compounds are different from free phrase in semantic unity,every compound should express a single idea just as one word.
每一个复合词表达一个单一的意思。
⑶Grammatic features
A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence
复合词在一个句中是个独立的语法单位
In adjective-noun compounds,the adjective element canot take inflectional suffixes.
另外,在”形+名”成分不能有曲折变化。
6.Formation of Compounds:
构词能力最强的是动词，名词和形容词。
the productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent.
*V erb Compound
通过转类和逆声产生的动词复合词
the limited number of verbs are created through Conversion and Backformation
例子：
Conversion:
nickname---to nickname honeymoon-to honeymoon
Backformation:
lip-reading(n)---to lip-read chain-smoker(n)—to chain-smoke
Back-formed verb compounds are formed by dropping the suffixes.
7.Conversion又称Function shift=Zero-derivation
Conversion知识点
⑴Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns,adjectives and verbs.the most productive is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.it deserves that conversion is not only a change of grmmatical function of the lexical item involved but with it the different range of meaning that it originally carried.
由转类法构成的词大多是N，V，Adj,构词最强的是N,V转类法不仅可以改变词的语法功能，还可以改变原义。如paper作为N有4个含义a纸b报纸c论文d墙纸
⑵Conversion to Noun
①V erb-- Noun
分为State(doubt,want,desire); Result of the action(cactch,find,bet)
Event(search,attempt,relese); Doer of the action(help,bore,coach)
Tool(cover,wrap) Place(pass关口,divide分界线)
②Adj—Noun
It’s not unusual to have nouns converted from adjectives.
分为Full conversion和Partial conversion
Full conversion is a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns.it can take an indefinite article or –es to indicate singular or plural number
转化后的词具有名词的全部特征，可带不定冠词或-es表复数如a white,a liberal
Partial conversion,it doesnot posses all the qualities a noun does,they must be used together with definite articles
前面必须带冠词,如the poor,the more affluent
⑶Conversion to V erbs
①Noun--V erb
V erbs converted from nouns are semantically related to the original nouns in a variety of ways
如to put in or on N把….放入
To pocket the money=to put money into the pocket
②Adj—V erb可转及物动词或不及物动词
The V erbs ca b be used either transitively to mean”to make…..adjective” or intransitively to become object”
8.Blending拼缀法Blends=Pormanteau
⑴分为4类
①Head+tail
Autocide automobile+suicide撞车自杀slurb slum+suburb
Motel motor+hotel cremains cremate+remains骨灰
Chunnel channel+tunnel海峡隧道
②Head+Head
Comsat communications+satellite通讯卫星Amerind American+Indian
Telex teleprinter+exchange Sitcom Situation+comedy
FORTRAN formula+translator公式翻译程序
③Head+W ord
Medicare medical+care Eurasia Europe+Asia
Telequiz Telephone+quiz电话测试Autocamp automobile+camp
④W ord+tail
Lunarnaut lunar+astronaut Bookmobile Book+automobile
Workfare work+welfare Tourmobile Tour+automobile游览车
*the overwhelming majority of blends are Nouns,very few are verbs and adjectives.
有限动词
Telecast Television+broadcast Guestimate guess+estimate瞎猜
9.Clipping截短法
⑴分为4类
①Front Clipping截前
Quake(earthquake) Copter(helicopter) Scope(telescope) Phone(Telephone)
②Back Clipping截后留前
Dorm(domitory) Memo(memorandum) Stereo(stereophonic) Gent(gentleman)
Fan(fanatic) Disco(discotheque)
③Front+back clipping截除首尾
Flu(influenza) Fridge(refrigerator)
④Phrase clipping词组截短
Pub(public house) Zoo(zoological garden) Pop(popular music) Perm(permanent waves)
10.Acronymy首字母缩略法
⑴分为2类
①Initialisms首字母缩略词
Letters represent full words字母代表整个词
VOA V oice of America c/o care of BBC British Broadcasting Corporation Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word
字母代表一个复合词的构成成分或词的一部分
如TB Tuberculosis结核病GHQ general headquarters司令部
②Acronymy首字母拼音词
由字母构成，但作为一个普通词发音
Radar radio detecting and ranging NATO the North Atlantic T reaty Organization AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome CORE Congress of Racial Equality
* some acronyms are formed with the initial letter of the 1st word plus the whole of the 2nd.有些首字母拼音词是由第一个单词的首字母加上第二个单词构成
N-bomb nuclear bomb D Notice Defence Notice D day decimalization
11.Backformation逆生法
⑴分为4类
①Abstract nouns
Diagnose—diagnosis Enthuse--enthusiasm
②Human nouns
Loaf混日子—loafer Sculpt--sculptor
③Compound nouns and others
Eavesdrop—eavesdropping Merrymake—merry-making
④Adjectives
Drowse—drowsy使昏昏入睡Frivol—frivolous闲混
*W ords created thruogh back-formation are mostly verbs.
三、问答
1. what’s the best way to classify prefixes?why
答:It’s an accordance with meaning,because prefixes donot generally change the word-class of stem but it’s meaning.根据词意，因为前缀不改变词根的性质，而是词义。
2.what’s the difference between partial and full conversion?explain them with examples.
答:Compounds verbs are formed through either conversion or back-formation.
back-formed verb compounds are made mainly by dropping the suffix:-er,-ion,-ing,ex.
Through conversion: Through back-formation:
Machine-gun(N)—to machine-gun sight-seeing---to sight-see
3.both Initialisms and acronyms are formed to a certain extent from initial letters,is there any difference between them?illustrate your point with examples.
答:Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter,acronyms are pronounced as common words.
⑴Initialisms
p.c----postcard TV-----television
⑵Acronyms
TEFL---teaching english as a foreign language
G-man---Government man联邦调查局侦探
4.both back-formation and back-clipping are ways of making words by removing the endings of words,how do you account for the coexistence of the two?can you explain the difference?
答back-formation is a method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.
back clipping is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead,and what is cut off is not suffix in any way.
Back-formation Back clipping
Advertisement---ad Television---televise
Bachelor----------lab
Chapter 5 词的意义
一、定义
1.所指Reference is the relationship between langauge and the world.
2.概念Concept wich is beyong language,is the result of human cognition,refleciting the objective world is the human mind.
3.语义Sense denotes the relationshop inside the language,every word that has meaning has sense,sense is simply the meaning of a word in a language.
4.理据Motivation accounts for the relationship between linguistic symbol and its meaning
5.语法意义Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships
6.词汇意义Lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as its related to the notion that the word conveys
7.概念意义Conceptual meaning(Denotative meaning) is the meaing given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.
8.联想意义Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.
9.内涵意义Connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associatons suggested by the conceptual meaning.由概念意义产生的言外之意或联想。
10.文体意义Stylistic meaning make words appropriate for different contexts.
11.情感意义Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.
12.搭配意义Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collcation.
或者说It’s that part the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion
搭配意义即与之一起使用的词语所赋予的那部分意义.如pretty girl or woman.handsome man or boy
二、要点
1.Reference is although abstract,yet with help of context,it can refer to something specific.
2.Types of Motivation分类
⑴Onomatopoeic motivation拟声理据（大自然万物拟声词）
⑵Mophological motivation形态理据（复合词、派生词）
⑶Semantic motivation语义理据（文体色彩，如比喻）
⑷Etymological motivation词源理据（历史来源）
*Compounds and derived words are muti-morphemic words and the meaing of many are the sum total of the morphemes combined.
复合词和派生词是多词素词，很多词的意义恰好是词素意义的相加。
*It should be pointed out that there are a lot of words whose structure are opaque.
很多词的形态结构是隐性的
3.Types of Meaning意义的种类
⑴Grammatical Meaning语法意义
⑵Lexical Meaning词汇意义
词汇意义又包括Conceptual meaning和Associative meaning
*Associative meaning包括
①Connotative meaing②stylistic meaning③affective meaing④collocative meaning
*words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative or pejorative
三、问答
1.What’s motiv ation?
does this theory contradic the theory of ‘arbitrariness’and’conventionality’concering the relationship between linguistic symbols and their senses?
答: Motivation accounts for the connection between linguistic symbols and their meaning
But since the relationship between the word-form and meaning it conventional and arbitrary,
words shoud be non-motivated.
Nevertheless.many words are motivated to a certain in terms of sound,morphology,semantcis,and etymology.
Chapter6语义关系和语义场
一、定义
1.一词多义Polysemy is a sense relation that deals with words of more than more meaning.
2.词义的辐射Radiatoin is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.
3.词义的连锁Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains.
4.同音同形异义词Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
5.同义词Synonyms can be defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.
6.反义词Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition,Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.
7.相对反义词Contrary terms are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.
8.上下义词Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
二、要点
1.Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages.
2.Two approaches to Polysemy
分为两种：
⑴Diachronic approach
⑵Synchronic approach
⑴Diachronic approach
From the diachronic point of view,polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word。
历时研究法，一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。历时是指从历史到现在
⑵Synchronic approach
Synchronically,polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of variouis meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.
共时研究法，是在同一历史时期，同一个词可有不同的意义。
The basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called the Central meaning.
3.Two Processes of Development(问答题两者的区别)
词义发展的两种模式：
⑴Radiation
⑵Concatenation
⑴Radiation
如neck,有多种不同的含义，但是每种含义都与neck的原义有关
⑵Concatenation
如candidate的含义
①white-robed
②office seeker in white gowns
③a person who seeks an office
④a person prososed for a place每一个新义只与前一个词义有关
Radiation and concatenation are closely related,being different stages of the development leading to polysemy.
Generally,radiation precedes concatenation,in many cases,they both work together,complementing each other.
辐射型和连锁型两者紧密联系。一般，辐射型总先于连锁型。
4.Types of Homonymy
分为三类
⑴Perfect homonyms
⑵Homographs
⑶homophones
①perfect homonyms are words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning.
如bank .N岸/银行
bear熊/忍受
date枣/约会
②homographs are words identical only in spelling,but different in sound and meanings.
如: bow/bo/鞠躬
Bow/bau/弓
sow/so/播种
sow/sau/母猪
③Homophones are words indentical in sound but different in spelling and meanings.
如: dear可爱的人deer鹿
5.Origins of homonyms同形同音异义词的来源
⑴change in sound and spelling
如ear from eare(OE), long from langian(OE)
⑵borrowing.
如fair borrowed from feria（L）,ball from beallu(OE)
⑶shortening.
如ad shortened from advertisement,rock shortened from rock’n ‘roll
6.Differentiation of Homonyms from polysemants同形同音异义词与一词多义的区别
⑴the basic difference between hononyms and polysemants lies in the fact the former refers to different words which happened to share the same form and the latter hononyms is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings;
最基本的区别是同形同音异义词指不同的词有共同的结构,一词多义是同一个词有许多不同的意义.
⑵the various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree.
一词多义的意义是相关联的,与主要意义有着不同程度的关系.
⑶in dictionaries,a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword,homonyms are listed as separate entries.
在字典中,一词多义的的不同意义均在同一词条下,而同形同音异义词则是有各自的词条.
7.Rhetoric features of Homonyms同形同音异义词的修辞特色
Homonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect:
Humour,sarcasm or riducule
造成一语双关,幽默,诙谐的喜剧效果.
8.Types of synonyms同义词的类型
分为两种
⑴Absolute synonyms
⑵relative synonyms
⑴Absolute synonyms又称Complete synonyms
在意义上无差别,包括在Grammatical和lexical,conceptual,associative意义都一样.
如scarlet-fever=scarlatina都是指猩红热.
⑵Relative synonyms又称near-synonyms.
they are similar or nearly the same in denotation,but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.
语义不完全相同,且还有感情,修辞文体差异.
如:change不同事物的替换
alter在原事物上改动
vary在方式或时间上改动
9.Sources of Synonyms同义词的来源(问答题)
⑴Borrowing借入
如Native French Latin
ask question interrogate
fire flame conflagration
holy sacred consecrated
⑵Dialects and regional English地域性语言方言
如railway(BrE) railroad(AmE)
Job(StandE) gig(BlackE)
Jim(BlackE) male person(StandE)
⑶Figurative and euphemistic use of words词的比喻委婉用法
如Occupation(profession) walk of life(figurative)
Drunk elevated(euph)
Lie distort the fact(euph)
⑷Coincidence with idiomatic expressions单词与习惯表达在意义上的偶合
如win gain the upper hand
hesitate be in two minds
decide make up one’s mind
finish get through
10.Discrimination of Synonyms同义词的差别
There is no difference between absolute synonyms,but relative synonyms always differ in one way or another.there are Denotation,Connotation,Application
绝对同义词无差别，相对同义词有差别:外延意义差别denotation/内涵意义差别connotation/用法不同application.
⑴difference in denotation
如timid事发当时的状态,又指性情;Timorous只指性情;
Understand比comprehend应用范围广,comprehend无法代替understand.
⑵difference in connotation
*Connotation means the stylistic and emotive colouring of words
*the words borrowed from French and Latin are generally more formal than native words
如answer本族语—respond法语storm本族语—tempest拉丁语
Pliceman和constable都是stylistically neutral,bobby是colloquial,cop是slangy,constable和bobby只用于英式英语。
*Apart from these,mention should be made of archaic and poetic terms.which ar self-suggestive.
还要注意古旧词语和诗题词语.如ire—anger, bliss—happiness
*Many synonyms have clear affective values
⑶Difference in application.
Many words are synonymous in meaning but different in usage in simple terms.they form different collocations and fit into different sentence patterns.
如:allow和let是同义词，但allow sb to do sth,let sb do sth
11.Types of Antonyms
分为3类:
⑴Contradictory terms/
⑵Contrary terms
⑶Relative terms
⑴Contradicatory terms are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them,the assertion of one
is the denial of the other.如present/absent.
Another feature is that such antonyms are non-gradable,donot allow adverbs of intensity.
如：very不可用于绝对反义词中。
⑵Contrary terms are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.
The two opposites are gradabl e and one exists in comparison with the other.
如：rich,richer,richest
⑶Relative terms.this type includes reverse terms,which comprise adjectives and adverbs signifying a quality,or verbs and nouns signifying an act or state that reverse the quality,action or state of the other.
如: sell/buy, husband/wife.
12.some of the characteristics of Antonyms
⑴Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic oppositin.
The large number of antonyms among adjectives.
反义词是以词的语义相反或相对为基础划分的.其中形容词的反义词数量最大.
⑵A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.
一个词有多种含义，有其相对应的反义词。
⑶Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
反义词的内涵不同.
如man和woman,woman比man更具体.
⑷Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity.so each has its own corresponding oppsite.
相对反义词的语义有轻重程度之别,因而具有不同的反义词.
如hot—cold,warm-cool.彼此位臵不可换.
13.The use of Antonyms
⑴Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particular thought,often for the sake of contrast.
如:俚语rain or shine,friend or foe
⑵antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together.
在谚语和格言中,反义词经常形成对照,达到强调效果.
如：more haste,less speed(欲速则不达)
14.Hynonymy上下义关系
分为两种
⑴superordinate上义词(类概念)
⑵subordinate下义词(种概念).
如Flower(superordinate): tulip,rose(subordinates)
*the sense relation of hyponymy is very helpful in both receptive and productive processing of language,in production,knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinats can help us achieve vividness,exactness and concreteness.
15.W ords of the semantic field are related by the same concept and so are groups of synonyms.
三、问答
1.how do you underst and the statement that’true synonymy is non-exsitent’?
答:⑴Synonyms can be classified into absolute synonyms and relative synonyms.
⑵absolute synonyms are considered to be identical in every aspect, and are interchangeable in all situations.they are confined to technical terms like word formation---word-building
⑶but even technical terms like these might still have some slight difference,for instance,one term may be
more used than the other or one term is preferable in some situation.that’s why we say’true….non-existent’.
2.what’s the difference between superordinates and subordinates?
⑴superordinates are words denoting genus,thus being general,and subordinates are words denoting species,thus being specific.
⑵superordinates are cover terms which include the concept of subordinates whereas subordinates are specific and their meanings are included in the sense of superordinates.
⑶take Flower—rose; furniture—cupboard.in each pair,the former is the supreordinates,the latter is subordinates.
3.study two groups below, tell the differentiate a semantic field from a synonymously semantic field.
①horse: steed,charger,palfrey,plug,nag
②horse:pony,mustang,mule,stud,mare
答：首先，Group①is synonymously semantic field and Group②is semantic field.
所以，The difference lies,
In①the words are synonyms,none of them covers the meaning of another,and they differ only in style and emotive values.
In②the words are not synonyms,but each refers to a specific type of horse.Horse is a cover term or superordinate,and others are subordinates,they have no difference in style or affective meaning.
Chapter7语义的变化
变化方式
Extension,Narrowing,Degradation,Elevation,Transfer
最普遍的是Extension,Narrowing,Degradation.
一、定义
1.扩大Extension(Generalization) is the process by which a word which orginally had a specilized meaning has now become generalized.
2.缩小Narrowing(Specialization)is the process of by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrowed or specialized sense.
3.升华Elevation(Amelioration)refers to the process of by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.
4.降格Degradation(Pejoration)is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense.
5.转移Tranfer are words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.
二、要点
1. V ocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in Form and Content. Comparatively,the content is even more unstable than the form.
2.Shakespeare is perhaps more difficult to understand that more recent writings cos many of his words wer used in different sense from what they have now in contemporaray dictionaries.
莎士比亚的语言比近代的作品要难懂得多，因为他的许多用词的意思与当代词典上大不相同。
3.词义扩大的例子
Word old meaning extended meaning
Manuscript handwriting any author’s writing by hand or typed by type-writer Fabluous resembling a fable marvelous
Mill place of grinding place where things are
Journal daily paper periodical
Butcher one who kills goats one who kills animals
4.a large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometime in the course of development.
现代英语一部分词在发展过程中，其意义扩大了，有的扩大到指任何事物。如thing原指“议会”，先指任何物体和事情。
5.extension of meaning is also found in many technical terms.which as the term suggests are confined to sepecialized use.
词义的扩大还表现在专业术语上。如alibi本属法律用词（不在犯罪现场的申辩）现（任何借口）.
6.words commonized from proper nouns have experienced the same semantic change.
从专用名词转化的普通名词都经历同样的变化。
如lynch现作动词（处私刑），源于指定此法的人lynch.
7.词义缩小的例子
Word old meaning specialized meaning
Disease discomfort illnes
Accident event unfortunate event
Deer animal(总称) a kind of animal
When a comon word is turned into a proper noun,the meaning is also narrowed.For economy,some phrase are shortened and only one element of the original,usually an adj left to retain hethe meaning of the whole.
普通名字转为专用名词时，词义也缩小了。出于用词的精练常有短语缩短，用其部分表现原义。
如a private=a private soldier(下士)
an editorial= an editorial article(社论)
8.升华的例子
Word old meaning degraded meaning
Boor peasant rude,ill-mannered person
Churl free man uncultivted or mean person
Silly happy foolish
Lewd ignorant无知的lecherous淫荡的
Lust pleasure sexual desire
9.转移分为Semantic transfer和associated transfer
两者的例子
词义的转移：paper原指一中植物papyrus，现指纸类的东西。
联想的转移：the lip of a wound伤口缘,the tongue of a bell(铃舌)。都是比较两者的相似之处，通过联想达到词义的转移。
*Transfer that occurs between subjective and objective meanings is noteworthy.
*Transfer may also occur between abstract and concrete meanings.
主观意义和客观意义的转移是常见的。
如Dreadful和hateful主观想象到客观
转移也出现在抽象意义和具体意义之间。
如aftermath习惯指’再生草’，其抽象意义’后果、影响’
10.Causes of Changes变化的原因:
Extra-linguistic factors和Linguistic factors
⑴Extra-linguistic factors
包括Historical reason 历史原因
class reason 阶级原因
psychological reason.心理原因
*Increased scientific knowledge and discovery are important factors that account for the change of word meaning.
增长的科学知识和发现也是重要因素。
*The associated transfer of meaning andeuphemistic use o words are often due to psychological factors.
词义的联想和词语的委婉用法都是出于心理上的原因。
⑵Linguistic factors
①The change of meaning may b caused by internal factors within the language system.one type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which remains the meaning of the whole.
语义演变有的是语言系统内部因素所致。
②The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaing.
外来词的导致了词义的演变。
③Finally,the change of meaning is brought about by analogy.
如fortuitous原指＇偶然的＇,现‘幸运的‘
三、问答
how do you account for the semantic change in living languages?
答：⑴Changes in meaning make up the main character of any living language；
⑵As language is the tool of human verbal communication,changes are natural in language cos people need these to express the changes in our daily life and in society as new concepts, new ideas and new things emerge continuously.
Chapter8词义与语境
一、定义
1.语境Context is refers to the words,clauses,sentences in which a word appears.
2.非语言环境extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace the entire cultural background.
3.词汇语境Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question.
4.语法语境Grammatical context,in some cases,the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.
二、要点
1.Linguistic context
分为两种
⑴Lexical context
⑵Grammatical context.
the meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighbouring words.
2.The role of Context语境的作用
⑴Elimination of ambiguity
歧义产生的原因
①Amibiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy.
歧义多因为多义词和同义词引起的。
②homonymy is anotehr cause of ambiguity as two separate words share the same form(此话有待确认)
③Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.
语法的结构同样会导致歧义。
⑵Indication of referents
限定所指
⑶Provisoin of clues for inferring word-meaning
提供线索的方法
①Definition
②Example
③Explaination
④Synonymy
⑤Hyponymy
⑥Relevant details
⑦Antonymy
⑧Word structure
⑶Idioms V erbal in nature(This is the largest group of all)
都以动词为中心，起动词的作用。
分为两种
Phrasal verbs和V erb phrases.
①Phrasal verbs are idioms which are composed of a verb plus a prep and/or a particle.
如：look into(vi+prep) 调查put down on(vt+adv+prep)把…归咎于
②Other verb phrases
如：follow one’s nose(v+poss+n)径直走fall flat(v+a) 一败涂地
Give sb the bag(v+prop+n)解雇某人sing a different tune(v+a+n)改变态度
Keep the pot boiling(v+n+v-ing)维持生活let the dog see the rabbit(v+n+inf)不碍他人的事
⑷Idioms Adverbial in nature
This class contains numerous prepositional phrases,which in nature are either adjectival or adverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same time.
这类习语包括很多的介词短语，可作定语，表语，也可作状语。
如：in clover，in the clover。
在句子when we finish the hard part we will be in the clover’把难的部分完成后，我们的日子就好过了’中作表语；
在句子they live in clover cos their fater is rich作状语。
其他例子tooth and nail(n+n)竭尽全力in nothing flat(prep+n+a)不久
⑸Sentence Idioms
*All idioms of this category are complete sentences,they are mainly proverbs and sayings,including colloquialisms and catchphrases.
*句式习语按形式分为:
Declarative陈述句Interrogative疑问句
Imperative祈使句Exclamative感叹句
*句式习语按复杂程度分为:
Simple Compound Complex
*it should be pointed out that forms and functions of idioms are not necessarily identical.
习语的结构和功能不一定都是一致的。
https://www.doczj.com/doc/e914636537.html,e of Idioms
运用分为
Stylistic features Rhetorical features V ariations
⑴Despite the fact,Stylistic idioms are generally felt to be informal and some are colloquialisms and slang,therefore inappropriate for formal style.
①Colloquialisms口语性
如：hang in(there)坚持big wheel要人can of worms错综复杂的问题
②Slang俚语
如：In the soup在困境中dish the dirt散布谣言feel no pain醉酒
③literary expressions带书面色彩的习语
如：be it that纵然give the lie to指责某人说谎
of note著名的cross swords交锋
同一个习语，意义不同，文体色彩也可能不同。
如screw up既表达”是某人紧张”,Going to the dentist never seems to bother my wife,but I get terribly screwed up at the mere thought一想起
同时也表达”弄糟”,we should never have left the arrangement to Smithers,he screwed the whoe thing up from start to finish.
⑵Rhetorical features修辞色彩
包括Phonetic Manipulation/ Lexical Manipulation/ Figures of speech
①Phonetic Manipulation语音的调节
包括Alliteration头韵法和Rhyme押尾韵
例子Alliteration Rhyme
Chop and change Kith and kin
Might and main Wear and tear
Rough and ready Toil and moil
Toss and turn by hook and by crook
Part and parcel fair and square
Neither fish,flesh,nor fowl a little pot is soon hot.
Sum and substance a frind is in need is a friend indeed
②Lexical Manipulation词语搭配
A．词语搭配包括
Reiteration同义词叠用(duplication of synonyms)
如: scream and shout cut and carve pick and choose rough and tough
Repetition词语重复
如: by and by such and such from time to time hand in hand
Juxtaposition反义词叠用
如: here and there high and low play fast and loose move heaven and earth
③Figures of speech修辞格
修辞格包括:
Simile比喻，如as mute as a fish,sleep like a log, spend money like water;
Metaphor暗喻，如black sheep, a dark horse, bed of dust(grave), sit on the fence(持中立态度)
Metonymy转喻，如in the cradle(in one’s childhood), live by one’s pen(live by writing)
Synecdoche借代，如earn one’s bread(make a living),fall into good hands(good people)
Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of names,yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.
借代涉及到换名称，但它是以部分代替整体，或整体代替部分。
转喻是以甲事物的名称指与之相关的乙事物。
Personification拟人,如The pot calls the cattle black
Euphemism委婉，如sleep around,powder one’s nose.
⑶V ariations of idioms习语的异体变化
Characterized by semantic unity and structural stability,idioms donot allow changes as a rule,but structural stability is not absolute.when idioms are used in actual context,they do experience grammatical changes such as differen forms of verbs.
We may find changes in constituents of idioms:
①Replacement
In some idioms,a constituent may be replaced by a word of the same part of speech,resulting in synonymous or antonymous idioms.
如V erb: make(cut)a figure露头角, make(pull of f)a great coup一鸣惊人
Noun: down in the bushes(mouth)垂头丧气，take(lose)heart(鼓起/丧失勇气)
Adjective:by all(no)means一定（决不），in good(high,fine,full)feather兴高采烈/身强力壮
Adverb or prepostion.: drop in(over,by), go with (against)the stream. By(in)the lamp总共地
Aritcle,pronoun,numeral:flea in one’s(the)ear(刺耳的话),talk thirteen(nineteen) to dozen喋喋不休
②Addition or deletion
如behind(the)bars在狱中,for good(and all)一劳永逸,as broad as(it is)long反正一样
③Position-shifting
如:young and old=old and young,do sb a favour=do a favour for sb.play sb a trick=play a trick with sb
④Shortening
This occasionally occurs in proverbs and sayings,where only a part of them is used instead of the whole.
如:velvet paws=V elvet paws hide sharp claws口蜜腹剑
⑤Dismemerbing
三、问答
1.what is the advantage of classifying idioms according to their grammatical functions?
答:in many cases,the forms of idioms are not identical with their functions.
一般说来，习语的形式与其功能是不一样的。
Even though we know the meaning of idioms,we may not use them in their right way if we donot know their grammatical functions.
如何我们知道习语的意义，但不知其语法功能，我们就无法正确使用习语。
For example,heart and soul is a noun phrase,but functional as adverbial:’’we must serve the people heart and soul.’’if we used it as subject or object,it would be wrong.classifying idioms according to their functions solves their problem.
2.what are phrasal verbs?what are the similarity and the difference between a verb phrase and a phrasal verb?
答: A phrasal verb is a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a particle(adv or preposition or both)such as bring up,get down.
短语动词习语由一个动词加冠词/副词/介词组成的。
A verb phrase functioning as a verb,for example,call it a day,make both ends meet.
动词短语在句中起动词的作用。
V erb phrases include phrasal verbs.
动词短语包括短语动词。
英语词汇学中的习语
以下是我整理的一些《英语词汇学》Unit 9 中的一些出现的习语，给大家参考：
1) heart and soul: adv. 全心全意地
2) white elephant: n. [a. + n.] something useless and unwanted but big and costly. 大而无用的东西, 白
3) high tea: n. A fairly substantial meal that includes tea and is served in the late afternoon or early evening. 下午茶下午或傍晚前进食的非常丰富的餐食包括茶水
4) cold shoulder: n. Informal Deliberate coldness or disregard; a slight or a snub 怠慢故意的冷落或轻视；怠慢或轻慢
5) red herring: n. Something that draws attention away from the central issue. 转移注意力者把注意力从中心论题转移开的东西
6) narrow escape: n. 九死一生, 幸免于难
7) brain trust: n. [n. +n.] a group of people with special knowledge who answer questions or give advice. 智囊团，专家顾问团一个通常非正式地担任顾问和政策制定者的专家小组，尤指政府部门中的
8) flesh and blood: n. [n. + conj. + n.] relatives or family一个人的血亲；亲属
(2) Human nature or physical existence, together with its weaknesses. 人的本性包括各种弱点的人的本性或物质存在
9) an apple of discord: n. [n. + prep. + n.] cause of disagreement or argument, etc. 争端, 祸根
10) Jack of all trades (Jack of all trades and master of none 三脚猫): n. 万事通；博而不精的人
11) fly in the ointment: n. [n. + prep. +n.] something that spoils the perfection of something. 小挫折
12) brain drain: n. 智囊流失
13) the ins and the outs: n. 执政党和在野党, 复杂情况
14) son and heir: n. 子嗣
15) part and parcel: n. 重要的部分
16) a friend in court: n. 有势力的朋友
17) wet blanket: n. 弄湿的毯子, 扫兴的事One that discourages enjoyment or enthusiasm.
18) cat's paw: n. 受人利用者；傀儡
19) king's weather n. 好天气
20) Achilles' heel: n. A seemingly small but actually mortal weakness. 阿喀琉斯的脚踝一看来很小但致命的弱点
21) cut and dried: adj. [a. + a.] already settled and unlikely to be changed. /diard固定的；已成定局的；已决定的; 不大会改变的/
22) as poor as a church mouse: adj. [as + a.+ as+ n.] having, or earning, barely enough money for one’s needs. 一贫如洗, 赤贫的/Ft:EFt/
23) wide of the mark: adj. [a. + prep.+ n.] not at all suitable, correct etc. 毫不相关
24) beyond the pale: adj. [prep.+ n.] beyond the limit of proper behaviour. 在...范围之外
25) up in the air: adj. [adv. +prep. +n.] uncertain. 悬而未决
26) high and dry: adj. （船）在岸上；孤立无援，被遗弃【a. + a.】
He left me high and dry. 他使我陷于困境
27) up to the hammer: adv. 第一流, 极好
28) null and void: adj. 无效的
29) high and mighty: <口> 趾高气扬地; 骄傲自大的；位高权大的
30) on the go: (1) [口]在进行活动, 忙碌;(2) 刚要动身
31) on call: adj. 随叫随到的, 待命的
32) wet behind the ears: adj. 少不更事的, 初出茅庐的, 乳臭未干的
33) look into: 调查，研究
34) go on: continue
35) put off: 推迟, 拖延, 搪塞, 使分心, 使厌恶, 扔掉, 脱掉, 劝阻