材料科学基础名词解释（上海交大第二版）
第一章原子结构
结合键结合键分为化学键和物理键两大类，化学键包括金属键、离子键和共价键；物理键即范德华力。
化学键是指晶体内相邻原子（或离子）间强烈的相互作用。
金属键金属中的自由电子与金属正离子相互作用所构成的键合称为金属键。
离子键阴阳离子之间通过静电作用形成的化学键叫作离子键
共价键由两个或多个电负性相差不大的原子间通过共用电子对而形成的化学键。
范德华力是借助临近原子的相互作用而形成的稳定的原子结构的原子或分子结合为一体的键合。
氢键氢与电负性大的原子（氟、氧、氮等）共价结合形成的键叫氢键。
近程结构高分子重复单元的化学结构和立体结构合称为高分子的近程结构。它是构成高分子聚合物最底层、最基本的结构。又称为高分子的一级结构
远程结构由若干个重复单元组成的大分子的长度和形状称为高分子的远程结构
第二章固体结构
1、晶体：原子在空间中呈有规则的周期性重复排列的固体物质。晶体熔化时具固定的熔点，具有各向异性。
2、非晶体：原子是无规则排列的固体物质。熔化时没有固定熔点，存在一个软化温度范围，为各向同性。
3、晶体结构：原子（或分子、离子）在三维空间呈周期性重复排列，即存在长程有序。
4、空间点阵：阵点在空间呈周期性规则排列，并具有完全相同的周围环境，这种由它们在三维空间规则排列的阵列称为空间点阵，简称点阵。
5、阵点：把实际晶体结构看成完整无缺的理想晶体，并将其中的每个质点抽象为规则排列于空间的几何点，称之为阵点。
6、晶胞：为了说明点阵排列的规律和特点，在点阵中取出一个具有代表性的单基本元（最
小平行六面体）作为点阵的组成单元，称为晶胞。
7、晶系：根据六个点阵参数间的相互关系，将全部空间点阵归属于7中类型，即7个晶系，分别为三斜、单斜、正交、六方、菱方、四方和立方。
13、晶带轴：所有平行或相交于某一晶向直线的晶面构成一个晶带，此直线称为晶带轴。属于此晶带的晶面称为共带面。
14、晶面间距：晶面间的距离。
18、点群：点群是指一个晶体中所有点对称元素的集合。
19、空间群：用以描述晶体中原子组合所有可能的方式，是确定晶体结构的依据，它是通过宏观和微观对称元素在三维空间的组合而得出的。
20、晶胞原子数：一个晶胞体积内的原子数。
21、点阵常数：晶胞的大小一般是由晶胞的棱边长度来衡量的，它具有表征晶体结构的一个重要基本参数。
22、配位数：指晶体结构中任一原子周围最近邻且等距离的原子数。
23、致密度：指晶体结构中原子体积占总体积的百分数。
24、多晶型：有些固态金属在不同的温度和压力下具有不同的晶体结构，即具有多晶型，转变产物为同素异形体。
25、合金：指由两种或两种以上的金属或金属与非金属经熔炼、烧结或其他方法组合而成并具有金属特性的物质。
26、相：指合金中具有同一聚集状态、同一晶体结构和性质并以界面相互隔开的均匀组成部分。
27、固溶体:是以某一组元为溶剂，在其晶体点阵中溶入其他组元原子（溶质原子）所形成的均匀固态溶体，它保持着溶剂的晶体结构类型。
28、中间相：两组元A和B组成合金时，除了可形成以A为基或以B为基的固溶体（端际固溶体）外，还可能形成晶体结构与A,B两组元不同的新相，由于它们在二元相图上位置总是位于中间，故通常把这些相称为中间相。
29、置换固溶体：当溶质原子溶入溶剂中形成固溶体时，溶质原子占据溶剂点阵的阵点，或者说溶质原子置换了溶剂点阵的部分溶剂原子，这种固溶体就称为置换固溶体。
30、间隙固溶体：溶质原子分布于溶剂晶格间隙而形成的固溶体。
31、有限固溶体：金属元素彼此之间形成有限溶解的称为有限固溶体。
32、无限固溶体：金属元素彼此之间能形成无限溶解的称为无限固溶体。
33、无序固溶体：溶质原子统计式分布在溶剂晶格的结点上,它们或占据着与溶剂原子等同的位置,或占据着溶剂原子间隙的位置,看不出有什么次序性或规律性,这类固溶体叫无序固
溶体。
34、有序固溶体：有些固溶体结构在高温时形成无序固溶体,但在缓慢冷却或低温退火时,溶质原子按适当比例并按一定顺序和方向,围绕着溶质原子重新排列.使溶质,溶剂原子在晶格
中占据一定的位置,这一过程称为固溶体的有序化.溶质和溶剂原子呈有序排列的固溶体称为有序固溶体或称超结构：
35、正常价化合物：在元素周期表中，一些金属与电负性较强的IV A,V A,VIA族的一些元素按照化学上的原子价规律所形成的化合物称为正常价化合物。
36、电子化合物：电子化合物是由第一族或过渡族元素与第二至第四元素构成的化合物，他们不遵守化合价规律，但满足一定的电子浓度，虽然电子化合物可用化学式表示，但实际成分可在一定的范围变动，可溶解一定量的固溶体。
38、间隙相：原子半径较小的非金属元素如C，H，N，B等可与金属元素（主要是过渡族金属），当非金属X和金属M原子半径比小于0.59时，形成具有简单晶体结构的相，称为间隙相。
39、间隙化合物：原子半径较小的非金属元素如C，H，N，B等可与金属元素（主要是过渡族金属），当非金属X和金属M原子半径大于0.59时，形成具有复杂晶体结构的相，通常称为间隙化合物。
第三章晶体缺陷
点缺陷：点缺陷是最简单的晶体缺陷，它是在结点上或邻近的微观区域内偏离晶体结构正常排列的一种缺陷。其特征是在三维空间的各个方向上尺寸都很小，尺寸范围约为一个或几个原子尺寸，故称零维缺陷，包括空位、间隙原子、杂质或溶质原子等。
线缺陷：其特征是在两个方向上尺寸很小，另外一个方向上延伸较长，也称一维缺陷，如各类位错。
面缺陷：其特征是在一个方向尺寸上很小，另外两个方向上扩展很大，也称二维缺陷，晶界、相界、孪晶界和堆垛层错都属于面缺陷。
空位：一个原子具有足够大的振动能而使振幅增大到一定限度时，就可能克服周围原子对它的制约作用，跳离其原来的位置，使点阵中形成空结点。
间隙原子：从空位中跳离，挤入点阵的空隙位置的原子。
刃型位错：一种位错在晶体中有一个刀刃状的多余半原子面的位错形式。
螺型位错：原来与位错线相垂直的品而都将由平而变成螺旋的一种位错形式。
混合位错：滑移矢量既不平行也不垂直于位错线，而与位错线相交成任意角度的位错。
全位错：把伯氏矢量等于点阵矢量或其整数倍的位错称为“全位错”
不全位错：柏氏矢量不等于点阵矢量的不全位错。
柏氏回路：在实际晶体中，西欧那个任一原子出发，围绕位错（避开位错线附近的严重畸变区）以一定的步数作一右旋闭合回路，称为柏氏回路。
柏氏矢量：通常将形成一个位错的晶体的相移矢量定义为该位错的柏氏矢量，用b表示。柏氏矢量的物理意义：同一晶体中，位错的柏氏矢量愈大，位错强度也愈大，表明该位错导致的点阵畸变愈严重，它所具有的能量也愈高。
柏氏矢量的守恒性：不论所做柏氏回路的大小、形状、位置如何变化，怎样任意扩大、缩小或移动，只要它不与其他位错线相交，对给定的位错所确定的柏氏矢量是一定的。
位错的滑移：在外加应力作用下，通过位错中心附近的原子沿柏氏矢量方向在滑移面上不断地作少量的位移的过程。
交滑移：当某一螺型位错在原滑移面上受阻时，从滑移面转移到与之相交的另一滑移面上的过程叫做交滑移。
位错的攀移：刃型位错在垂直于滑移面的方向上运动，把多余半原子面向上或向下运动的过程。
位错的交割：一个位错在某一滑移面上运动时，会与穿过滑移面的其他位错发生相互作用的过程。
割阶：垂直于位错滑移面得曲折滑移曲线。
扭折：在滑移面上的曲折滑移曲线。
位错密度：单位体积晶体中所含的位错线的总长度。
位错增殖：晶体在受力过程中，位错发生运动，位错数目增加，位错密度变大的过程。
扩展位错：通常把一个全位错分解为两个不全位错，中间夹着一个堆垛层错的整个位错组称为扩展位错。
层错能：层错破坏晶体的完整结构和争产的周期性，使电子发生反常的衍射效应，使晶体增加的能量。
扩展位错交滑移：位错束集呈全螺型位错，然后再由该全位错滑移到另一个滑移面上的过程。晶界：属于同一固相但位向不同的晶粒之间的界面称为晶界。
亚晶界：相邻亚晶粒之间的界面称为亚晶界。
晶界能：形成单位面积界面时系统的自由能变化。
孪晶界：两个晶体沿一个公共晶面构成晶面对称的位向关系，这两个晶体的公共晶面就称为孪晶面。
相界：具有不同结构的两相之间的分界面称为相界。按结构特点，相界面可分为共格相界、半共格相界和非共格相界三种类型。
第四章固体中原子及分子的运动
质量浓度单位体积混合物中某组分的质量称为该组分的质量浓度。
扩散物质分子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域转移，直到均匀分布的现象。
间隙扩散原子从一个晶格中间隙位置迁移到另一个间隙位置。
空位扩散通过空位进行跳动的扩散称为空位扩散。
下坡扩散物质从高浓度向低浓度的扩散。
上坡扩散物质从低浓度向高浓度的扩散。
稳态扩散质量浓度不随时间变化而变化的扩散称为稳态扩散。
非稳态扩散质量浓度随时间变化而变化的扩散称为非稳态扩散。
扩散系数扩散系数是描述物质扩散难易程度的重要参量。
扩散通量表示单位时间内通过垂直于扩散方向x的单位面积的扩散物质质量。（J表示）
表面扩散在样品自由表面发生的扩散称为表面扩散。
第五章材料的形变和再结晶
1、弹性变形：指外力去除后能够完全恢复的那部分，可从原子间结合力的角度来了解它的物质本性。
2、弹性模量：材料（金属、陶瓷和部分高分子材料）不论是加载还是卸载时，只要在弹性形变的比称为弹性模量。
3、包申格效应：：材料经预先加载产生少量塑性变形（小于4%），而后通向加载则σ升高，反向加载则σ下降，此现象称之为包申格效应。
4、弹后效应：一些实际晶体，在加载或卸载时，应变不是瞬时达到其平衡，而是通过一种驰豫过程来完成其变化，在弹性极限σ范围内，应变滞后于外加应力，并和时间有关的现象称为弹性后效或弹滞性。
5、粘弹性：一些晶体，有时甚至多晶体，在比较小的应力时可以同时表现出弹性和黏性，这就是黏弹性现象。
6、塑性变形：应力超过弹性极限，材料发生塑性变形，即产生不可逆的永久变形。
孪生：孪生是塑性变形的另一种形式，它常作为滑移不易进行时的补充。
孪晶面：发生均匀切变的那组晶面称为孪晶面（即（111面））。
孪生方向：孪生面的移动方向称为孪生方向。
孪晶：变形与未变形两部分晶体合称为孪晶。
扭折：在孪生过程中阻力很大，如果继续增大压力，则为了使晶体的形状与外力相适应，当外力超过某一临界值时晶体将会产生局部弯曲，这种变形方式称为扭折。
固溶强化：溶质原子的存在及其固溶度的增加，使基体金属的变形抗力随之提高。
加工硬化：金属材料经过另加工变形后，强度（硬度）显著提高，而塑性则很快下降，即产生了加工硬化现象。
弥散强化：当第二相以细小弥散的微粒均匀分布于基体当中时，将会产生显著的强化作用，称为弥散强化。
形变织构：在塑性变形中，随着形变程度的增加，各个晶粒的滑移面和滑移方向都要向主形变方向转动，逐渐使多晶体中原来取向互不相同的各个晶粒在空间取向上呈现一定程度的规律性，这一现象称为择优取向，这种组织状态则称为形变织构。
回复：回复是一种形核和长大过程，是指新的无畸变晶粒出现之前所产生的亚结构和性能变化的阶段。
再结晶：是指出现无畸变的等轴新晶粒逐步取代变形晶粒的过程。
晶粒长大：晶粒长大是指再结晶结束之后晶粒的继续长大。
冷加工：而把再结晶温度以下而又不加热的加工称为冷加工。
热加工：工程上常将再结晶温度以上的加工称为热加工。
动态再结晶：热加工时，由于变形温度高于再结晶温度，故在变形的同时伴随着再结晶过程。再结晶温度：冷变形金属开始进行再结晶的最低温度称为再结晶温度。
临界变形量：在给定温度下发生再结晶需要一个最小变形量（临界变形度）低于此变形度，不发生再结晶。
再结晶织构：通常具有变形织构的金属经再结晶后的新晶粒仍具有择优取向，称为再结晶织构。
第六章单组元相图及纯晶体的凝固
结晶：原子由不规则排列状态过渡到规则排列状态的过程。
结构起伏：液态结构中原子排列长程无序，短程有序，并且短程有序原子集团不是固定不变的结构，这种现象称为结构起伏。
能量起伏：能量起伏是指体系中每个微小体积所实际具有的能量，会偏离体系平均能量水平
而瞬时涨落的现象
过冷度：熔点与实际凝固温度T之差。
均匀形核：新相晶核是在母相中均匀生产的，即晶核由液相中的一些原子团直接形成，不受杂质粒子或外边面的影响。
非均匀形核：新相优先在母相中存在的异质处形核，即依附于液相中的杂质或外表面来形核。晶胚：在液相中时聚时散的短程有序原子集团。
晶核：晶胚长大体系自由能降低的稳定单元。
亚稳相：含自由能比平衡相高的相。
临界晶粒：达到临界半径的晶粒。
临界形核功：形成临界晶核所需的功。
温度梯度：温度随时间的变化率。
平面状：在正的温度梯度下，晶体的生长已接近平面状向前推移。
树枝状：液—固界面不保持平面状而会形成许多伸向液体的分枝，同时在这些晶枝上又可能会长出二次晶枝，在二次晶枝上再长出三次晶枝的结晶形状。
第七章二元系相图及其合金的凝固
相律热力学平衡条件下，系统的组分数、相数和自由度数之间的相互关系
平衡凝固物质在平衡条件下由液态至固态的转变。
非平衡凝固物质在非平衡条件下由液态至固态的转变。
共晶体共晶合金在共晶温度下凝固时同时结晶出的两个故乡混合物称为共晶组织，或共晶体。
伪晶体成分在共晶点附近的亚共晶合金或过共晶合金在非平衡条件下获得的共晶组织称为伪晶体。
离异晶体在先共晶相数量较多而共晶组织甚少的情况下，有时共晶组织中与先共晶相相同的那一相会依附于先共晶相生长，剩下的另一相则单独存在与晶界处，从而使共晶组织的特征消失，这种两相分离的共晶称为离异共晶。
稳定化合物是指具有一定的熔点，而且在熔点以下都能保持自身固有的结构而不发生分解
的化合物
铁素体铁素体是碳在α-Fe中形成的间隙固溶体。（体心立方晶格）
奥氏体奥氏体是碳在γ-Fe中形成的间隙固溶体。（面心立方晶格）
渗碳体铁盒碳相互作用形成的具有复杂晶格的间隙化合物。
珠光体珠光体是由铁素体盒渗碳体组成的机械混合物。
莱氏体由奥氏体盒渗碳体组成的机械混合物。
正常凝固将固溶体合金整体熔化后进行的定向凝固称为正常凝固。
区域熔炼将固溶体合金局部熔化后进行的定向凝固称为区域熔炼。
成分过冷纯金属凝固时，其理论凝固温度（Tm）不变，当液态金属实际温度低于Tm引起的过冷称为成分过冷。
第八章三元相图
等边成分三角形：等边三角形的三个顶点分别表示三个组员，三角形的边分别表示三个二元系的成分坐标，则三角形内的任意一点都代表三元系的某一成分。
水平截面：三元相图中的温度轴和浓度三角形垂直，所以固定温度的截面图必定平行于浓度三角形，这样的截面称为水平截面，也称为等温截面。
垂直截面：固定一个成分变量并保留温度变量的截面，必定与浓度三角形垂直，所以称为垂直截面，或称为变温截面。
第九章材料的亚稳态
平衡态：材料体系自由能最低的状态。
亚稳态：材料以高于平衡态时自由能的状态存在，处于一种非平衡的状态。
准晶：原子聚集状态的固体被称为准晶。
非晶：非结晶态，即为玻璃态。
固态相变：材料体系在固态时发生的同素异构转变、共析转变、包析转变、固溶体的脱溶分
解、合金有序化等变化过程。
扩散型相变：相变过程需要通过原子扩散来进行的相变过程。
无扩散型相变：在相变过程中原子不发生扩散，仅藉切变重排行程亚稳态新相的相变过程。时效：使固溶体脱溶的处理过程。
过时效：将固熔处理得到的亚稳态台了再加热到100～200摄氏度保温，过饱和的固溶体发生脱溶分解的过程
1. Transcendentalism The origin of it is a philosophical and literary movement centered in Concord and Boston, which marks the summit of American Transcendentalism. 19th-century movement of writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths. The major features of American Transcendentalism are:It emphasis on spirit, or the Oversoul, as the most important thing in the universe. It stressed the importance of the individual. To them the individual was the most important element of society. It offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God. 2.Romanticism The Romanticism period stretches from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil War. It is a term associate with imagination boundlessness, and in critical usage is contrasted with classicism which is commonly associated with reason and restriction. The features of Romanticism are: American Romanticism was in a way derivative: American romantic writing was some of them modeled on English and European works. American romanticism was in essence the expression of "a real new experience "and contained"an alien quality".Representatives:William Cullen Bryant; Henry Longfellow and James Cooper, Washington Irving. 3.Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.The representatives are Howells, James, and Mark Twain. 4. Naturalism American naturalism was a new and harsher realism, it had come from Europe. Naturalism was an outgrowth of realism that responded to theories in science, psychology, human behavior and social thought current in the late nineteenth century. The background of naturalism are: In the last decade of the nineteenth century, with the development of industry and modern science, intelligent minds began to see that man was no longer a free ethical being in a cold, indifferent and essentially Godless universe. In this chance world he was both helpless and hopeless.Major Features of it are:Humans are controlled by laws of heredity and environment.The universe is cold, godless, indifferent and hostile to human desires.Representatives of it such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris and Theodore Dreiser. 5.New Criticism The New Criticism as a school of poetry and criticism established itself in the 1940s as an academic orthodoxy in the United States. The school has its beginning in the 1920s. It focus on the analysis of the text rather paying attention to external elements such as its social background, its author's intention and political attitude, and its impact on society. Then it explores the artistic structure of the work rather than its author's frame of mind or its reader's responses. It also see a literary work as an organic entity, the unity of content and form, and places emphasis on the close reading of the text. These New Critics included T.S. Eliot,I.A.Richards,John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate and some other critics. The New Criticism has tended to divorce criticism from social and moral concerns, which was to become one salient feature of the movement. 6.Imagism: Between 1912 and 1922 there came a great poetry boom in which about 1000 poets published over 1000 volumes of poetry. Indeed ,to express the modern spirit, the sense of fragmentization and dislocation, was in large measure the aim of quite a few modern literary movements, of which Imagism was one.The first Imagist theorist, the English writer T.E.Hulme. Hulme suggests that modern art deals with expression and communication of momentary phases in the poet's mind. The most effective means to express these momentary impressions is through the use of dominant image.It is a literary movement launched American poets early in the 20th century that advocated the use of free verse, common speech patterns, and clear concrete images as a reaction to Victorian sentimentalism. The representatives are Ezra pound, William Carlos Williams and some other poets.
I. Explain the following literary terms(名词解释). 1. Romanticism The most profound and comprehensive idea of romanticism is the vision of a greater personal freedom for the individual. Appeals to imagination; Stress on emotion rather than reason; optimism, gen iality. Subjectivity: in form and meaning. 2 American transcendentalism American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century (about 1836-1860). For the transcendentalists, the soul of each individual is identical with the soul of the world and contains what the world contains. 3 Realism: ―nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material.‖ the Civil war a. verisimilitude of details derived from observation b. representative in plot, setting and character c. an objective rather than an idealized view of human experience or（American Realism: In American literature, the Civil War brought the Romantic Period to an end. The Age of Realism came into existence. It came as a reaction against the lie of romanticism and sentimentalism. Realism turned from an emphasis on the strange toward a faithful rendering of the ordinary, a slice of life as it is really lived. It expresses the concern for commonplace and the low, and it offers an objective rather than an idealistic view of human nature and human experience.） 4. Modernism like modernism in general is a trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve, and reshape their environment, with the aid of scientific knowledge, technology and practical experimentation, and is thus in its essence both progressive and optimistic. The general term covers many political, cultural and artistic movements rooted in the changes in Western society at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century. American modernism is an artistic and cultural movement in the United States starting at the turn of the 20th century with its core period between World War I and World War II and continuing into the 21st century. 5、American Puritanism: Puritanism is the practices and beliefs of the Puritans. The Puritans were originally members of a division of the Protestant Church. The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of them. They were a group of serious, religious people, advocating highly religious and moral principles. As the word itself hints, Puritans wanted to purity their religious beliefs and practices. They accepted the doctrine of predestination, original sin and total depravity, and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace form God. As a culture heritage, Puritanism did have a profound influence on the early American mind. American Puritanism also had a enduring influence on American literature. 6、Transcendentalism: In New England, an intellectual movement known as transcendentalism developed as an American version of Romanticism. The movement began among an influential set of authors based in Concord, Massachusetts and was led by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Like Romanticism, transcendentalism rejected both 18th century rationalism and established religion, which for the transcendentalists meant the Puritan tradition in particular. The transcendentalists celebrated the power of the human imagination to commune with the universe and transcend the limitations of the material world. They found their chief source of inspiration in nature. Emerson’s essay Nature was the major document of the transcendental school and stated the ideas that were to remain central to it. 7、Free verse: free verse is the rhymed or unrhymed poetry composed without attention to conventio nal rules of meter. Free verse was first written and labeled by a group of French poets of the late 19th century. Their purpose was to deliver poetry from the restrictions of formal metrical patterns and to recreate the free rhythms of natural speech. Walt Whitman was the precursor who wrote lines of varying length and cadence, usually not rhymed. The emotional content or meaning of the work was expressed through its rhythm. Free verse has been characteristic of the work of many modern American poets, including Ezra Pound and Carl Sandburg. 8、Naturalism: A more deliberate kind of realism in novels, stories and plays, usually involving a view of human beings as passive victims of natural forces and social environment. Naturalism was a new and harsher realism. It
国际经济学复习 相对价格：商品之间价格关系的动态反映，专指两种或多种商品之间由供给与需求作用所形成的价格比例关系。在国际贸易中所交换的商品价格之间的比例关系。它体现交换双方的贸易利益。 比较优势：所谓比较优势是指一国在绝对优势基础上的相对较大的优势，在绝对劣势基础上的相对较少的劣势。比较优势主张以各国生产成本或相对差异为基础进行专业化分工，并通过国家贸易获得利益的一种国际贸易理论。比较优势实际上取决于劳动生产率的相对水平。一国在劳动生产率相对较高的部门或产品上具有比较优势。 边际替代率：在保持同等效用水平的条件下，消费者增加一单位某种商品的消费可以代替的另一种商品的消费量。它是无差异曲线的斜率。通常，由于生产过程中投入的生产要素是不完全替代的，随着一种生产要素数量的增加，该要素对另外一种要素的边际替代率是递减的。 边际技术替代率：在维持产量水平不变的条件下，增加一单位某种生产要素投入量时所减少的另一种要素的投入量，在只有两种要素劳动L和资本K 的情况下，边际技术替代率MRTS可以记做：MRTSLK=-△K/△L 机会成本：机会成本是指在一国资源达到充分利用时，要增加某一产品的生产，必须放弃另一种产品生产的数量。 边际成本：每一单位新增生产的产品（或者购买的产品）带来到总成本的增量。 规模经济：由于生产专业化水平的提高等原因，使企业的单位成本下降，从而形成企业的长期平均成本随着产量的增加而递减的经济。 倾销：在不同国家市场间进行的一种价格歧视行为。它是指出口商以低于本国国内价格或成本的价格向国外销售商品的行为。构成依据：1进口国生产同类型产品的企业是否受到低价进口品的冲击，以致其市场份额明显减少。2进口国生产同类型产品的企业的利润水平是否明显降低。3在低价进口品的冲击下，进口国的同类产业是否难以建立起来。持续性/掠夺性 最佳关税：使本国福利达到最大的关税水平。确定条件：进口国由征收关税所引起的额外损失（边际损失）与额外收益（边际收益）相等。 幼稚产业:某种由于技术经验不足、劳动生产率低下、产品成本高于世界市场价格，因而无法与国外产业竞争，但在关税、补贴等保护措施下继续生产一段时间，经过一段时间的生产能够在自由贸易条件下获利，达到其他国家水平而自立，形成比较优势并良性发展的产业。某一产业处于发展初期，基础和竞争力薄弱但经过适度保护能够发展成为具有潜在比较优势的新兴产业。 贸易创造:国际贸易理论与实践中指两个或两个以上国家间结成关税同盟后，因取消关税降低了贸易商品的价格，使产品从成本较高的国内生产转向成本较低的贸易对象国生产，本国从贸易对象国进口。由于国际经济一体化组织成员国之间相互取消了关税和与关税具有同等效力的其他措施，造成了他们相互之间贸易规模的扩大和福利水平的提高。贸易转移:两个或两个以上国家间的关税同盟建立后，成员国的部分进口商品将从低成本供应国(非成员国)转向高成本供应国(成员国)。对进口国是福利损失。 国际收支：在一定时期内（通常为一年）一国居民与世界其他国家居民之间的全部经济交易的系统记录。主要目的：使政府当局了解本国（地区）的对外经济交往状况，从而为制定相应的经济管理政策提供信息和依据。 马歇尔-勒纳条件：表明如果一国处于贸易逆差中，即Vx
Allegory is a narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables, poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings. One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life, but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose in the world. Alliteration is a pattern of sound that includes the repetition of consonant sounds. The repetition can be located at the beginning of successive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audibly represent the action that is taking place. Aside is an actor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to be heard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audience know what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement in a play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, both inside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. Gothic is a literary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair, the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature was named for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the period on the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic” surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everyday setting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad fro m the "beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-Tale Heart.”In essence, these stories were romances, largely due to their love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many different points of view. CATHARSIS is an emotional discharge that brings about a moral or spiritual renewal or welcome relief from tension and anxiety. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the marking feature and ultimate end of any tragic artistic work. IMAGERY: A common term of variable meaning, imagery includes the "mental pictures" that readers experience with a passage of literature. It signifies all the sensory perceptions referred to in a poem, whether by literal description, allusion, simile, or metaphor. Surrealism is an artistic movement doing away with the restrictions of realism and verisimilitude that might be imposed on an artist. In this movement, the artist sought to do away with conscious control and instead respond to the irrational urges of the subconscious mind. From this results the hallucinatory, bizarre, often nightmarish quality of surrealistic paintings and writings. Sample surrealist writers include Frank O'Hara, John Ashberry, and Franz Kafka.
American Puritanism: Puritanism was a religious reform movement that arose within the Church of England in the late sixteenth century. Under siege from church and crown, it sent an offshoot in the third and forth decades of the seventeenth century to the northern English colonies in the New World--- a migration that laid the foundation for the religious, intellectual, and social order of New England, Puritanism, however,was not only a historically specific phenomenon coincident with the founding of New England; it was also a way of being in the world---a style of response to lived experience---that has reverberated through American life ever since. Doctrinally, Puritans adhered to the Five Points of Calvinism as codified at the Synod of Dort in 1619:(1) unconditional election ( the idea that God had decreed who was damned and who was saved from before the beginning of the world); (2) limited atonement ( the idea that Christ died for the elect only); (3) total depravity (humanity's utter corruption since the Fall); (4) irresistible grace (regeneration as entirely a work of God, which cannot be resisted and to which the sinner contributes nothing); and (5) the perseverance of the saints (the elect, despite their backsliding and faintness of heart , cannot fall away from grace). American Dream: The American Dream is the faith held by many in the United States of America that through hard work, courage, and determination one can achieve a better life for oneself, usually through financial prosperity. These were values held by many early European settlers, and have been passed on to subsequent generations. Nowadays the American Dream has led to an emphasis on material wealth as a measure of success and\ or happiness. Gothic tradition: Gothic novel or Gothic romance is a story of terror and suspense, usually set in a gloomy old castle or monastery. In an extended sense, many novels that do not have a medievalized setting, but which share a comparably sinister, grotesque, or chaustrophobic atmosphere have been classed as Gothic. It contributed to the new emotional climate of Romanticism. Historical novel: a novel in which the action takes place during a specific historical period well before the time of writing ( often one or two generations before, sometimes several centuries), and in which some attempt is made to depict accurately the customs and mentality of the period. The central character---real or imagined---is usually subject to divided loyalties within a larger historic conflict of which readers know the outcome. The pioneers of this genre were Walter Scott and James Fenimore Cooper American Romanticism:Romanticism refers to an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in the late 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature, emphasis on the individual's expression of emotion and imagination, departure from the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against established social rules and conventions. The romantic period in American literature stretched from the end of the 18th century through the outbreak of the Civil
国际经济学之名词解释 Chapter 3 1.Absolute advantage（绝对优势）:A country has an absolute advantage in a production of a good if it has a lower unit labor requirement(aLW 单位产品劳动投入) than the foreign country in this good. https://www.doczj.com/doc/e312571160.html,parative Advantage（相对优势）: A country has a comparative advantage in producing a good if the opportunity cost of producing that good in terms of other goods is lower in that country than it is in other countries. 3.Opportunity Cost（机会成本）：The opportunity cost of roses in terms of computers is the number of computers that could be produced with the same resources as a given number of roses. 4.The unit labor requirement： the number of hours of labor required to produce one unit of output, such as aLW (wine) and aLC (cheese) 5.Production Possibilities frontier（生产可能性边界）： The production possibility frontier (PPF) of an economy shows the maximum amount of a good (say wine) that can be produced for any given amount of another (say cheese). Chapter 4 1.Abundant factor: the resource of which a country has a relatively large supply(labor in home,land in foreign) 2.Biased expansion of production possibilities: when the production possibility frontier shifts out much more in one direction than in the other. 3.Equalization of factor prices: when Home and Foreign trade, the relatives prices of goods converge. This convergence, in turn, causes convergence of the relative prices of land and labor. 4.Heckscher-Ohlin theory: It shows that comparative advantage is influenced by Relative factor abundance (refers to countries) and Relative factor intensity (refers to goods)It is also referred to as the factor-proportions theory. 5.Scarce factor: in that country, and the resource of which it has a relatively small supply( land in Home, labor in foreign)