一、名词解释
Reaction bonding
Materials science and engineering
Apparent porosity
Structure
Composition
Bulk density
Trans-granular
Ductile Fracture
Glass Intermediates
shot peening
Flexural modulus
tempering
conchoidal fracture
Stress
Strain
Young’s modulus
Synthesis
Processing
Weibull distribution
Aspect ratio
Delamination
Ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT) Creep rate
Rupture time
Fatigue life
Endurance limit
Tape casting
True stress
Fatigue strength
Notch sensitivity
Linear polymer
Brittle stress-rupture failures
Creep
Stress
Stress-corrosion
Rule of mixtures
True porosity
Cemented carbides
Electrical Contacts
Polymers
Tempering
Tensile toughness
Ductility
Creep
True strain
Structure
Glass-ceramics
Addition Polymerization Condensation Polymerization Deflection temperature Degree of Polymerization Injection molding Conchoidal fracture
Cross-linking
Poisson’s ratio
Bulk density
Powder metallurgy Reaction bonding Tempered glass
Tape casting
Injection molding
Glass temperature
Glass formers Intermediates
stiffness
Fracture mechanics Synthesis
Apparent porosity
True porosity
Bulk density
notch sensitivity Vulcanization Degradation temperature Thermoplastic elastomers Unsaturated bond Functionality
Glass formers
Branched polymer Crystallinity
Tacticity
Necking
Elastic limit
Tensile strength
Stress-corrosion
Chevron pattern
Climb
Impact energy
Impact toughness
Particulate composites Rule of mixtures
Relaxation time
Glass intermediates
Processing
Crack Growth Rate
Copolymer
Macrohardness
Microhardness
Nano-hardness
Reaction bonding
Processing
Shear modulus
Viscosity
Strain rate
Glass temperature
Load.
Thermoplastics
Engineering stress
Engineering strain
Geometric isomer
Cross-linking
The Rule of Mixtures in Fiber-Reinforced Composites
二、英译汉
1. Ceramic materials are generally composed of at least two elements: one (or more) a metallic element and one non-metallic. Metal oxides (Al2O3, ZrO2, FeO, etc.) are common examples of ceramics, but other compounds such as carbides and nitrides are also included.
The most common elements in the earth‘s crust(外壳) are silicon and oxygen, and silica (SiO2) is the most common component of ceramics and glasses even though for most purposes we would not consider Si a metallic element. The type of chemical bonds : covalent bond, ionic bond and van der waals bond.
2 The role of materials in the advance of civilization and culture is powerfully summarized by the fact that it is the name of each dominant new material that has been used to describe the culture - the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, and so forth.
3. Metallic fibers, glass fibers, and polymer fibers can be formed by drawing processes, Boron, carbon, and ceramics are too brittle and reactive to be worked by conventional drawing processes. Boron fiber is produced by chemical vapor deposition (CVD).
Carbon fiber is made by carbonizing, or pyrolizing an organic filament, which is more easily drawn or spun into, continuous lengths. The organic filament, known as a precursor is often rayon, polyacrylonitrile, or a pitch.
4 Materials Science and Engineering forms the bedrock for the engineering disciplines because the structures, components, and devices that engineers design and use must be made out of something, and that is a material.
The properties of the materials that are available define and limit the capabilities that the device or structure can have, and the techniques that can be used to fabricate it.
5 The mechanical behavior of materials is described by their mechanical properties, which are measured with idealized, simple tests. These tests are designed to represent different types of loading conditions. The properties of a material reported in various handbooks are the results of these tests. Consequently, we should always remember that handbook values are average results obtained from idealized tests and, therefore, must be used with care.
6 Microstructure includes structure at dimensions ranging from the atoms in the material and the order (or lack of it) of their arrangement, up to the tiny grains of individual crystals that pack together to form most solids, and even up to the nearly macroscopic level of fibers in paper, sand in concrete, and the thin, multiple layers of plastic, metal, and paper in a microwave popcorn bag.
7 Toughness refers to the ability of materials to absorb energy before they fracture. Tensile toughness is equal to the area under the true stress-true strain curve. The impact toughness is measured using the impact test. This could be very different from the tensile toughness. Fracture toughness describes how easily a crack or flaw in a material propagates. The plane strain fracture toughness K IC is a common result of these tests.
8 Materials may be fabricated into objects in a variety of ways, including casting into a mold, machining to remove extra material, joining parts (e.g., by soldering or welding), forming (forging, rolling, bending, etc.), or compacting particles which are then fused together (sintering, used for both metal powders and most ceramics). These operations also modify the final microstructure and must be taken into account.
9 When a material is designed for a given application, a number of factors must be considered. The material must acquire the desired physical and mechanical properties, must be capable of being processed or manufactured into the desired shape, and must provide an economical solution to the design problem. Satisfying these requirements in a manner that protects the environment – perhaps by encouraging recycling of the materials – is also essential.
10 The properties of these various classes of materials are usually rather distinct. For instance, metals are required to light and reflective. They are (usually) ductile, meaning that they can be bent before they break. They are electrically and thermally conducting.
On the other hand, ceramics and glasses are usually brittle, can be transparent to light, and are good insulators. They are particularly useful at high temperatures or in corrosive environments, since they retain their properties. Most polymers, on the other hand, cannot withstand high temperatures. Most are insulators, and many are highly deformable (which is the real meaning of the word, "plastic"), and some have unique elastic properties (rubber bands).
Semiconductors, of course, are distinguished by their electrical behavior. All of these property characteristics, and the reasons they exist, are discussed in some detail in the chapters that follow.
11 Elastomers are thermoplastics or lightly cross-linked thermosets that exhibit greater than 200% elastic
deformation. Chains are eventually cross-linked using vulcanization. The cross-linking makes it possible to obtain very large elastic deformations without permanent plastic deformation. Increasing the number of cross-links increases the stiffness and reduces the amount of elastic deformation of the elastomers.
12 The factors that affect a material’s resistance to crack propagation(裂纹扩展) :
1. The size of a flaw Larger flaws reduce the permitted stress. Special manufacturing techniques, such as filtering impurities from liquid metals and hot pressing or hot iso-static pressing of powder particles to produce ceramic or superalloy components reduce flaw size and improve fracture toughness.
2. Deformation ability The ability of a material to deform is critical. In ductile metals, the material near the tip of the flaw can deform, causing the tip of any crack to become blunt(钝的), reducing the stress intensity factor, and preventing growth of the crack. Increasing the strength of a given metal usually decreases ductility and gives a lower fracture toughness. Brittle materials such as ceramics and many polymers have much lower fracture toughness than metals.
3Thickness or rigidity of a sample Thicker, more rigid pieces of a given material have a lower
fracture toughness than thin materials.
4. Strain rate (应变速率) Increasing the rate of application of the load, such as in an impact test, typically reduces the fracture toughness of the material.
5. Service temperature Increasing the temperature normally increases the fracture toughness, just as in the impact test.
6. Grain size and defect density(缺陷密度) A small grain size normally improves fracture toughness, whereas more point defects and dislocations reduce fracture toughness. Thus, a fine-grained ceramic material may provide improved resistance to crack growth.
7. Tensile or compressive stress In certain ceramic materials we can also take advantage of stress-induced transformations that lead to compressive stresses that cause increased fracture toughness.
13 . Alumina (A12O3) is used to contain molten metal or in applications where a material must operate at high temperatures, but where high strength is also required. Alumina is also used as a low dielectric constant substrate for electronic packaging that houses silicon chips. One classical application is for insulators in spark plugs. Some unique applications are also being found in dental and medical use
14 Many factors must be considered when designing a fiber-reinforced composite, including the length, diameter, orientation, amount, and properties of the fibers; the properties of the matrix; and the bonding between the fibers and the matrix.
Fiber can be short, long or even continuous. Their dimensions are often characterized by the aspect ratio I/d, where I is the fiber length and d is the diameter. Typical fibers have diameters varying from10 μm (10x10-4cm) to 150 μm (150x 10-4 cm).
15. The impact test describes the response of a material to a rapidly applied load. The Charpy and Izod tests are typical. The energy required to fracture the specimen is measured and can be used as the basis for comparison of various materials tested under the same conditions. In addition, a transition temperature above which the material fails in a ductile, rather than a brittle, manner can be determined.
16 Examination of the fracture surface at a high magnification-perhaps using a scanning electron microscope-reveals a dimpled surface. The dimples are traces of the microvoids produced during fracture.
Normally, these microvoids are round, or equiaxed (由等轴晶粒组成的), when a normally tensile stress produces the failure [Figure 3-8(a)] However, on the shear lip(边缘the dimples(窝) are oval- shaped(椭圆的), or elongated, with the ovals (椭圆形), pointing toward the origin of the fracture [Figure 3-8(b)].
17. The strength of ceramics and glass depends upon the probability of finding a flaw that exceeds a certain critical size. For large components or larger fibers this probability increases. As a result, the strength of larger components and fibers is likely to be lower than that of smaller components or shorter fibers.
18. In materials science, the emphasis is on the underlying relationships between the synthesis and processing, structure, and properties of materials. In materials engineering, the focus is on how to translate or transform materials into a useful device or structure.
19 Fracture in fiber-reinforced composite materials is more complex, Typically, these composites contain strong, brittle fibers surrounded by a soft, ductile matrix, as in boron - reinforced aluminum. When a tensile stress is applied along the fibers, the soft Aluminum deforms in a ductile manner, with void formation and coalescence(接合) eventually producing a dimpled fracture surface. As the aluminum deforms, the load is no longer transmitted effectively to tile fibers; the fibers break in a brittle manner until there are too few of them left intact to support the final load.
20 One way is to define ceramics based on their class of chemical compounds (e.g., oxides, carbides, nitride, sulfides, etc.). Another way which we will use here is to classify ceramics by their major function (Table4-1).Ceramics are used in a wide range of technologies such as refractories, spark plugs(火花塞), dielectrics in capacitors(电容器的电介质), sensors(传感器), abrasives(研磨剂), magnetic recording media, etc.
The space shuttle makes use of ~25,000 reusable(再使用的), light-weight, highly porous ceramic tiles that protect the aluminum frame from the heat generated during re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere.
21 Fiber length and diameter
Fiber can be short, long or even continuous. Their dimensions are often characterized by the aspect ratio I/d, where I is the fiber length and d is the diameter.
Typical fibers have diameters varying from10 μm (10x10-4cm) to150μm (150x 10-4 cm).
The strength of a composite improves when the aspect ratio is large. Fibers often fracture because of surface imperfections. Making the diameter as small as possible gives the fiber less surface area, and consequently, fewer flaws might propagate.
Amount of Fiber
A greater volume fraction of fibers increases the strength and stiffness of the composite, as we would expect from the rule of mixtures. However, the maximum volume fraction is about 80%, beyond which fibers can no longer be ompletely surrounded by the matrix.
Orientation of Fibers The reinforcing fibers may be introduced into the matrix in a number of orientations. Short randomly oriented fiber, having a small aspect ratio such as glass fiber, are easily introduced into the matrix and give relatively isotropic(等方向的) behavior in the composite. Long, or even continuous, unidirectional arrangements of fibers produce anisotropic properties, with particularly good strength and stiffness parallel to the fibers.
Fiber properties In most fiber-reinforced composites, the fibers are strong, stiff, and lightweight. If the composite is to be used at elevated temperatures, the fiber should also have a high melting temperature. Thus the specific strength and specific modulus of the fiber are important characteristics
Matrix Properties The matrix supports the fiber and keeps them in the proper position and to transfer the load to the strong fibers, protects the fibers from damage during manufacture and use of the composite, and prevent cracks in the fiber from propagating throughout the entire composite.
The matrix usually provides the major control over electrical properties, chemical behavior, and elevated-temperature use of the composite. Bonding and Failure Particularly in polymer and metal-matrix composites, good bonding must be obtained between the various constituent.
The fibers must be firmly bonded to the matrix material if the load is to be properly transmitted from the matrix to the fibers. In addition, the fibers may pull out of the matrix during loading, reducing the strength and fracture resistance of the composite if bonding is poor.
22 In general, for a given type of thermoplastic (e.g., polyethylene) the tensile strength, creep resistance, impact toughness, wear resistance, and melting temperature all increase with increasing average molecular weight or degree of polymerization. The increases in these properties are not linear. As the average molecular weight increases, the melting temperature increases and this makes the processing more difficult.
23 The fracture mechanics approach allows us to design and select materials while taking into account the inevitable(不可避免的) presence of flaws. There are three variables to consider: the property of the material (KC or KIC), the stress that the material must withstand, and the size of the flaw a. If we know two of these variables, the third can be determined.
24. Silicon carbide (SiC) provides outstanding oxidation resistance at temperatures even above the melting point of steel. SiC often is used as a coating for metals, carbon-carbon composites, and other ceramics to provide protection at these extreme temperatures. SiC is also used as an abrasive in grinding wheels and as particulate and fibrous reinforcement in both metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites. It is also used to make heating elements for furnaces.
25 Compaction and sintering- one of the most cost-effectively ways to produce thousands of relatively small pieces (<6 inches) of simple shapes is compaction and sintering. The driving force of is the reduction in the surface area of a powder . Fine powders can be spray dried, forming soft agglomerates that flow and compact well .The different steps of uniaxial compaction(单轴压力), in which the compacting force is applied in one direction, are shown in Figure 4-3(a). The microstructure of a barium magnesium tantalate ceramic prepared using compaction and sintering is shown in Figure 4-3(b).
26 ．We also discussed the concepts of short-versus long-range order in terms of atomic or ionic
arrangements in non-crystalline materials. The most important of the non-crystalline materials are glasses, especially those based on silica. Of course, there are glasses based on other compounds (eg. Sulfides, fluorides).
A glass is a meta-stable material, in some ways resemblesan undercooled liquid. Below the glass temperature (Tg). The rate of volume contraction on cooling is reduced and the material can be considered a ‘glass’ rather than an ‘under-cooled liquid’.
27. In ductile metallic materials, the engineering stress-strain curve typically goes through a maximum; this maximum stress is the tensile strength of the material. Failure occurs at a lower stress after necking has reduced the cross-sectional area supporting the load. In more brittle materials, failure occurs at the maximum load, where the tensile strength and breaking strength are the same. In brittle materials, including many ceramics, yield strength, tensile strength and breaking strength are all the same.
28 Sintering involves different mass transport mechanisms [Figure 4-3(c)]. With sintering the grain boundary and bulk (volume) diffusion contribute to densification (increase in density) , Surface diffusion and evaporation condensation(浓缩) can cause grain growth, but they do not cause densification The compaction process can be completed within one minute for smaller parts; thus, uniaxial compaction is well suited for making a large number of smaller and simple shapes. Compaction is used to create what we call ‘green ceramics’; these have respectable strengths and can be handled(可以手拿的) and machined.
29 . In a simple tensile test, ductile fracture begins with the nucleation, growth, and coalescence of microvoids at the center of the test bar. Microvoids form when a high stress causes separation of the metal at grain boundaries or interfaces between the metal and small impurity particles (inclusions). As the local stress increases, the microvoids grow and coalesce into larger cavities. Eventually, the metal- to metal contact area is too small to support the load and fracture occurs.
30 Glasses are manufactured into useful articles at a high temperature with viscosity(粘性) controlled so that the glass can be shaped without breaking Figure 4-9 helps us understand the processing in terms of the viscosity ranges.
1 Liquid range Sheet and plate glass are produced when the glass is in the molten state. Techniques include rolling the molten glass through water-cooled rolls or floating the molten glass over a pool of liquid tin(锡) (Figure 4-10). The liquid-tin process produces an exceptionally(异常光滑的) smooth surface on the glass. The
development of the float-glass(浮法玻璃) process was a genuine(真正的) breakthrough in the are of glass Processing. Basic float-glass composition has been essentially unchanged for many years (Table 4-6).
2. Working range Shapes such as those of containers or light bulbs(球状物) can be formed by pressing, drawing, or blowing glass into molds (Figure 4-14). A hot gab(凹节) of liquid glass may be preformed into a crude shape (parison 玻璃半成品), then pressed or blown into a heated die(模型) to produce the final shape. The glass is heated to the working range so that the glass is formable, but not ‘runny(易流动的).’
3 . Annealing range Some ceramic parts may be annealed to reduce residual stresses introduced during foxing. Large glass castings, for example, are often annealed and slowly cooled to prevent cracking. Some glasses may be beat treated to cause devitrification (除去玻璃光泽) or the precipitation of a crystalline phase from the glass.
31. Metals and alloys have good strength, good ductility, and good formability. Metals have good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals and alloys play an indispensable role in many applications such as automotives, buildings, bridges, aerospace, and the like.
Polymers are classified in several ways: by how the molecules are synthesized, by their molecular structure, or by their chemical family. One way to classify polymers is to state if the polymer is a linear polymer or a branched
32 polymer.
Linear polymer - Any polymer in which molecules are in the form of spaghetti-like chains(类似与意
大利细面条).
Branched polymer – In a branched polymer, there are primary polymer chains and secondary offshoots(分支) of smaller chains that stem from these main chains.
Thermoplastics - Linear or branched polymers in which chains of molecules are not interconnected to one another.
Elastomers - These are polymers (thermoplastics or lightly cross-linked thermosets) that have an elastic(弹性形变) deformation > 200%.
Thermosetting polymers - Polymers that are heavily cross-linked to produce a strong three dimensional network structure.
33．The techniques used to form the polymers depend to a large extent on the nature of the polymer – in particular, whether it is thermoplastic or thermosetting. The greatest variety of techniques are used to form the thermoplastics. The polymer is heated to near or above the melting temperature so that it becomes rubbery or liquid. The polymer is then formed in a mold or die to produce the required shape.
Silica (SiO2) is probably the most widely used ceramic material. silica is an essential ingredient(成分) in glasses and many glass ceramics. silica-based materials are used in thermal insulation, refractories, abrasives, fiber-reinforced composites, laboratory glassware etc. In the form of long continuous fibers, silica is used to make optical fibers for communications. Powders made using fine particles of silica are used in tires(轮胎), paints, and many other applications.
34. The steps of converting a ceramic powder (or mixture of powders) into a useful shape are known as powder processing. We begin with a ceramic powder and gel it ready for shaping by crushing, grinding, separating impurities, blending different powders, and spray drying, to form soil agglomerates. Different techniques such as compaction, tape casting, extrusion, and slip casting are then used to convert properly processed powders into a desired shape to form what is known as a green ceramic.
35 A special group of dispersion-strengthened nano-composite materials containing particles l0 to 250 nm in diameter is classified as particulate composites. These dispersoids(弥散体), usually a metallic oxide, are introduced into the matrix by means other than traditional phase transformations . Even though the small particles are not coherent (粘在一起)with the matrix, they block (阻塞) the movement of dislocations and produce a pronounced strengthening effect.
36 We also discussed the concepts of short-versus long-range order in terms of atomic or ionic arrangements in non-crystalline materials. The most important of the non-crystalline materials are glasses, especially those based on silica. Of course, there are glasses based on other compounds (eg. Sulfides, fluorides).
A glass is a meta-stable material, in some ways resemblesan undercooled liquid. Below the glass temperature (Tg). The rate of volume contraction on cooling is reduced and the material can be considered a ‘glass’ rather than an ‘under-cooled liquid’.
37 Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) is used to make electronic ceramics such as BaTiO3. The largest use, though, is as a white pigment to make paints. Titania is used in certain glass-ceramics as a nucleating (成核的) agent. Fine particles of TiO2 are used to make suntan (防晒) lotions that provide protection against ultraviolet (紫外
线的)rays.
38. These two aspects of ductile fracture give the failed surface characteristic features. In thick metal sections, we expect to find evidence of necking, with a significant portion of the fracture surface having a flat face where microvoids first nucleated and coalesced, and a small shear lip, where the fracture surface is at a 450 angle to the applied stress. The shear lip, indicating that slip occurred, gives the fracture a cup and cone appearance. Simple macroscopic observation of this fracture may be sufficient to identify the ductile fracture mode.
39. Fatigue is the lowering of strength or failure of a material due to repetitive stress which may be above or below the yield strength. The possibility of a fatigue failure is the main reason why aircraft components have a finite life. Fatigue is an interesting phenomenon in that load-bearing components can fail while the overall stress applied may not exceed the yield stress. Fatigue can occur even if the components are subjected to stress above the yield strength. A component is often subjected to the repeated application of stress below the yield strength of the material.
40. One of the most important functions of materials scientists and engineers is to establish the relationships between a material or a device’s properties and performance and the microstructure of that material, its composition, and the way the material or the device was synthesized and processed.
41 The properties for which ceramics are most often selected include:
high melting temperatures (the ability to be used at elevated temperatures)
high electrical resistivity(系数) (although some ceramics are super conductors);
a broad range of thermal conductivity(热传导) (some ceramics are excellent insulators);
high hardness (although many ceramics are brittle);
good resistance to chemical attack and other environmental conditions;
42 ．In general, for a given type of thermoplastic (e.g., polyethylene) the tensile strength, creep resistance, impact toughness, wear resistance, and melting temperature all increase with increasing average molecular weight or degree of polymerization. The increases in these properties are not linear. As the average molecular weight increases, the melting temperature increases and this makes the processing more difficult.
43. Sintering involves different mass transport mechanisms. With sintering the grain boundary and bulk
(volume) diffusion contribute to densification (increase in density), Surface diffusion and evaporation condensation can cause grain growth, but they do not cause densification
44 Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength, fatigue resistance, Young's modulus, and strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating strong, stiff, but brittle fibers into a softer, more ductile matrix. The matrix material transmits the force to the fibers, which carry most of the applied force. The matrix also provides protection for the fiber surface and minimizes diffusion of species such as oxygen or moisture that can degrade the mechanical properties of fibers. The strength of the composite may be high at both room temperature and elevated temperatures.
45 We begin with a ceramic powder and get it ready for shaping by crushing(挤压), grinding, separating impurities, blending different powders, and spray drying (喷雾干燥) to form soil agglomerates (造粒). Different techniques such as compaction (压缩), tape casting (流延成型), extrusion (挤出), and slip casting (流铸法) are then used to convert properly processed powders into a desired shape to form what is known as a green ceramic.
46 The impact test describes the response of a material to a rapidly applied load. The Charpy and Izod tests are typical. The energy required to fracture the specimen is measured and can be used as the basis for comparison of various materials tested under the same conditions. In addition, a transition temperature above which the material fails in a ductile, rather than a brittle, manner can be determined.
47 In ductile metallic materials, the engineering stress-strain curve typically goes through a maximum; this maximum stress is the tensile strength of the material. Failure occurs at a lower stress after necking has reduced the cross-sectional area supporting the load. In more brittle materials, failure occurs at the maximum load, where the tensile strength and breaking strength are the same. In brittle materials, including many ceramics, yield strength, tensile strength and breaking strength are all the same.
48. When a material is designed for a given application, a number of factors must be considered. The material must acquire the desired physical and mechanical properties, must be capable of being processed or manufactured into the desired shape, and must provide an economical solution to the design problem. Satisfying these requirements in a manner that protects the environment – perhaps by encouraging recycling of the materials – is also essential.
For sintered ceramics, the average grain size, grain size distribution, and the level and type of porosity are
important. Similarly, depending upon the application, second phases in the microstructure auld (旧的) occur as separate grains of components dissolved(溶解) in solid solutions of the matrix, so second phases at grain boundaries also become important, In the rose of extruded ceramics(挤出的陶瓷), orientation effects(倾向性) also can be important.
49 Grains and Grain Boundaries the average grain size is often closely related to the primary particle size(基本尺寸). An exception (例外) to this is if there is grain growth due to long sintering times or exaggerated (过分的) or abnormal grain growth (Chapter 5). Typically, ceramics with a small grain size are stronger than coarse-grained (晶粒粗糙的) ceramics. Finer grain sizes help reduce stresses that develop at grain boundaries due to anisotropic(各向异性的)expansion and contraction(膨胀和收缩).
50 Thermosetting polymers often begin as linear chains. Depending on the type of repeat units and the degree of polymerization, the initial polymer may be either a solid or a liquid resin; in some cases, a two- or three-part liquid resin is used. Heat, pressure, mixing of the various resin, or other methods initiate the cross-linking process. Cross-linking is not reversible; once formed, the thermosets cannot be reused or recycled conveniently.
51 Composites are produced when two or more materials or phases are used together to give a combination of properties that cannot be attained otherwise(另外的方法).
Composite materials may be selected to give unusual combinations of strength, weight, high-temperature performance, corrosion resistance, hardness, or conductivity. Composites highlight(突出) how different materials can work in synergy. Abalone shell(鲍鱼壳), wood, bone, and teeth are examples of naturally occuring composites.
52 Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength, fatigue resistance, Young's modulus, and strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating(合并) strong, stiff, but brittle fibers into a softer, more ductile matrix.
The matrix material transmits the force to the fibers, which carry most of the applied force. The matrix also provides protection for the fiber surface and minimizes diffusion of species such as oxygen or moisture that candegrade the mechanical properties of fibers.
三、分析或计算
1. Silicon carbide particles are compacted and fired at a high temperature to produce a strong ceramic shape. The specific gravity of SiC is 3.2 g/cm3. The ceramic shape subsequently is weighed when dry (360g), after soaking in water (385 g), and while suspended in water (224 g). Calculate the apparent porosity, the true porosity, and the fraction of the pore volume that is closed.
2 The flexural strength (弯曲强度) of a composite material reinforced with glass fibers is 45,000 psi and the flexural modulus is 18 106 psi. A sample, which is 0.5 in. wide, 0.375 in. high, and 8 in. long, is supported between two rods 5 in. apart. Determine the force required to fracture the material and the deflection of the sample at fracture, assuming that no plastic deformation(塑性变形) occurs.
3. Assume that an advanced ceramic, Sialon (acronym for silicon aluminum oxy-nitride), has a tensile strength of 60,000 psi. Let us assume that this value is for a flaw-free ceramic. (in practice, it is almost impossible to produce flaw-free ceramics.) A thin crack 0.01 in. deep is observed before a Sialon part is tested. The part unexpectedly fails at a stress of 500 psi by propagation of the crack. Estimate the radius of the crack tip.
4 A chain used to hoist heavy loads fails (提升重物的链断裂失效). Examination of the failed link indicates considerable deformation and necking prior to failure. List some of the possible reasons for failure.
5. A titanium pipe used to transport a corrosive material at 400℃ is found to fail after several months. How would you determine the cause for the failure?
6 An aluminum rod is to withstand（经受）an applied force of 45,000 pounds. To assure a sufficient safety(足够的安全), the maximum allowable stress on the rod is limited to 25,000 psi. The rod must be at least 150 in. long but must deform elastically no more than 0.25 in. when the force is applied. Design an appropriate rod.
7 We produce good chemical resistance in a glass when we introduce B2O3 into silica. To assure that we have good glass-forming tendencies, we wish the O:Si ratio to be no more than 2.5, but we also want the glassware to have a low-melting temperature to make the glass-forming process easier and more economical. Design such a glass.
8 Design a supporting 3-in.-wide plate made of sialon, which has a fracture toughness of 9,000 psi , that will withstand a tensile load of 40,000 lb. The part is to be nondestructively tested (非破坏性的实验)to assure that no flaws are present that might cause failure.
in
9 An engineer investigating the cause of an automobile accident finds that the right rear wheel has broken off at the axle. The axle is bent. The fracture surface reveals a Chevron pattern pointing toward the surface of the axle. Suggest a possible cause for the failure.
10 The flexural strength of a composite material reinforced with glass fibers is 45,000 psi and the flexural modulus is 18 106 psi. A sample, which is 0.5 in. wide, 0.375 in. high, and 8 in. long, is supported between two rods 5 in. apart. Determine the force required to fracture the material and the deflection of the sample at fracture, assuming that no plastic deformation occurs.
11 A large steel plate used in a nuclear reactor has a plane strain fracture tough ness of 80,000 psi.in and is exposed to a stress of 45,000 psi during service. Design a testing or inspection procedure capable of detecting a crack at the edge of the plate before the crack is likely to grow a t a catastrophic rate (Assuming f = 1.12).
12 A large steel plate(盘子) used in a nuclear reactor has a plane strain fracture toughness of 80,000 psi and is exposed to a stress of 45,000 psi during service. Design a testing or inspection procedure capable of detecting a crack at the edge of the plate before the crack is likely to grow at a catastrophic rate(灾难的速率).
13 Suppose 2 wt% ThO2 is added to nickel. Each ThO2 particle has a diameter of 1000 ?. How many particles are present in each cubic centimeter?( The densities of ThO2 and nickel are 9.69 and 8.9 g/cm3, respectively)
14 Design a unidirectional fiber-reinforced epoxy-matrix strut having a round cross-section. The strut is 10 ft long and, when a force of 500 pounds is applied, it should stretch no more than 0.10 in. We want to assure that the stress acting on the strut is less than the yield strength of the epoxy matrix, 12,000 psi. If the fibers should happen to break, the strut will stretch an extra amount but may not catastrophically fracture. Epoxy costs about $0.80/lb and has a modulus of elasticity of 500,000 psi.
15 A chain used to hoist heavy loads fails. Examination of the failed link indicates considerable deformation and necking prior to failure. List some of the possible reasons for failure.
16 A high-strength steel plate (Figure 7-19), which has a plane strain fracture toughness of 80 MPa , is alternately loaded in tension to 500 MPa and in compression to 60 MPa. The plate is to survive for 10 years, with
the stress being applied at a frequency of once every 5 minutes. Design a manufacturing and testing procedure that assures that the component will serve as intended.
17 Assume that an advanced ceramic, Sialon (acronym for silicon aluminum oxy-nitride), has a tensile strength of 60,000 psi. Let us assume that this value is for a flaw-free ceramic. (in practice, it is almost impossible to produce flaw-free ceramics.) A thin crack 0.01 in. deep is observed before a Sialon part is tested. The part unexpectedly fails at a stress of 500 psi by propagation of the crack. Estimate the radius of the crack tip.
18 An engineer investigating the cause of an automobile accident finds that the right rear wheel has broken of at the axle. The axle is bent. The fracture surface reveals a Chevron pattern pointing toward the surface of the axle. Suggest a possible cause for the fracture.
19 A cemented carbide cutting tool used for machining contains 75 wt% WC, 15 wt% TiC, 5 wt% TaC, and 5 wt% Co. Estimate the density of the composite
20 Derive the rule of mixtures (Equation 6.5) for the modulus of elasticity of a fiber-reinforced composite when a stress ( ) is applied along the axis of the fibers. We use the symbol ‘‘ ’’ for stress to distinguish it from the symbol used for conductivity.
21. A silver-tungsten composite for an electrical contact is produced by first making a porous tungsten powder metallurgy compact, then infiltrating pure silver into the pores. The density of the tungsten compact before infiltration is 14.5 g/cm3. Calculate the volume fraction of porosity and the final weight percent of silver in the compact after infiltration.
22 Describe the difference in fracture mechanism between a boron-reinforced aluminum composite and a glass fiber-reinforced epoxy composite.
23 Silicon carbide particles are compacted and fired at a high temperature to produce a strong ceramic shape. The specific gravity of SiC is 3.2 g/cm3. The ceramic shape subsequently is weighed when dry (360 g), after soaking in water (385 g), and while suspended in water (224 g). Calculate the apparent porosity, the true porosity, and the fraction of the pore volume that is closed.
24 A large steel plate used in a nuclear reactor has a plane strain fracture tough ness of 80,000 psi.in and is exposed to a stress of 45,000 psi during service. Design a testing or inspection procedure capable of detecting a crack at the edge of the plate before the crack is likely to grow a t a catastrophic rate(Assuming f = 1.12).
25 . A titanium pipe used to transport a corrosive material at 400℃ is found to fail after several months. How would you determine the cause for the failure?
26 Compare engineering stress and strain with true stress and strain for the aluminum alloy in Example 6.1 at
(a) the maximum load and (b) fracture. The diameter at maximum load is 0.497 in. and at fracture is 0.398 in.
27 We produce good chemical resistance in a glass when we introduce B2O3 into silica. To assure that we have good glass-forming tendencies, we wish the O:Si ratio to be no more than 2.5, but we also want the glassware to have a low-melting temperature to make the glass-forming process easier and more economical. Design such a glass.
28 A silver-tungsten composite for an electrical contact is produced by first making a porous tungsten powder metallurgy compact, then infiltrating pure silver into the pores. The density of the tungsten compact before infiltration is 14.5 g/cm3. Calculate the volume fraction of porosity and the final weight percent of silver in the compact after infiltration.
29 A chain used to hoist heavy loads fails. Examination of the failed link indicates considerable deformation and necking prior to failure. List some of the possible reasons for failure.
30 A cemented carbide cutting tool used for machining contains 75 wt% WC, 15 wt% TiC, 5 wt% TaC, and 5 wt% Co. Estimate the density of the composite.
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31An advanced engineered ceramic has a Weibull modulus m = 9. The flexural strength is 250 MPa at a probability of failure F = 0.4. What is the level of flexural strength if the probability of failure has to be 0.1?
32 Seven silicon carbide specimens were tested and the following fracture strengths were obtained: 23, 49, 34, 30, 55, 43, and 40 MPa. Estimate the Weibull modulus for the data by fitting the data to Equation 7-11. Discuss the reliability of the ceramic.
33 A crankshaft in a diesel engine fails. Examination of the crankshaft reveals no plastic deformation. The fracture surface is smooth. In addition, several other cracks appear at other locations in the crankshaft. What type of failure mechanism would you expect?
34 A solid shaft for a cement kiln produced from the tool steel in Figure 6.50 must be 96 in. long and must survive continuous operation for one year with an applied load of 12,500 lb. The shaft makes one revolution per
minute during operation. Design a shaft that will satisfy these requirements.
35 We want to make 1000 kilograms of BaTiO3 ceramic from BaCO3 and TiO2. How much barium carbonate and titanium dioxide should be ball milled and calcined?
36 A manufacturer of barium zinc tantalate (Ba(Zn1/3Ta2/3)O3 or BZT ceramics) produces cylindrical, puck-shaped devices known as dielectric resonators. The particular pucks made in this case are 2 inches in diameter and 1/2 inch tall and they have a 1/2 inch hole at the center. The sintering of these pieces is conducted at 1500oC, using additives. The manufacturing process used to make these pieces is well established. Suddenly, one day, a batch of the dielectric resonators comes out of the furnace with cracks and must be rejected. The plant manager determines that the material has reached 98% of the theoretical target level of densification. What could be the reason for the cracks?
37 We produce good chemical resistance in a glass when we introduce B2O3 into silica. To assure that we have good glass-forming tendencies, we wish the O:Si ratio to be no more than 2.5, but we also want the glassware to have a low-melting temperature to make the glass-forming process easier and more economical. Design such a glass.
38 Suppose 2 wt% ThO2 is added to nickel. Each ThO2 particle has a diameter of 1000 ?. How many particles are present in each cubic centimeter(立方厘米)?
Solution
39 The densities of ThO2 and nickel are 9.69 and 8.9 g/cm3, respectively. The volume fraction is:
A titanium pipe used to transport a corrosive material at 400oC is found to fail after several months. How would you determine the cause for the failure?
40 We are now using a 7075-T6 aluminum alloy (modulus of elasticity of 10 106 psi) to make a 500-pound panel on a commercial aircraft. Experience has shown that each pound reduction in weight on the aircraft reduces the fuel consumption by 500 gallons each year. Design a material for the panel that will reduce weight, yet maintain the same specific modulus, and will be economical over a 10-year lifetime of the aircraft.
《绩效管理》试题及答案 一、填空题 1.我们认为绩效分为两个层次，即包括（组织）绩效和员工个人绩效两方面。 2.一个员工绩效的优劣并不取决于单一因素，而是受制于主客观的多种因素，这句话表述的是绩效的（多因 性）。 3.影响员工个人绩效的主要因素包括（技能）、（激励）、环境和机会。 4.绩效管理的目的包括战略目的、（管理目的）和开发目的。 5.绩效管理系统包括四个环节：（绩效计划）、绩效监控、绩效考核和绩效反馈 6.绩效管理系统的评价标准包括战略一致性、（明确性）、可接受性、效度和信度。 7.绩效计划是管理者与员工根据既定的绩效标准，共同制定并修正绩效目标以及实现目标的步骤的过程。其中绩 效标准是针对（（员工）工作或职位）制定的，绩效目标是针对（个人）设定的。 8.绩效标准按内容分为职务标准和职能标准，其中确定职务标准的首要步骤是确定出每个职务的（工作要项）。 9.制定绩效计划最重要的内容就是制定绩效目标。一方面目标要切实可行，另一方面尽可能（量化），以便进行 评价和反馈。 10.在绩效管理中，我们一般认为绩效指的是那些经过评价的（工作（行为））、方式及其结果。 11.在绩效管理期间内，管理者与员工之间进行的持续的（绩效沟通）是绩效管理发挥作用的最直接的环节。 12.绩效评价指标包括四个构成要素：（（指标）名称）、定义、标志和标度。 13.绩效评价的内容分为：工作业绩评价、（工作态度评价）和工作能力评价。 14.一般情况下，影响选择何种绩效考核方法的首要因素就是工作特征，即工作的独立性程度、（程序化）程 度和工作环境的变动程度。 15.把薪酬的发放与员工的有效行为和无效行为建立联系，以此不断刺激并引导员工的行为，所依据的是（强化） 理论。 16.绩效评价的主体通常包括：上级、下级、本人、（同事或同级或平级）、顾客以及供应商等。 17.评价者对评价对象的评价往往高于其实际成绩，这种现象被称为（宽大化）倾向。 18.最早的绩效薪酬制度的雏形——计件工资报酬制度是由管理学家（泰勒）创造的。 二、单项选择题（共10题，每题2分，共20分）： 1、实践证明，提高绩效的有效途径是进行（ D ）。 A) 绩效考核B) 绩效管理C) 绩效计划D) 绩效沟通 2、通常，我们可以把绩效管理体系的发展分为三个阶段，依次是以（C ）为导向的、以发展为导向的和以经营为导向的绩效管理体系。 A) 控制B) 行为C) 结果D) 战略
合肥工业大学2005级硕士研究生《自然辩证法》试题 1.简答题：（6*5’=30’） 1．为什么说自然辩证法是联系马克思主义哲学与科学技术的纽带？ 2．怎样正确理解观察试验中机遇？ 3．爱因斯坦说“提出一个问题比解决一个问题更为重要。。”试作简要说明4．简述生态伦理规范的内容体系及其社会化路径。 5．“社会一旦有技术上的需要，比十所大学更能把科学推向前进”谈谈你对这句话的理解。 2．辨析：（3*10’=30’） 1．相对于要素和环境而言，系统得结构对功能的作用更直接，更根本。 2．绿色设计是人工自然与天然自然作用互利性的标志。 3．技术的创造和应用不仅要体现“真”，而且要体现“善”和“美”。3．论述题：（2*20’=40’） 1．试运用马克思主义关于“自然观”的观点，谈谈你对生态，环境，资源，经济发展等问题的认识。 2．试以计算机网络技术或生物医学新技术为例说明为什么“科学技术是一把双刃剑”，我们应如何正确看待这个问题 1.。
2007级研究生自然辩证法试题——献给2008的学弟学妹 简答：(6*5) 1为什么说自然辩证法是学科群？ 2结合自己的专业确立科学理论的过程？ 3如何理解科学技术是双刃剑？ 4生态哲学的理论基础？ 5自然科学的社会功能？ 辨析：(8*3) 1系统的非相加性只与系统的组成元素有关，与环境无关。 2科学假说只是归纳科学事实的过程。 3科学与技术无本质区别。 论述（23*2) 1材料：周正龙拍虎等 结合材料运用自然辩证法理论谈谈科学问题，科学精神，科学态度，科学方法的关系。 2生态系统规律及其实践意义。 ps：考试时间：2h 考试方式：闭卷 考试地点：西二
1、自然辩证法学科的性质 2、什么是科学？什么是技术？二者有什么联系？ 3、谈谈当代科学研究应具备的科学精神是什么？ 4、谈谈科研选题原则和意义 1、运用系统的观点分析这句话：譬如一只手，如果从身体上割下来，按照名称虽然仍然可以叫做手，但按照实际来说，已不是手了。 2、联系实际，运用生态自然观分析人与自然的关系，以及建立人与自然和谐的必要性。 1、自然辩证法学科的性质 自然辩证法是研究自然界和科学技术发展一般规律、人类认识自然和改造自然一般方法、以及科学技术在社会发展中的作用的科学，它是马克思主义哲学的重要组成部分，是对于人类认识自然和改造自然的成果与活动进行哲学概括与总结的产物。 （1）哲学的分支：自然辩证法是马克思主义哲学的一个重要组成部分。在辩证唯物主义哲学体系中，自然辩证法与历史唯物论相并列。 （2）中间层次：在科学与哲学认识的层次上，自然辩证法处于马克思主义哲学的普遍原理和科学技术的具体学科之间，是联系二者的纽带和桥梁。是具有中介学科特点的一个哲学学科。 （3）交叉学科：自然辩证法的地位不是孤立的，不仅反映了哲学与自然科学的交叉，也反映了自然科学、技术科学、思维科学、社会科学的交叉。 （4）综合性和开放性，世界性与民族性。 自然辩证法属于哲学学科，具有哲学性质，是马克思主义哲学的重要组成部分。原因有三： 第一.从研究内容上看：它把自然界、科学技术以及认识和变革自然的活动都看成是有结构的整体研究其中普遍而深刻的规律性，因而具有哲学世界观的性质。第二.从研究的角度上看：它主要不是对自然界进行客观的描述和对认识变革自然的活动进行纯思维逻辑分析，而是在人与自然的关系中来研究自然、人以及两者的中介，因而具有客观辩证法与主观辩证法相统一的特点。第三.从研究的方法上看；它不局限于一般的归纳、演绎、分析、综合，而更重视哲学抽象。哲学抽象主要特点是进行多层次分析和多学科综合，以便提炼出既普遍又深刻的内容。 2、什么是科学？什么是技术？二者有什么联系？ 科学是人类的一种社会活动，其直接职能是不断探求和系统总结关于客观世界的知识，形成一定的知识体系；这种知识体系还可以物化为社会生产力。科学是反映自然现象的知识；科学是系统地探索自然的一个活动；科学是人类文化活动的一种形式；科学是社会事业的一个组成部分。 技术是为满足社会需要，利用自然规律实践活动中创造的劳动手段、工艺方法盒技能体系的总和。属于直接生产力的范畴，表现了人对自然的能动利用、控制和改造。技术的两重属性：(1)自然属性(2)社会属性。 区别：（1）科学的基本任务是认识世界，有所发现，从而增加人类的知识财
工程造价管理试题及答 案 Standardization of sany group #QS8QHH-HHGX8Q8-GNHHJ8-HHMHGN#
工程造价管理试题及答案 单选 1、工程造价的两种管理是指（ B ）。 A 建设工程投资费用管理和工程造价计价依据管理 B 建设工程投资费用管理和工程价格管理 C 工程价格管理和工程造价专业队伍建设管理 D 工程造价管理和工程造价计价依据管理 2、进口设备运杂费中运输费的运输区间是指（ C ）。 A 出口国供货地至进口国边境港口或车站 B 出口国的边境港口或车站至进口国的边境 港口或车站C 进口国的边境港口或车站至工地仓库D 出口国的边境港口或车站至工地仓库 3、某个新建项目，建设期为3年，分年均衡进行贷款，第一年贷款400万元，第二年贷款 500万元，第三年贷款400万元，贷款年利率为10%，建设期内利息只计息不支付，则建设期贷款利息为（ A ）万元。 A 205.7 B 356.27 C 521.897 D 435.14 4、已知某挖土机挖土的一个工作循环需2分钟，每循环一次挖土0.5m3，工作班的延续时间为8小时，时间利用系数K=0.85，则每台班产量定额为（ C ）。 A 12.8 m3/台班 B 15 m3/台班 C 102 m3/台班 D 120 m3/台班 5、某项目总投资为3000万元，单项工程总费用为1800万元，建筑单位工程费用为700万元，建设单位管理费率为2.4%，则建设单位管理费为（ B ）万元。 A 72 B 43.2 C 28.8 D 16.8 6、工程定额计价法计算建安工程造价由（ D ）组成。 A 直接工程费、间接费、利润、增值税 B 直接费、间接费、利润、营业税 C 直接工程费、间接费、利润、营业税 D 直接费、间接费、利润、税金 7、工程量清单计价规范中门窗工程量按（ C ）计算。 A 框外围平方米 B 洞口平方米 C 樘 D 数量 8、建设项目可行性研究报告的主要内容是（ C ）。 A 市场研究、技术研究和风险预测研究 B 经济研究、技术研究和综合研究 C 市场研究、技术研究和效益研究 D 经济研究、技术研究和资源研究 9、项目可行性研究阶段的投资估算，是（ C ）的重要依据。 A 主管部门审批项目建议书 B建设贷款计划 C项目投资决策 D 项目资金筹措 10、当初步设计达到一定深度，建筑结构比较明确时，编织建筑工程概算可以采用（ C ）。 A 单位工程指标法 B 概算指标法 C 概算定额法 D 类似工程概算法 11、审查施工图预算的方法很多，其中全面、细致、质量高的方法是（ C ）。 A 分组计算审查法 B 对比法 C 全面审查法 D 筛选法 12、根据《招标投标法》，两个以上法人或者其他组织组成一个联合体，以一个投标人的身份共同投标是（ A ）。 A 联合投标 B 共同投标 C 合作投标 D 协作投标 13、在采用成本加酬金合同价时，为了有效地控制工程造价，下列形式中最好采用（ D ）。 A 成本加固定金额酬金 B 成本加固定百分比酬金 C 成本加最低酬金 D 最高限额成本加固定最大酬金 14、根据合同文本，工程变更价款通常由（ C ）提出，报（）批准。 A 工程师、业主 B 承包商、业主 C 承包商、工程师 D 业主、承包商 15、竣工决算的计量单位是（ A ）。 A 实物数量和货币指标 B 建设费用和建设成果 C 固定资产价值、流动资产价值、无形 资产价值、递延和其他资产价值 D 建设工期和各种技术经济指标
要求： 1、答题部分要求手写，题目部分打印或手写均可 2、名词解释任意选择4题，答题任意选择3题. 一、名词解释： 1、绩效管理 ——绩效管理指的是管理者用来确保员工的工作活动和产出与组织的目标保持一致的手段和过程。 2、S M A R T原则 ——制定绩效目标时应遵循的原则：S明确具体的，指绩效目标在绩效目标的基础上更加明确、具体化；M可衡量的。指绩效目标衡量的可操作性；A行为导向的。指绩效目标应该能够指导员工的行为；R切实可行的。目标要适度、符合实际，不可过高也不可过低；T受时间和资源限制的。指绩效目标应有时间的限制，以及资源消耗的限制。 3、强制分布法 ——事先确定每一绩效水平在整个的绩效水平组成中所占的比例，然后对所有被评价者针对某一指标进行评价，确定其所处的绩效水平等级的绩效考核方法。 4、360度考核 ——又称全方位绩效考核法或多源绩效考核法，是指从与被考核者发生工作关系的多方主体那里获得被考核者的信息，以此对被考核者进行全方位、多维度的绩效评估的过程。这些信息的来源包括：来自上级监督者的自上而下的反馈（上级）；来自下属的自下而上的反馈（下属）；来自平级同事的反馈（同事）；来自企业内部的支持部门和供应部门的反馈（支持者）；来自公司内部和外部的客户的反馈（服务对象）；以及来自本人的反馈。 5、目标管理 ——是一种过程或程序，它使组织中的上、下级一起协商，根据组织的使命确定一定时期内组织的总目标，由此决定上、下级的责任和分目标，并把这些目标作为组织绩效考核和考核每个部门和个人绩效产出对组织贡献的标准。 6.绩效监控 在整个绩效周期内，管理者采取恰当的领导风格，积极指导下属工作，与下属进行持续的绩效沟通，预防和解决绩效周期内可能发生的各种问题，以期达到更好的完成绩效计划的目的。 二．答题： 1.简述绩效反馈与面谈的目的。 1）让员工了解自我状况：业绩达标、行为态度是否合格、能力成长水平，双方对评估结果达成一致； 2）探讨不合格的原因，制定改进计划； 3）传递组织期望 4）形成下周期绩效计划。 2.简要解释如何理解关键绩效指标的含义。 关键绩效指标是基于企业经营管理绩效的系统考核体系。
一、简述题（每小题7分，共计35分） 1．请简述唯物论自然观的主要内容。 答：唯物论自然观的基本思想是：世界是由物质及其现象所构成的；人的正确思想是对物及其物质现象的反映。（4分）衡量或判断一个思想是否是真理的标准就是：这一思想是否客观准确地反映了物质及其现象的真实情况。（3分） 2．对科学命题的证实为何是不可能的？ 答：因为构成科学理论的命题是无时空限制的全称命题，其外延所指称的分子对象是无穷的，（4分）人们不可能用有限的经验现象去证实一个指向无限时空和无穷分子对象的命题。（3分） 3. 请简述人类生态危机的根源及其解决办法。 答：生态危机根源于人类所持的绝对中心主义认识论及其行为模式：把人从自然界分离出来当作“改造者”，是典型的人类绝对中心主义的表现，视万物为“白云苍狗”，一切为了人的需要，彻底破坏了人与自然的平衡。人类在动物谱系中扮演了一个贪婪而无节制的物种角色。（2分）但是，另一方面，人类的思维及其行为特征又不可能不是自我指向的，故而，人类又不可能不以自我为中心，在此情形之下，我们只能通过自我反省而选择一个相对中心主义的思维模式和行为模式。（2分）解决之道是：大智若愚，人对自然作用一分自然也对人反作用一分。“克己复礼”，修复人与自然的和谐关系。克己,指克制人类的不恰当的欲望；礼，是指自然界的秩序。寻求替代能源。共同行动。（3分） 4. 请简述技术哲学的主要思想内容。 答：对于发明者来讲，技术就是他生命力量的象征，是生命智慧的确证；技术本身就是目的，因为他在发明感受到了此在不同于历史中的彼岸，生命就是每分每秒，发明让他感受到了存在的意义与快乐。发明使他超越了历史，他达到了一个前人不曾达到的智慧高峰，他因此成为了技术史上的一座高峰。（1分）（１）．首先，人是动物谱系中的一个分支。动物与自然的关系，也适合于人与自然的关系。动物与自然的关系是通过自己的身体直接与自然发生关系。人，则不同，人是通过制造工具与自然发生关系；人将自然物质转化成自己的身体部分的外部设备。（1分）（２）．动物是通过自己身机能的进化来获得与其他物种的竞争关系；而人则是通过“代具”——工具系统，来获得进化的力量。技术进化，即表现为工具系统的改进、更新和代替，从青铜器、铁器刀具到枪支、原子弹等等，工具系统体现了人的智慧水平的代际提高。技术进化，实际上就是人作为动物谱系的分支系统的进化。（1分）（３）．技术进化是围绕着一个由某种特定技术的具体化而产生的平衡点，即达到一个相对稳定状态。技术是由相互关联的技术事件构成的集群。技术创新具有集群特征。（1分）（４）．技术具有时间性、历史性、自我理解特性和实际功利性。时间性，即是说，过去的技术并不属于此刻的我，我的发明或创新是对前辈智慧的替代力量，我是历史长河中的一座山峰，后人必须从我这里超越过去。我的技术既是历史的绵延，也是技术史的改写者，是对过去的超越，是未来的起点。自我理解特性，即我的技术即能为他人所理解和应用，改善他人的生活，为他人创造了一种全新的生活方式。我不仅享受到了作为创造者的快乐，我也享受到了作为创造者的那种交换权力（收入回报）。（1分）（5）．普罗米修斯原则代表着技术为人类造福的积极因素；而厄庇墨透斯代表着技术的负面因素。法国思想家贝尔纳·斯蒂格勒（Bernard Stiegler）认为，厄庇墨透斯代表遗忘、造成过失、欠思考、愚蠢等；普罗米修斯代表沉思、反思、智慧。（1分）（6）．人类是双重过失——遗忘和盗窃的产物.人类早期阶段是圆满的起源,然后是沉沦.人类缺乏动物的原始性生理缺陷,所以才需要技术来弥补。（1分） 5. 请简述科学共同体的作用。 答：近代科学具有群体特征，科学是由一群人围绕着共同的兴趣与领域，进行探索未知
湖北第二师范学院继续教育学院2010—2011学年第二学期期中考试《建筑工程造价管理》课程考试试卷(B卷) 教学部门：年级专业： 学生姓名：学号： 考试方式：（开卷、闭卷）……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 一、单项选择题（每小题2分，共16分） 1 下列不是工程造价管理的特点是（D） A 时效性 B 公正性 C 规范性 D 不准确性 2 设一次贷款本金为300万元，采用单利的模式计算利息，年利率是百分之六，经过五年后的本 利之和为(C)万元 A 300 B 350 C 390 D 400 3 工程量的计算单位中，以体积计算时，它的单位为（A） A 立方米 B 立方厘米 C 立方毫米 D 英尺 3 已知产量定额是10单位，那么时间定额是（D） A 10 B 0.5 C 1 D 0.1 4 已知一个零件的制作需要经过两个工序，第一个工序的时间定额是1工日，第二个工序的时间定额是4工日，那么这个零件的产量定额是（C） A 5 B 4 C 0.2 D 0.1 5 某投资香米在建设初期一次性投入100万元，经营期为10年，投产后每年可以获得净现金流量为10万，那么该项目的年现金系数为（C） A 10 B 1000 C 10 D 100 6 PI的含义是（C） A 利润 B 资金流量 C 现金指数 D 毛利 应该（A） 7 当项目盈利时，CI CO A 大于0 B 大于等于0 C 小于0 D 等于0 8 某项目的报告期综合人工单价为10，参照工程综合人工单价是8，那么人工费调整系数为（B） A 0.1 B 0.25 C 25 D 10
1、通过对GPRA主要内容的分析归纳，这部法律最突出的特征可以被归纳为、、、。 2、狭义的文化一般指人们的精神生活的领域，它具有历史性、连续性、、 特点。 3、企业组织内绩效的三个层次分别是员工个体绩效、部门或团队绩效和 4、绩效目标设定方法中，是由上级与下级经过沟通共同制定具体的绩效目标并定期检查完成目标的进展情况的反复过程。 5、绩效结果反馈的五个步骤是：第一步；第二步；第三步是；第四步是承认听到了什么，懂得了什么，而不去争论；第五步整理听到的信息，然后快速决定，同意什么，不同意什么。 6、绩效改进是在绩效与-比较的基础上根据职位需求确定的。 7、________绩效结果反馈者如实将考核结果告诉被评人，然后倾听对方意见。 8、对于员工的绩效辅导，一般包括以下四个步骤：一是观察与反馈，二是三是教导分析，四是改善计划。 9、绩效考评中存在的问题：一是____，二是评价标准的不清晰，三是评定者产生的问题，四是评估中误区的控制。 10、企业文化作为企业的一种核心竞争能力，对企业的有着至关重要的影响。 11、.绩效评估指标的量化包括、。 12、绩效考评主要有四种功能，即控制功能、标准功能、沟通功能和______。 13、简化的期望理论模式图中包括：个人努力、个人绩效、和个人目标。 14、雷达图分析法是将公司的经营成果划分为收益性、安全性、、生产性和 五种状态。 15、绩效辅导方式有、、、、、非正式沟通等。 二、选择题（(每题1分,共15分） 1、是世界上最先探索政府绩效管理的国家。 美国 2、是冒险家和革新家的天堂。 棒球队型 3、关键事件法的缺点是 B．不能做定量分析 4、从某一优点或缺陷出发去评价应聘者的其他方面，属于 C晕轮效应 5、SMART原则中的S是指 D、相关的 6、是一个产品（服务）符合性模式，目的是为了在市场环境中保证公正，从而集中弥补质量体系的缺点和消除产品（服务）的不符合性。 C、ISO质量认证体系 7、陈某是车工班班长，他的工作职责之一是，按天记录班内人员各自加工零件的数量，然后将结果公布在公示板上并与员工交流。陈某的这项职责被称为 B.绩效监控 8、确定绩效标准时，以下哪个是不用特别注意的 D.绩效标准应当灵活
1.什么是技术创新？它有哪些机制？ 技术创新 技术创新不同于技术发明，它主要是指技术成果在商业上的首次成功应用。技术创新包含技术成果的商业化和产业化，它是技术进步的基本形式。原始创新和集成创新是当前我国科技界和产业界关注的焦点所在，国家创新系统是市场经济架构下企业从事技术创新活动的环境。 技术创新的机制 技术创新的机制分为两个层次：国家层次是指国家创新体系，它主要是从国家竞争力考虑；企业层次主要是指，企业在其内部和外部各种因素的影响下，通过创新建立相应的组织结构，并对社会经济发挥作用的机理和原理，它主要是从企业竞争力考虑。 2.怎样正确地理解人与自然之间的矛盾和关系，谈谈你对中国可持续发展之路 的想法。 （1）人与自然的三重矛盾关系 自然资源和生态环境承载力的有限性与人民日益增长的物质文化需要的矛盾关系；尊重自然的价值与尊重人类发展权利的矛盾关系；技术开发与自然保护的矛盾关系。 （2）人与自然的关系 世界上的任何事物都是矛盾的统一体。我们面对的现实世界，就是由人类社会和自然界双方组成的矛盾统一体，两者之间是辩证统一的关系。一方面，人与自然是相互联系、相互依存、相互渗透的，人类的存在和发展，一刻也离不开自然，必然要通过生产劳动同自然进行物质、能量的交换。与此同时，人与自然之间又是相互对立的。人类为了更好地生存和发展，总是要不断地否定自然界的自然状态，并改变它；而自然界又竭力地否定人，力求恢复到自然状态。人与自然之间这种否定与反否定，改变与反改变的关系，实际上就是作用与反作用的关系，如果对这两种″作用″的关系处理得不好，极易造成人与自然之间失衡。 中国和世界正处在关键的十字路口。随着中国经济的快速发展，资源消耗以及随之产生的废物也大幅度增长，为了取得长期的经济增长，中国必须找到一条可持续发展之路。中国的环境恶化很严重，加上庞大的人口和前所未有的经济发展，这些都对中国走向可持续发展形成了重大障碍。这些都导致中国可持续发展的必然性：（一）人口方面的挑战（二）资源方面的挑战（三）生态环境方面的1、自然生态环境破坏日趋严峻2、自然生态环境污染日趋严峻：（1）水污染严重2)大气污染严重(3)土地污染严重(4)固体废物问题严重(5)噪声污染(6)电磁污染(7)光污染(8)热污染 在我国实施可持续发展必须做好以下几方面工作：首先要改变观念，科学认识自然，掌握自然规律，顺应自然发展，科学地协调、改造自然，善待自然，改变过去那种“先发展，后治理”的老路；其次要珍惜资源，节约资源；最后要唤起公众可持续发展意识，帮助人们树立正确的自然观。 中国走可持续发展道路是中国的必然选择，但这条道路同时是十分艰难的，首先经济实力薄弱是一大障碍，其次实现可持续发展需要科学技术特别是高新科学技术的支持，要达到这一点尚需长期努力，最后是地区发展的不平衡，尤其是西部地区水土流失等生态恶化现象更加严重。虽然有上述不足，但我们同时要看到，只要中国政府坚持发挥主导作用，充分运用科技力量，最广泛地动员公众参与，再加上国际社会的有力支持，随着经济体制改革、增长方式转变和科技进步的支持，中国可持续发展的前景是光明的 3.什么是科学精神？举例说明它的重要性。 科学精神是指从科学研究的过程和成果中所显示出来的科学本身所独有的一种精神气质，以及与之相应的科学思想、科学方法。它是科学价值的核心。科学精神有广泛而深刻的涵义，主要包括以下几个方面内容：
自然辩证法复习题及答案 一、填空题 1、科学的三种类别。3′ 自然科学，社会科学，人文科学 2、科学技术的三种哲学反思。3′ 对科学进行辩护-捍卫科学；对科学进行批判-质疑科学；对科学进行审度-必要的转换 3、《自然辩证法》的学科内容和知识体系。4′ （1）自然观是人们对自然界的总体看法。它是从整体上研究自然界的本质及其发展规律的根本观点。 （2）科学技术观是人们对科学技术的总体看法。它是从整体上概括科学技术及其发展规律的根本观点。 （3）科学技术方法论是人们对科学技术所运用的认识和实践方法的哲学概括。它是关于科学技术研究中常用的一般方法的规律性理论。 （4）科学技术社会论是人们对科学技术的哲学反思。它是关于科学技术性质、作用（正、负）及其发展规律以及科学技术与社会的关系的总观点。 4、《自然辩证法》的学科由来和学科性质。2′ （1）由来：自然辩证法的历史源远流长，其萌芽形态可以上溯到古希腊的自然哲学，但作为一门独立学科则是由马克思和恩格斯在19世纪下半叶共同创立的。自然辩证法是近代自然科学的历史发展及其基本成就的科学总结，特别是十九世纪中后期自然科学最新发展和最新成就的科学总结，同时也是恩格斯本人多年刻苦学习和精心研究自然科学的科学总结。有关《自然辩证法》的材料是恩格斯1873─1886年这一时期写成的。整部著作没有写完，并且在恩格斯生前没有发表过。 （2）性质：自然科学、社会科学和思维科学相交叉的哲学性质的马克思主义理论学科 5、马克思主义自然观的三种类型。3′ 系统层次观，进化历史观，持续发展观 6、系统的基本特点。4′
整体性；层次性；有序性；动态性 7、“可持续发展”的概念。 既满足当代人的需求，又不对后代人满足其自身需求的能力构成危害的发展。 8、科学和技术的本质特征。2′ 科学：人对自然的理论关系、一般生产力。 技术：人对自然的实践关系、直接生产力。 9、四大产业体系的分类。4′ （1）第一产业体系（农、林、牧、畜、渔）； （2）第二产业体系（制造、采掘、建筑、运输）； （3）第三产业体系（通信、商业、金融、医疗、饮食、公共服务）； （4）第四产业体系（科学、文化、教育、咨询） 10、科学的五大解释。5′ （1）知识体系：发展着的认识 （2）认识活动：科学研究活动 （3）社会建制：科学家共同体 （4）思维方式：科学方法 （5）精神气质：科学精神 11、作为知识体系的科学的内容。4′ 科学事实、科学定律、科学假说、科学理论 12、科研选题的四个原则。4′ 需要性原则，创造性原则，科学性原则，可行性原则 13、获取科学事实的主要方法。2′ 科学观察方法；科学实验方法 14、科学实验的主要方法。4′ （1）纯化和简化研究对象（减法实验）：与隔离有关。 （2）强化和激化研究对象（加法实验）。 （3）再现和重演自然过程（过程模拟实验，乘法实验1）。 （4）替代物理过程和数学关系（结构模拟实验，乘法实验2） 15、整理科学事实的主要方法。4′
某工程项目发包人与承包人签订了施工合同，工期4个月，工程内容包括A、B两项分项工程，综合单价分别为360.00元/m3、220.00元/m3；管理费和利润为人材机费用之和的16%；规费和税金为人材机费用、管理费和利润之和的10%，各分项工程每月计划和实际完成工程量及单价措施项目费用见表5.1。 表5.1 分项工程工程量及单价措施项目费用数据表 总价措施项目费用6万元（其中安全文明施工费3.6万元）；暂列金额15万元。 合同中有关工程价款结算与支付约定如下： 1、开工日10天前，发包人应向承包人支付合同价款（扣除暂列金额和安全文明施工费）的20%作为工程预付款，工程预付款在第 2、3个月的工程价款中平均扣回）； 2、开工后10日内，发包人应向承包人支付安全文明施工费的60%，剩余部分和其它总价措施项目费用在第2、3个月平均支付； 3、发包人按每月承包人应得工程进度款的90%支付；
4、当分项工程工程量增加（或减少）幅度超过15%时，应调整综合单价，调整系数为0.9（或1.1）；措施项目费按无变化考虑； 5、B分项工程所用的两种材料采用动态结算方法结算，该两种材料在B分项工程费用中所占比例分别为12%和10%，基期价格指数均为100。施工期间，经监理工程师核实及发包人确认的有关事项如下： 1、第二个月发生现场计日工的人材机费用6.8万元； 2、第四个月B分项工程动态结算的两种材料价格指数分别为110和120。 问题： 1、该工程合同价为多少万元？工程预付款为多少万元？ 2.第2个月发包人应支付给承包人的工程价款为多少万元？ 3、到第三个月末B分项工程的进度偏差为多少万元？ 4、第四个月A、B两项分项工程的工程价款各位多少万元？发包人在该月应支付给承包人的工程价款为多少万元？ 答案： 1、合同价[（360×1000+220×700）/10000+7+6+15]×（1+10%）=87.34万元 工程预付款[（360×1000+220×700）/10000+7+6-3.6]×（1+10%）×20%=13.376万元 2、第2、3月支付措施费=（6-3.6×60%）/2=1.92万元
1.从各自所学的专业来谈为什么要学习自然辩证法，将对你的科学研究有何帮助？其意义 是什么？ 一为什么要学：数学作为一门自然科学与自然辩证法有着密切联系.自然辩证法为数学 理论提供世界观和方法论,而数学理论的研究和学习有利于自然辩证法的发展.作为数学教师,应掌握自然辩证法原理,并将其应用于教学.这样能使学生了解数学理论的发展规律,加深对数学知识的透彻理解,掌握数学学科的精髓,更能激起学生对数学产生浓厚的兴趣 二帮助：数学发展的历史表明，数学愈向前发展，数学探索的难度就愈大，就愈需要更 加准确的计算。更加精密的实验仪器和更加高超的哲学武器。进行创造性、探索性的数学研究工作，必须借助于辩证唯物主义哲学思维。唯物辩证法是人类认识世界的最高度的概括，但它并不能自动地解决具体的数学问题，这里关键是要真正通晓唯物辩证法，勇于实践、善于探索，解决数学中的疑难问题。只有这样，才能确保数学研究方向的正确性。用辩证唯物主义思想指导数学学习,有利于帮助提高辩证分析能力,理解数学系统关系的整体性。这种数学整体性的修养,有利于获得哲学观点和数学知识,同时,它也是发展思维结构整体性的基础。从事数学学习、研究与应用的人们应当成为辩证唯物主义者。数学作为人民生产活动知识的结晶,在人类历史上是一种起推动作用的力量,它在本质是同宗教蒙昧和唯心主义对立而同辩证唯物主义紧密相联的。它为现代科学技术的飞速发展提供了与日剧增的新材料,证明了辩证唯物主义哲学的正确数学是自然科学的一部分。数学工作者要想取得成功,首先必须自觉地学习和运用唯物辩证法这一锐利的思想武器,坚持唯物主义的理论,排除唯心主义和形而上学对数学研究的阻碍,在科学实践中捍卫和发展辩证唯物主义的哲学。当然,在这一过程中,也应划清一些界限:一是把数学性质的问题同哲学性质的问题区分开来,既要强调用唯物辩证法来指导,又不要搞“代替论”；二是要正确区分社会历史观与自然观,既要看到人们由于受社会的影响而存在唯心史观,又要看到大多数人在自己的数学研究中会自觉地存在唯物主义的倾向,努力把唯物辩证法这种高度科学的世界观和方法论运用到自己的数学研究中去,指导和推动科学技术的发展。 三意义：研究生的学习和本科生的学习有很大的不同。本科生更多的是学习书本上的知 识，主要是学习基本的、理论性的知识，这是为了打好基础为以后进一步的学习或是工作做准备。而研究生的学习则是把学习和实践有效地结合起来，用课堂上学习的理论知识指导实践，同时又反过来用实践的结果去检验书本上学到的知识。理论指导实践，实践检验理论，在学习过程中让动脑能力和动手能力同时得到锻炼。作为一名研究生，除了基本的学习能力外，还必须要拥有一定的动手能力。因此，为了成为一名合格的研究生，我们要把学习和实践很好地结合起来，锻炼自己具备独立进行科学研究的能力。而自然辩证法正是系统地介绍如何进行科学研究以及如何将自然科学的一般原理应用在科学研究过程中的一般方法。通过对自然辩证法的学习，使我们不再僵化思维，呆板地学习，而是用哲学的思想指导我们的学习和实践，有效地、合理地、巧妙地把自然科学的一般原理运用在我们的学习和实践过程当中。每一门科学都有一个哲学概括，自然科学的哲学概括就是自然辩证法，数学作为自然科学的一支，其罗辑的严密性、高度的抽象性、应用的广泛性, 决定了与哲学有着更为密切的联系科学技术是第一生产力，而数学作为科学技术中的重要代表，其发展进程即体现了社会的发展进程。 2.在近代自然科学产生阶段，人类在自然观和方法论方面有什么样的局限性？为什么会造 成这种情况？
Xx 大学2012学年 第二学期 经济管理学院人力资源管理专业《战略性绩效管理》 课程期末考试试卷及答案 （A 卷120分钟） 1.绩效是组织期望的为实现其目标而实现其目标而展现在不同层面上的能够被组织评价的 工作绩效及其结果 。（P2) 2.绩效的三个层次包括： 组织绩效、群体绩效和个人绩效 。（P2) 3.目标管理法的创始人是 彼得*德鲁克 ，目标管理法的四个步骤是计划目标、实施目标、 评价结果 和反馈。(P40、42） 4.平衡计分卡的四个层面分别是财务层面、客户层面、内部业务流程层面和 学习与成长 层面。（P63) 5.绩效计划需要 人力资源管理专业人员 、员工的直接上级以及员工本人三方面共同参与。 6.评价周期与评价指标、企业所在行业的特征、 职位职能类型、绩效管理实施的时间等因素有关。 7.领导情境理论把领导划分为 任务行为 和 关系行为 两个维度。 8.收集绩效信息一般有三种类型： 关键事件 、文档以及第三方意见。 9.将人与目标相比较属于评价方法中的 目标管理法 。 10.反馈包括反馈信息、 反馈源 和反馈接收者三个要素。 11.建立计件工资制的前提是，企业必须进行科学的工作评价 和工业工程设计 。 12.一套典型的电子化人力资源管理系统从结构上应分为三个层面：基础数据层、业务处理层和决策支持层 。 1.影响绩效的主要因素有（ A ）。（P6) A.技能、激励、环境、机会 B.知识、技能、态度、能力 C.任务、环境、领导、机会 D.学历、经验、能力、机会 2.衡量一个绩效管理系统的有效性一般应遵循的标准有（ ABCDE ）。（P33-36) A.战略一致性 B.明确性 C.可接受性 D.信度 E.效度 3.运用关键绩效指标法设计组织关键绩效指标依次经过以下几个步骤（ A ）。 A.确定关键成功领域、确定关键绩效要素、确定关键绩效指标 B.计划目标、实施目标、评价结果、反馈 C.确定目标、比较目标、收集分析数据、系统学习与改进、评价和提高 D.确定长期整体目标、确定短期目标 4.下哪一种绩效管理工具更有助于建立学习型组织（ D ）。 A.目标管理法 B.平衡计分卡 C.关键绩效指标法 D.标杆管理法 5.绩效评价指标的评价标准包括（ BCDE ）。 A.量化式 B.等级式 C.数量式 D.定义式 E.量词式 一、填空题（每空1分，共15分） 二、不定项选择题（凡错选，少选，多选均不得分。每小题2分，共20分）
1．如何理解自然辩证法的科学性质和研究对象。P1 P3 2．阐述自然辨证法研究的基本内容。P4 3．试述自然辩证法的创立和发展过程。P8 4．结合所学专业或工作实际，谈谈学习和研究自然辩证法的现实意义。P11 1．古代希腊和古代中国自然哲学取得了哪些重要成就？ 古代朴素自然观有什么特点P19 P23 2．古代希腊的科学技术取得了哪些成就？古代中国科学技术的主要成就，表现在哪些方面？P19 3．宗教神学自然观是怎样描绘自然界的？为什么说它的出现在自然观发展史上是一种倒退P24 4．为什么说近代自然科学在普遍革命中诞生？论述形而上学自然观产生的历史倒退的历史必然性P26 P28 5．试述辨证唯物主义自然观产生的自然科学基础，它的基础思想是什么？P31 P32 6．为什么说物理学革命丰富和发展了辨证唯物主义自然观？现代自然科学又在哪些方面进一步做出了丰富和发展？P32 P34 1．为什么说自然界的物质形态既是多样的又是统一的？ Ｐ３９ 2．如何理解自然界的物质的无限可行性？Ｐ４２ 3．如何理解自然界系统的普遍性？它有哪些类型和基本特征？Ｐ４３Ｐ４４Ｐ４５ 4．非生命界有哪些物质层次？它们有何基本特征？Ｐ４７Ｐ５０Ｐ５２ 5．如何理解自然界层次结构的规律性？Ｐ５３ １．宇宙，恒星和地球是怎样起源和演化的？如何理解生命的起源和生物进化？自然界的演化过程说明了什么？Ｐ５６Ｐ５７Ｐ５８Ｐ５９ ２．为什么说自然界的形式是多样性和统一性的？Ｐ６０Ｐ６２ ３．为什么非生命界的运动的基本矛盾及其表现？生物进化的动力是什么？Ｐ６３Ｐ６４ ４．如何理解自然界演化形式的矛盾性？突变和渐变的关系如何？Ｐ６３Ｐ６４ ５．如何理解自然界演化过程的矛盾性？什么是可逆过程和不可逆过程？Ｐ６８ ６．如何理解自然界演化方向的矛盾性？进化与退化的关系及其关系？Ｐ７０ ７．如何理解自然界演化发展的自组织性？以及有序与无序及其关系Ｐ７２ ８．什么是守恒原理？自然界运动转化的普遍性及其意义何在？Ｐ７４Ｐ７６ ９．自然界物质运动的矛盾有哪些？如何理解其运动发展的规律性？ １．什么是天然，自然，人化自然和人工自然？它们之间的关系如何？Ｐ８１Ｐ８３ ２．如何理解人与自然的关系？Ｐ８４ ３．如何理解生态自然观的自然基础，社会基础和科学基础？Ｐ８７Ｐ９２Ｐ９７４．试述生态自然观的特征和基本思想？Ｐ９９Ｐ１０１ ５．怎样才能人与自然的协调发展？Ｐ１０２ ６．可持续发展的内涵和原则是什么？Ｐ１０６ ７．结合所学专业或工作实际，分析阐述我国深化实施可持续发展战略的现实意义？Ｐ１０９ １．如何理解科学的含义？它有哪些本质特征和基本属性？现代科学的分类如何？Ｐ１１３Ｐ１１４Ｐ１１６Ｐ１１７ ２．阐述推动自然科学发展的内部动力Ｐ１１９ ３．关于科学发展的模式有哪些代表性的观点？Ｐ１２５４．如何理解科学发展的规律性？Ｐ１２７ ５．现代科学发展的主要趋势表现在哪些方面？Ｐ１２９１．科研课题的一般步骤是什么？应遵守哪些重要的原则？如何评价科研选题》？必要时如何转化课题？Ｐ１３８Ｐ１３９Ｐ１４２ ２．科学研究的经验层次的基本方法有哪些？各自有什么特点类型和作用？科学观察和科学实验Ｐ１４６Ｐ１５１ ３．科学观察应遵循的哪些重要原则？恩格斯的“双重验证”思想对于感性的科学认识活动有何意义？Ｐ１４７Ｐ１５４ ４．什么是科学机遇？它有何特点和作用，如何捕捉科学机遇？Ｐ１５７Ｐ１５９ ５．科学研究的理论层次的常见方法有哪些？有何特点和作用？Ｐ１６０－Ｐ１７１ ６．什么是科学假说？它是如何形成的？假说向理论转化的主要标志是什么？ ７．什么是科学理论？它有何特征和功能？构建科学理论有哪些方法？评价科学理论的标准是什么？Ｐ１７４Ｐ１７５Ｐ１７７Ｐ１７８ ８．结合做学专业或工作实际，分析阐述科学方法论（或某一种科学方法）在科学研究中的应用（或在科学发展中的作用） １．系统科学的基本方法有哪些》它们之间有什么区别？Ｐ１８９ ２．什么是自组织理论？自组织理论有哪些？它们之间有何不同？Ｐ１９３Ｐ１９４ １．系统科学的主要理论有哪些？其科学性怎么样？ Ｐ１８３ ２．系统观饱含了哪些基本概念？它有何显著特征？ Ｐ１８３Ｐ１８５ ３．什么是系统科学方法？它有何特点和功能？Ｐ１８６Ｐ１８７ １．如何理解技术的含义？它有哪些主要特征？其分类怎么样？Ｐ２００p202 P204 ２．技术发展的基本矛盾和常见模式有哪些？现代技术的发展趋势怎么样？P208 P210 ３．什么是创新和技术创新？技术创新有何特点/P 212 P214 P216
2018年一级造价工程师《造价管理》真题及答案（完整版） 一、单项选择题（共60题，每题1分。每题的备选项中，只有1个最符合题意） 1、下列工程计价文件中，由施工承包单位编制的是（）。 A. 工程概算文件 B. 施工图结算文件 C. 工程结算文件 D. 竣工决算文件 2、下列工作中，属于工程发承包阶段造价管理工作内容的是（）。 A. 处理工程变更 B. 审核工程概算 C. 进行工程计量 D. 编制工程量清单 3、根据《工程造价咨询企业管理力法》，工程造价咨询企业资质有效期为（）年。 A. 2 B. 3 C. 4 D. 5 4、根据《工程造价咨询企业管理办法》，乙级工程造价咨询企业中专职从事工程造价专业工作的人员不应少于（）人。 A. 6 B. 8 C. 10 D. 12 5、美国工程造价估算中，材料费和机械使用费估算的基础是（）。 A. 现行市场行情或市场租赁价
B. 联邦政府公布的上月信息价 C. 现行材料及设备供应商报价 D. 预计项目实施时的市场价 6. 根据《建设工程质量管理条例》在正常使用条件下，给排水管道工程的最低保修期限为（）年 A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 5 7. 根据《招标投标法实施条例》，依法必须进行招标的项目可以不进行招标的情形是（）。 A. 受自然环境限制只有少量潜在投标人 B. 需要釆用不可替代的专利或者专有技术 C. 招标费用占项目合同金额的比例过大 D. 因技术复杂只有少量潜在投标人 8. 根据《招标投标法实施条例》，投标人认为招投标活动不符合法律法规规定的，可以自知道或应当知道之日起（）日内向行政监督部门投诉。 A. 10 B. 15 C. 20 D. 30 9. 根据《合同法》与无权代理人签订合同的相对人可以催告被代理人在（）个月内予追认。 A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 6 10. 根据《合同法》，当事人既约定违约金，又约定定金的，一方违约时，对方的正确处理方式
第一阶段测试卷 考试科目:《绩效管理》第一章（总分100分） 时间：90分钟 学习中心（教学点）批次：层次： 专业：学号：身份证号： 姓名：得分： 一、单选题（每题3分，共30分） 1、应用开发阶段是绩效管理的( )，又是一个新的绩效管理工作循环的始点。 A、起点 B、中点 C、终点 D、都不是 2、( )不是绩效管理的应用开发阶段的重点工作。 A、考评者绩效管理能力开发 B、绩效管理的系统开发 C、企业组织的绩效开发 D、对考评者进行绩效面谈 3、在绩效管理应用开发阶段，最终目的是( )。 A、推进企业组织效率和经济效益的全面提高和发展 B、使员工的绩效得到不断提高 C、增强企业各级主管对本部门员工工作状况的了解 D、使企业管理系统运行更加顺畅 4、绩效可以从组织绩效，部门(团队)绩效、个体绩效等层面考虑，但其中根基性的层面是( )。 A、组织绩效层面 B、部门(团队)绩效层面 C、个体绩效层面 D、组织绩效与部门(团队)绩效层面 5、一般来说，( )不是企业绩效评审系统的参与人。 A、工会代表 B、人力资源部 C、公司高层领导和专家 D、专业人员 6、以下关于企业绩效考评系统的说法错误的是( )。 A、绩效考评的总流程包括准备、实施、考评、总结和应用开发阶段 B、考评的评审系统可以监督各个部门的领导者有效地组织员工的绩效考评工作 C、企业召开绩效考评年度总结会的目的是让员工发表对本期绩效管理活动的意见和看法
D、应用开发阶段既是绩效考评的终点同时也是绩效考评的始点 7、关于有效的绩效反馈信息应达到的要求，下列叙述中不正确的是( )。 A、具有广泛性 B、具有主动性和能动性 C、具有针对性和及时性 D、具有真实性 8、考核的内容和标准应该是人所共知的，并且在考核开始之前很长时间就确定下来。这体现了考核的( )。 A、反馈性功能 B、惧怕性功能 C、导向性功能 D、动态性功能 9、工作要项的选取和提炼的确定，一般是根据( )。 A、工作业绩 B、工作惯例 C、工作说明书 D、工作日志 10、绩效目标以及考核标准的设定过程应该是一个( )。 A、双向沟通的过程 B、单向沟通的过程 C、正式沟通的过程 D、非正式沟通的过程 二、多选题（每题3分，共30分） l、企业制定的绩效考评指标应该符合( )的要求。 A、经济可行的 B、由主管确定的 C、可以测量的 D、具体明确的 E、有一定时间限制的 2、关于360度反馈评价，错误的理解是( )。 A、一般采用署名的方式 B、有利于促进员工的职业发展 C、可以据此确定员工的任务绩效水平 D、可以对被评价者有更深入、更全面的了解 E、能够增强员工的自我意识，提高自我管理效能 3．以下关于考评方法的说法正确的是( )。 A、企业在设计考评方法时对同类人员只能选用一种考评方法 B、考评方法在选择的时候要考虑考评的时间性特点 C、在生产企业中，一线人员宜采用以实际产出结果为对象的考评方法 D、企业的低层次的员工通常采用行为或特征为导向的考评方法 E、当考评者有时间可以观察下属时，可采用特征性考评方法 4、绩效考评过程中，根据考评的参加人不同可以分为( )。