本科毕业论文
外文文献及译文
文献、资料题目：Rural and Urban Land Development
and Land Tenure Systems: A Comparison
between South Africa and Botswana 文献、资料来源：网络
文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.8
院（部）：管理工程学院
专业：土地资源管理
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指导教师：
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外文文献：
RURAL AND URBAN LAND DEVELOPMENT AND LAND TENURE SYSTEMS: A COMPARISON BETWEEN SOUTH AFRICA
AND BOTSWANA
Susan Bouillon
Legal Advisor: City Council of Pretoria
INTRODUCTION
Franklin D. Roose velt once said that …Every person who invests in land near a growing city, adopts the surest and safest method of becoming independent, for land is the basis of wealth.’
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the rural and urban land development and land tenure systems of South Africa and Botswana, and to explain their contributions to urban sustainability.
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING IN BOTSWANA
Botswana is located at the centre of the South African plateau, and is bordered by South Africa on the south and southeast, Zimbabwe on the northeast and Namibia on the west and northwest. Approximately 23% of the population is in urban areas and 77% in rural areas. Botswana has a rich tribal culture, and therefore it is not surprising that the Botswana legal system consists of local tribal courts, which adjudicate traditional matters and Tribal Land Boards, which rule on land use matters in tribal lands and traditional villages. Town Councils rule on land use matters in urban areas.
The government of Botswana has adopted a system of development planning which has coped relatively well compared with other African countries. Development planning involves the preparation of land use plans for both urban and rural areas. The practice in Botswana is that the public is made aware of the implications of land use plans before land is zoned for various uses. Public awareness and participation is ensured by giving land users an opportunity to select preferred land use options from a range of options determined through the evaluation of physical and economic suitability of land resources (bottom-up approach).
PROPERTY RIGHTS AND LAND TENURE IN BOTSWANA It is the policy of the Government that all citizens should have easy and equal access to land.
In order to realize this, three land tenure systems have been put in place. Tribal land covers 71% of the total land area of the country. It is allocated to citizens free of charge for all types of uses. State land is owned by the state and comprises 23% of the total area. Most of this land is used as National Parks, or Forest and Game Reserves within which no settlements are permitted. However, a small percentage of this land is allocated for residential purposes, particularly in urban centers. Freehold land comprises only 6% of the total area and is privately owned. Most of the government policies to date are therefore directed at tribal land.
RURAL LAND
Prior to independence, Botswana had established traditional ways of allocating and managing tribal land and its resources through chiefs and communities. Soon after independence, the authority to allocate tribal land was shifted from the chiefs to the Tribal Land Boards which were established by the Tribal Land Act,but the management of the resources remains the responsibility of the users and their communities. According to this act, almost 71% of the available land is administered as tribal land according to an integrated system of customary land tenure. Although the tenurial rules for tribal land have been changed considerably by this act, it is considered a very innovative way to combine individual land tenure security with tribal land-use.
The Land Boards were established for a specified tribal territory, and took over the administrative functions from chiefs and other tribal authorities. Title of the land vested in the Land Boards. The Land Boards were initially entitled to make customary and common law grants, for residential, grazing or cultivation purposes, to members of the different tribes living in the specified territories only, but since 1993 any citizen of Botswana is entitled to apply for these rights. Land Boards maintain their own record or registration system and rights are not registered in the central deeds registration system of Botswana, apparently to keep them more affordable. The Land Boards are entitled to issue certificates of customary grants or certificates of occupation. Provision has been made for the conversion of these certificates into titles registrable in the deeds registry once demand arises to deal with these certificates in the commercial lending market. Any change in right-holder must be reported to the land board in order to maintain the accuracy of the record system of the land board. Shelter provision in rural areas has been on individuals initiatives. The most important prerequisite for housing development, which is access to land, has
not really been a disturbing issue due to the fact that all male and female citizens are allocated tribal land for free, but in an effort to facilitate shelter provision in rural areas, the government intends to introduce a rural housing programme.
Land use planning is not a new phenomenon in Botswana. Past experiences and records indicate that the traditional chiefs who had authority on land have always done some form of land use planning. Formal land use planning in Botswana started with the implementation of the Tribal Grazing Land Policy in 1975, when some areas were zoned for wildlife use, others became reserved areas, while other areas continued to be for communal use. This policy enabled individuals or groups to have exclusive use of land in areas zoned for such use. These rights are permanent, exclusionary and inheritable. They may only be revoked by the land board in circumstances where the right-holder fails to utilize the land on terms specified by the land board, or fails to develop the land according to the specified purposes within five years or where the land was not distributed fairly. In these instances, the land does not revert to the government but is reallocated by the land board to other applicants. This policy was therefore a major programme through which rural development was to be achieved.
The districts up to now continue to prepare and update their respective integrated land use plans. In the preparation of such plans the communities have major inputs with regard to the various land uses. This is in realization of the fact that to have an implementable and sustainable land use plan, the communities should be the ones who decide the uses on a particular type of land. It should be noted, however, that not all districts have such plans.
URBAN LAND
An urban centre in Botswana is defined as All settlements on state land and settlements on tribal land with a population of 5000 or more persons with at least 75% of the labor force in non-agricultural occupations. Generally, an urban centre should be seen to provide its population with infra-structural and environmental services similar to that which exists in a modern city. Rural-urban migration has played an important role in the growth of urban areas. Several urban development policies have been evolved over the years to guide the growth and development of the urban areas. Due to the fact that a large part of the people of Botswana are living in rural areas, most of the development is aimed at the rural areas, but a few programmes were introduced
in order to better the circumstances of those living in urban areas. The Self Help Housing Programme was introduced to assist the low income urban households to develop their own houses. Under this scheme, the Government provides basic services such as roads, water stand pipes, and a pit-latrine to each plot. Plot holders were given tenurial security through a Certificate of Rights. This programme has also been used in upgrading the squatter settlements which existed prior to its inception.
Shortage of serviced land has been identified as one of the major constraints to urban housing development. Therefore a major land servicing programme, the Accelerated Land Servicing Programme, was introduced. The objective of the programme was to service land for all uses, such as residential, commercial and industrial, in all urban areas. A Housing Department has been established, which is charged with the responsibility of promoting housing development and improvement through policy initiatives that create an enabling environment for shelter provision.
The Town and Country Planning Act, which is the main legislation guiding physical planning in Botswana, makes provisions for an orderly and progressive development and control of land in both urban and rural areas. The Urban Development Standards and the Development Control Code also facilitate the orderly planning of settlements. Sustainable urban development depends on the availability of clean water supply and provision of infrastructure for sanitation and waste management. An integrated approach in the provision of environmentally sound infrastructures in human settlements is seen as an investment that fosters sustainable development and that can improve the quality of life, increase productivity, improve health, and reduce poverty.
Although the concept of sustainable development gained prominence on the international scene only a few years back, it has been one of the objectives of development planning in Botswana since independence in 1966. The term has appeared as an objective in all the subsequent development plans, but its meaning has been expanded to reflect the changing development realities over the years.
LAND DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA
The shape and form of the cities in South Africa are the result of conscious apartheid
planning in the past. When South Africa?s first democratically elected government came into power in 1994, it inherited the fragmented, unequal and incoherent planning systems which developed under apartheid. During apartheid, land development planning in the then four provinces, ten homelands and the …group area? racial zones, fell under many different laws, ordinances, procedures and regulations. There was a lack of coordination, an unequal distribution of resources and a lot of …red tape? which slowed down development projects.
A National Development and Planning Commission were appointed to advise the Minister of Land Affairs and the Minister of Housing on planning and development. Among other things, the Commission was requested to prepare a Green Paper on planning which would review and recommend changes to the apartheid legislation and process of land development in South Africa. The Commission decided to focus on the spatial planning system for urban and rural development.
A land development policy, the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), a comprehensive and sectorally-based socio-economic policy framework that established the developmental foundations for the removal of apartheid and the building of a democratic, non-racial and non-sexist future, was adopted. This policy is based upon integrated development planning, a process which aims to maximize the impact of scarce resources and limited capacity. The prime purpose of this policy was to establish procedures to facilitate the release of appropriate public land for affordable housing, public services and productive as well as recreational purposes. In settlements which have been established in remote locations, without formal planning, land development involves upgrading services and infrastructure in situ.
Planning in South Africa in the past and at present is done according to the Town Planning Ordinances of the various provinces. Although mechanisms for forward planning have long existed, the town planning scheme, which was established in terms of the Ordinances, is at the heart of the town planning system. While this system was strictly enforced in most white, Indian and colored areas, only simplified versions were later introduced to urban townships, further complicating the land administration system. As a result hereof South African settlements in both urban and rural areas were generally inefficient, fragmented and inconvenient. In large part, this is the result of the interplay between historical spatial planning policies and practices and the implementation of the ideology of apartheid. Despite this, there are few signs that significant and
wide reaching improvements have been set in place since 1994. The Constitution of South Africa has a bearing on the planning system in those new constitutional requirements such as cooperative governance, procedural and participatory rights to ensure accountability for decision-making, the promotion of social and economic rights and the protection of the environment create imperatives that profoundly affect planning. In the planning sphere, legislation has shifted, with the passing of the Development Facilitation Act, which was the first national planning legislation promulgated after the first democratic elections in 1994, from being control-orientated towards being normatively-based. It was passed to begin the process of transforming planning to meet the needs of the new democracy.
The Development Facilitation Act introduces the concept of land development objectives. These are plans approved by political decision-makers that set their objectives and targets for development of an area. The land development objectives? intentions are to create a cl ear spatial framework for the area and to create a proactive rather than a reactive planning system. In terms of the Local Government Transition Second Amendment Act municipal authorities are required to create integrated development plans. An integrated development plan is a plan aimed at the integrated development and management of the area of jurisdiction of the municipality concerned, and which has been compiled having regard to the general principles contained in the Development Facilitation Act. A common intention of both integrated development plans and land development objectives is to tie public agency plans to budgets. In drawing up both land development objectives and integrated development plans, local authorities are required to try to achieve the intentions of the Development Facilitation Act principles. A land development application may not be approved if such application is inconsistent with any land development objective or integrated development plan, although land owners and developers may make proposals to change land use if they can motivate that the change would be consistent with both integrated development plans and land development objectives and the Development Facilitation Act principles. The onus of responsibility to demonstrate this is on the developer.
PROPERTY RIGHTS AND LAND TENURE IN SOUTH AFRICA Land tenure in post-apartheid South Africa is a contentious issue and has long been a source of conflict. As is the case in many transitional political situations, there are also differences of
opinion regarding the role and definition of ownership and other rights in property. The Constitution of South Africa provides in section 25(1) for the acknowledgement of different rights in property. It is clear that not only ownership, but also other rights in immovable property are recognized and protected. In terms of section 25(6) the state has the obligation to secure by means of legislation, other forms of land tenure which are insecure as a result of the apartheid legislation and policies.
In order to rectify the injustices of the past, the Department of Land Affairs started with a programme of land reform by means of restitution, redistribution and tenure reform. This programme resulted in the following acts being promulgated: the Restitution of Land Rights Act (regarding the restitution of land to persons dispossessed of land after 1913 as a result of racially discriminatory legislation), the Development Facilitation Act (regarding quicker and cheaper planning and development methods), the Land Reform (Labor Tenants) Act(regarding the security of housing, grazing and cultivating rights of labor tenants), the Communal Property Associations Act(regarding the creation of associations to own, control and deal with communal/common property), the Interim Protection of Informal Land Rights Act (regarding the interim protection of the rights of people in rural areas), the Extension of Security of Tenure Act (regarding the protection of laborers other than labor tenants in rural areas) and the Prevention of Illegal Eviction from and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act (regarding the measures to protect vulnerable occupiers and evict squatters).
The vision and strategy for South Africa's land policy, a policy that is just, builds reconciliation and stability and contributes to economic growth, is set out in the White Paper on South African Land Policy. The government's land reform programme is made up of land restitution(which involves returning land lost since 1913 because of racially discriminatory laws, or compensating victims for loss of land due to racially discriminatory laws), land redistribution (makes it possible for poor and disadvantaged people to buy land with the help of a Settlement/Land Acquisition Grant) and land tenure reform (it aims to bring all people occupying land under a unitary, legally validated system of landholding.) This programme will devise secure forms of land tenure, help resolve tenure disputes and provide alternatives for people who are displaced in the process. In the long run, as part of the land tenure reform programme,
government is committed to the transfer of the land, which is in the nominal ownership of the state, to its real owners. The White Paper emphasizes the importance of local participation in decision-making, gender equity, economic viability, and environmental sustainability in the implementation of the land reform programmes. This White Paper is not only focusing on the urban areas but also on the rural areas.
The deeds registration system in South Africa differs from the Botswana system. It has only one deeds registration system, and this system does not provide for the registration of all the different land tenure rights that are statutorily recognized. A large part of the population, notably people in informal settlements and in rural areas where a system of communal property still prevails, is excluded from the deeds registration system. In the White Paper on South African Land Policy a part of the land policy has been set aside for development of the registration system to make the registration of informal land rights in urban and rural areas possible.
Whilst existing government policy provides a great range of inputs for planning and development, the White Paper on Local Government is critical as it places municipalities at the centre of planning for better human settlements. The new municipal planning system is founded on the concept of “developmental local government”. It emphasizes integrated development planning as a tool for realizing the vision of developmental local government. The Urban Development Framework published by the Department of Housing, examines the current dilemmas and realities facing South Africa?s urban areas, whilst the Rural Development Framework describes how government aims to achieve a rapid and sustainable reduction in absolute rural poverty.
CONCLUSION
Physical planners use the term land development to describe the process of identifying, acquiring and releasing land and resources for development. The aim of development is to attempt to overcome the problems in our cities. Planning aims to change our cities from being separate and sprawling into integrated, compact cities.
Since the time of ancient civilizations, cities have been the powerhouses of economic growth and the centres of technological and scientific advancement. Cities have always acted as magnets attracting people in search of a better life. Rapid urbanization is, however, threatening the
environment, human health and the productive capacity of cities. The most pressing problems facing cities and towns, mainly in the developing world is unemployment, crime, the health impact of inadequate services, pollution, inadequate shelter and overcrowding. As is the case in other countries, the cities in South Africa and Botswana are unsustainable in terms of the massive consumption of resources and the requirement of large quantities of water, food, energy and raw materials.
As seen above, most of the land in Botswana is used as tribal land, resulting in a small percentage of land directed for urban usage. In contrast with Botswana, a very large part of the land in South Africa is being used for urban purposes. Tribal land does not play the same role in South Africa as it does in Botswana. Although the South African Constitution gives some recognition to the role of traditional leadership, the lack of accuracy about the nature and scale of its involvement remains a problem. This has led to significant uncertainty, confusion and even contest over the decision-making powers of these authorities in development processes. Leaders in traditional and tribal areas have had powers to allocate resources in rural and informal communities, and have also played an administration role in respect of land use matters. The new legislation in South Africa, however did not make provision for the traditional and tribal leaders in development planning. The recently published Municipal Structures Act recognizes that traditional leaders have a role to play in municipal governance and provides for their participation in local government affairs.
The land development and tenure system in Botswana differs from the development system in South Africa in that South Africa?s development planning system is aimed at the rectification of the injustices of the past, while Botswana?s system is aimed at the allocation of tribal land to the inhabitants. Nonetheless, Botswana is constrained by under developed human resources. There is a shortage of skilled and productive manpower to quickly absorb and diffuse new technology that comes from foreign direct investments.
Public participation only recently became part of planning law in South Africa, while the same practice was implemented in Botswana decades ago. The practice in South Africa includes the notification of all affected parties of an application for land development or land use change by means of a letter distributed to the affected person(s), advertisements in the Government
Gazette and two local newspapers as well as an advertisement on the application property. This ensures that there is adequate public participation in the decision-making process. The South African context requires a particularly thoughtful and thorough type of public participation in land development decision-making. Illiteracy is widespread; many people are unfamiliar with the workings of a land development management system and the administrative processes in general. This is particularly, although not exclusively, true in rural areas. Thus, special care has to be taken to ensure that all affected parties are fully informed of the implications of a proposed development or land use change, as well as informed of their rights in the adjudication process. The development of an area should not just meet the needs of today?s users, but also t he needs of future generations. This means that resources must be used wisely so that they last, because our land is a precious resource. We build our homes on it; it feeds us; it sustains animal and plant life and stores our water. It contains our mineral wealth and is an essential resource for investment in our country's economy. Land does not only form the basis of our wealth, but also our security, pride and history.
中文译文：
农村及城市土地开发和土地所有权制度在南非和博茨瓦纳的比较
介绍
弗兰克林·d·罗斯福曾说过,“每一个在正崛起的城市附近土地上投资的人都是在采用最可靠和最安全的方法使自己变得独立,因为土地是财富的基础。”
本文的目的就是探讨南非和博茨瓦纳的农村及城市土地开发和土地所有权制度，并解释它们对城市可持续发展的贡献。
博茨瓦纳的发展规划
博茨瓦纳位于南非高原,南部和东南部与南非接壤, 西边邻接津巴布韦, 东北和西北靠近纳米比亚。该国约有23%的人口居住在城市，77%的人口生活在农村地区。博茨瓦纳具有丰富的部落文化,因此博茨瓦纳的法律系统由当地的部落法院所组成也就不足为奇了。它在处理部落及传统村庄的土地利用事务中起着裁决作用，而镇议会则对城市的土地利用事务进行裁决。
博茨瓦纳政府已经采取了与其他非洲国家相互协调的发展规划体系，该发展规划涉及了城乡两大区域土地利用规划的编制。在博茨瓦纳的实践就是在土地被划分为各种区域用途之前使公众对即将实施的土地利用规划有所了解，并通过给土地使用者于由土地资源的物理特性及经济适用性所确定的一系列土地用途中的最优土地用途来保证公众的了解和参与(自下而上法)。
博茨瓦纳的土地产权及所有权
博茨瓦纳的政府政策规定所有的公民都有方便和平等使用土地的权力。为了实现这一目标，三项土地所有权制度已经落实到位。在博茨瓦纳，部族所属的土地面积占该国土地总面积的71%。部族土地是免费分配给居民用于各种类型用途的土地。而国有土地是属于国家所有的,占全国土地总面积的23%。大部分的国有土地被用来作为国家公园、森林及野生动物保护区，不经批准人类是不能在这些地方定居的。然而,国有土地的一小部分是用来作为住宅用地的,尤其是城市中心区。另外，不动产土地面积仅占总面积的6%,并且属于私人所有的。因此，到目前为止大多数的政府政策是针对部族土地的。
农村土地
在国家独立之前，博茨瓦纳就已经建立了通过其部落首领和团体来分配和管理部落土
地及其资源的传统的方法。国家独立后不久,行使土地配置的权力就由部落首领转移到了依据《部落土地法案》成立的部落土地委员会,但对土地资源的管理依然是土地使用者及其团体的职责。根据这一法案,近70%的可利用土地作为由一个完整的土地所有权体系所确定的部落土地来进行管理。虽然这种关于部落土地的所有权规则已经被这一法案的规定大大改变,但这被认为是一种使私人土地所有权的稳定性与部落土地利用相结合的非常有创意的方法。
为特定部族疆土而建立的土地委员会从部族首领和其他部族当局手中接收了行使管理职能的权利，土地的所有权也被授予土地委员会。最初土地委员会只被授权为居住在指定的疆土的不同的部落的成员给予作为住宅、放牧或耕作目的的土地的传统普通法律补贴,但是自从1993年博茨瓦纳的任何公民才了申请这些权利的权力。土地委员会坚持使它们的记录或登记制度和权益等不在博茨瓦纳的中央契约登记系统里登记，目的显然是为了使它们更容易办理。土地委员会有权发放惯常的津贴或职业证书，而这些所有权证书可以在商业借贷市场作为所有权契约交易的凭证。权利人的任何变动都应当报告土地理委员会进而保持其登记系统精确性，而在农村地区提供保障一直在于个人的主动性。对于与土地密切相关的住房开发最重要的前提不是所有男性和女性公民可无偿分配到部族土地这样一个干扰的问题，而是在于促进避税规定农村地区实施的努力，因为政府打算引进一个农村建房计划。
进行土地利用规划在博茨瓦纳并不是一种新现象，过去的经验和记录表明,那些曾经管辖土地的传统首领曾一直做着某种形式的土地利用总体规划。博茨瓦纳正式土地利用总体规划开始于1975年《部族牧地政策》的实施,根据这一政策，当时一些地区被划为野生动物保护使用,一些地区划成了自然保护区,而其他地区继续用于共同用途。这项政策使个体或小组在这样的使用分区内有了专属的土地利用方式，而且这些权利是永久的、排外的和可继承的。只有在土地权利人五年内未按土地委员会规定的方式利用土地或未按特定目的利用土地及土地分配不公平等情况下才能被土地委员会撤销这些权利。在这种情况下,土地不再归属于政府而时由土地委员会重新分配于其他申请人。因此，这一政策是能够实现农村发展的一个主要的项目。
到目前为止，这些地区仍继续准备并及时更新它们各自的综合土地利用计划。在土地利用规划的编制过程中，对于各种土地用途这些社区都有重点投入。这是建立在有一个可实施及可持续的土地利用规划的事实上的，社区应该是决定某一特定类型土地用于何种用途的决定者。然而值得一提的是,并不是所有地区都有这样的计划。
城市土地
在博茨瓦纳，城市被定义为在国有土地和部落土地上居住的所有人口在5000人以上或至少75%的劳动力从事非农工作。一般来说，应该看这个城市能否提供其人口以类似于一个现代化的城市的基础建设和环境服务设施。农村—都市迁移在城市成长过程中扮演着重要角色。多年来，几项城市发展政策已经在城市区域的成长和发展过程中起了重要的引导作用。由于大部分博茨瓦纳人民都生活在农村地区这一事实,大部分发展计划都是针对农村地区的,但是也有几个项目是为了改善那些居住在城市区域的人们的生活情况的。例如自助住房计划被引进来帮助那些低收入城市家庭建设属于自己的房子。根据这项计划,政府为各地块提供道路、水管及厕所等基本公共服务设施,并通过权利证明书来保证宗地所有人的产权安全。这个项目也被用于提升在此项目设立之前已经存在的棚户区的条件。
公共设施土地的短缺已被确定为制约城市住宅发展主要因素之一。因此，一个重要的土地服务项目——土地服务促进方案被引进了。该方案的目标是为城市地区的所有使用者提供土地服务，如住宅，商业和工业用地等。一个房屋署已经成立，其职责是通过政策措施为住房开发和改善创造一个有利的环境。
城乡规划法是博茨瓦纳物理环境规划的主要立法指导，使城市和农村地区的土地得到一个循序渐进的发展和控制。城市发展标准和发展控制法案也有利于对聚居区进行有序的规划。城市可持续发展依赖于清洁水的供应和卫生设施及废物管理基础设施的可用性。综合治理提供环保设施的人居环环境可以被视为促进可持续发展一项投资，不仅可以改善生活质量，还可以提高生产力，改善健康状况并减少贫困。虽然可持续发展观在国际舞台上取得主导地位才只有几年的时间，但它已成为博茨瓦纳于1966年独立以来的发展规划目标之一。虽然只是作为一个后续发展计划的目标，但它的意义已经扩大到反映多年来不断变化的发展现实。
南非的土地发展
南非城市的形状和形式是过去种族隔离造成的结果。当1994年南非的第一位民主选举产生的政府上台时，它继承了，在种族隔离制度下发展形成的支离破碎的、不平等、不连贯的规划系统。在种族隔离时代，按照许多不同法律、条例等的规定，当时的四个省和十个乡土进行了土地发展的规划和种族区域的划分。但是由于缺乏协调和资源分配不均以及大量存在的“繁文缛节”使发展项目实施的很缓慢。
一个国家发展计划委员会被设立为土地事务部长和住房部长就规划和发展提供建议。另外，该委员会还被要求编写一份对种族隔离变动进行立法和对南非的土地开发过程进行
反思并提出建议的绿皮书。委员会决定将重点放在了城乡发展的空间规划体系上。一个被称为重建和发展计划（RDP）的土地发展政策获得了通过，该政策是一个建立在取消了种族隔离并建立了一个民主、无种族和无性别歧视的发展基础上的综合性和部门性的社会经济政策框架。这项政策的根据是一个旨在减少稀缺资源和有限容量影响的综合发展规划。这项政策的主要目的是是要建立一个程序以便释放适当的公共土地用于住房、公共服务和生产以及娱乐目的。但在偏远地区已经建立的居民点仍没有正式规划计划以及土地开发涉及的原位升级服务和基础设施。
南非过去和现在的规划是根据各省的城市规划条例制定的。虽然远期规划机制早已存在，但该条例规定制定的城市规划方案是城市规划体系的核心。在这个制度在大多数白人、印度人和有色人种区域严格执行的同时，只有简体版本后来才引入到城市乡镇，进一步复杂化了土地管理制度。结果南非城市和农村地区普遍缺乏效率、分散和不便。在很大程度上，这是历史与空间规划的政策和做法和实施的种族隔离思想相互作用的结果。尽管如此，几个自1994 年以来在地方设置并没有重大和广泛达成改善的迹象。《南非宪法》有关于该如合作治理，程序和参与权，以确保决策，对促进社会和经济权利和保护环境的责任的新宪法规定的制度创造必要条件，规划轴承深刻影响的规划。在规划方面，立法已经转移，随着发展促进法，它是第一个通过国家立法规划后，于1994年颁布的第一次民主选举被控制，迈向规范性为基础的导向。它是通过开始改造规划，以满足新的民主进程的需要。
《发展促进法》提出了土地开发目标的概念。这些计划由确立一个地区发展目标和指标的政治决策者来批准。土地发展目标的意图是要创造一个清晰的区域空间格局，创造一个积极的而不是被动的规划制度。要求《地方政府过渡第二修正法》市政当局必须制定综合发展计划。综合发展计划是一项旨在辖区的综合开发和管理的计划，并在编制时考虑到《开发促进法》中的一般原则。综合发展规划和土地开发目标的共同目的是为了配合公共机构的预算计划。在制定土地发展目标和综合发展计划时，地方当局必须努力实现《发展促进法》原则的意图。如果一个土地开发申请与任何土地发展目标或综合发展计划都不一致，该申请可能不会获得批准，然而如果土地所有者和开发者能通过用途转变使之既符合综合发展计划和土地发展目标又符合《发展促进法》的原则，则他们便可以提出建议改变土地用途，事实证明这是对的。
南非的土地产权及所有权
土地所有权在后种族隔离时期的南非是一个有争议的问题，长期以来一直是冲突的根源。正如在许多过渡性政治局势的情况下，对于所有权和其他财产权利的角色和定义也一
些不同的观点。《南非宪法》在第25章第1节中使不同的财产权利得到了确认。很明显，不仅是所有权，还有其他不动产权利也是得到承认和保护的。在宪法第25章第6节规定国家有责任通过立法手段确保由于立法和种族隔离政策使之不安全的其他形式土地所有权的安全。
为了纠正过去的不公正，土地事务部通过恢复原状、重新分配和制度改革的形式启动了一个土地改革方案。该方案导致下法案的颁布：《土地权利法》（恢复由于1913年种族歧视性立法而使其土地被剥夺的人们的土地权利），《开发促进法》（关于更快和更便宜的规划和发展的方法），《土地改革（劳动租户）法》（关于住房保障、放牧和劳动住户培育权），《公有财产协会法案》（关于建立协会来拥有、控制和处理共同财产），《非正式土地权利法》（临时保护农村地区人民的权利），《所有权延期抵押法案》（担保延期关于劳动者比在其他农村地区的劳动保障租户）和《防止非法驱离及占用土地法》（关于防止非法占用土地的措施以及对住户和居民的保护）。
南非土地政策的设想和战略政策只是建立协调和稳定有利于经济增长，这一政策出于《南非土地政策白皮书》。政府土地改革方案是由土地归还注册（涉及退耕还林损失），土地重新分配（可以使穷人和弱势群体在居住/土地征用补助金的帮助下购买土地）和土地制度改革（目的是使所有的人占用的土地处在一个统一的、具有法律确认了的土地占有制度之中）。此方案将制定土地所用权取得方式，帮助解决所有权纠纷和为在这个过程中流离失所的人提供选择。从长远来说，作为土地制度改革方案的一部分，政府对土地转让进行审批，即在国家的名义拥有所有权，是其真正的主人。白皮书强调了地方参与在决策、性别平等、经济效益及环境可持续性在土地改革方案的执行中的重要性。这份白皮书不仅着眼于城市地区，也针对于农村地区。
南非的契约注册制度不同于博茨瓦纳的制度，它只有一个契约注册制度，而且这个制度没有提供对所有不同的土地使用权的法定权利进行公认的注册。很大一部分的人口，特别是生活在非正式聚居区及公共财产制度仍然存在的农村地区的人们被排除在契约注册制度之外。《南非土地政策白皮书》中土地政策的一部分已经充分利用注册制度的发展来使得对城市和农村地区的非正式土地权利的登记成为可能。
虽然现时政府的政策提出对规划和发展的一系列投入计划，但《当地政府白皮书》对其将为更好的人居进行规划作为政府计划的中心提出了批评。新的市政规划制度是建立在“发展当地政府”概念基础之上的，它强调把综合发展规划作为实现当地政府发展的理想工具。由房屋署出版的《城市发展框架.考察了南非城市地区当前面临的困境和现实，而《农
村发展框架》则介绍了如何实现使农村绝对贫困人口迅速持续减少的政府目标。
结论
具体规划者使用土地开发这个词来形容识别的过程，获取和释放土地和资源用于发展。发展的目的是试图克服我们的城市中存在的问题，而规划目标就是要将我们的城市由无序扩张的分散型城市变为集约的紧凑型城市。
自古代文明形成以来，城市一直是经济增长的动力和科学技术进步的中心，城市也一直像磁铁一样吸引着人们去寻求更好的生活。但是快速的城市化正威胁着环境、人类健康和城市的生产能力。城市和城镇尤其是发展中国家的城镇所面临的最紧迫的问题主要是失业、犯罪、服务缺乏的不健康影响、污染以及过住房短缺和过度拥挤等问题。正如像其他国家一样，南非和博茨瓦纳的城市由于对水、食物，、能源及原材料的庞大需求导致其发展模式是不可持续的。
如上所述，博茨瓦纳的土地大部分被用作部落土地，导致只有一小部分的土地直接用于城市建设。与博茨瓦纳相比，南非的土地很大一部分被用于城市建设的目的。部落土地在南非发挥着与在博茨瓦纳不同的作用。虽然南非宪法对于传统的领导作用给予了承认，但对于投资的性质及规模准确性的缺乏仍然是一个问题。这导致了很大的不确定性和混乱，甚至导致这些机构在发展过程中越权行使决策权力。传统部落地区的领导人拥有在农村和非正式社区分配资源的权力，也发挥对土地使用方面事务的管理作用。然而南非的新法律并没有把传统的发展规划部落领袖的作用列入发展规划之中。最近公布的《市政结构》认为传统领导人在市政管理以及在当地政府事务的参与上扮演着重要的角色。
博茨瓦纳的土地开发和所有制不同于南非的发展规划制度的地方主要在于南非发展规划制度的目的是对过去不公正现象的整改，而博茨瓦纳的系统旨在把部落的土地分配给居民。然而，落后的人力资源对博茨瓦纳形成制约，其缺乏熟练的人力资源和生产力来快速吸收与推广那些直接来自外国的新技术。
公众参与最近才成为南非法律规划案的一部分，而同样的做法在博茨瓦纳的实施也仅仅是在十年前。南非的做法包括就关于土地开发或土地用途变更申请的通过派发信函方式通知所有有关各方或在政府宪报以及当地报纸上刊登广告对申请财产进行公示。这可确保决策过程中有足够的公众参与。南非方面要求公众参与到土地开发决策的过程中，特别是那些经过深思熟虑的公众参与。文盲现象是很普遍的，很多人都对土地开发管理体系的运作和一般的行政程序不熟悉。特别是在农村地区，虽然不完全是如此，但也是不争的事实。因此，要特别小心以确保所有受影响的各方能充分了解一个拟议的发展或土地用途变更的
影响，并在评审过程告知他们的权利。
一个地区的发展不应该只是满足今天的用户的需要，还要满足子孙后代的需要。这就意味着必须明智地使用资源使它们可以持续，因为我们的土地是一种宝贵的资源。我们不仅在土地上建立家园，而且土地还养育着我们，它维持着动物和植物的生命和并存储了水源。它为我们提供了丰富的矿物资源，而且还是对我国经济进行投资的一种重要资源。土地不仅形成我们财富的基础，而且还是我们的安全保障，是我们的荣耀和历史。