Deliverable report
D3.3 Raw material profiles September 2013
Authors (in alphabetical order)
Aymeric B RUNOT, Arjan H OVESTAD, Torsten H UMMEN, Catherine J OCE, Iratxe P E?A G ARAY, Lena S MUK, Luis T ERCERO E SPINOZA, Jelena T ODOROVIC, Casper VAN DER E IJK, Daniela V ELTE
WP3 Partners
?Aerospace and Defense Industries Association of Europe
?CEA - Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives
?Conseil Européen de l'Industrie Chimique
?D'appolonia SPA
?European Materials Research Society
?C-Tech Innovation Ltd
?Federación Empresarial de la industria Química Espa?ola
?Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft zur F?rderung der Angewandten Forschung e.V.
?SWEREA MEFOS AB
?SEMI Europe-Grenoble Office
?SINTEF
?SP Sveriges Tekniska Forskningsinstitut AB
?Fundación Tecnalia Research & Innovation
?TNO Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research
?Delft University of Technology
?Teknologian tutkimuskeskus VTT
Contact
WP3 Leader
Dr. Luis A.T ERCERO E SPINOZA
Coordinator of Business Unit Systemic Risks
Competence Center Sustainability and Infrastructure Systems
Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI
Breslauer Str. 48, D-76139 Karlsruhe
luis.tercero@isi.fraunhofer.de
+49 721 6809-401
D3.3 Raw material profiles
Deliverable description
The report consists of 14 raw material profiles describing the main uses and an assessment of substitution possibilities for each of the raw materials identified as critical for the EU in 2010.
1.Antimony
Antimony is a semimetal, which can usually be found in its most stable metallic form. In its metallic form it is physically bright, silvery, with a metallic lustre and average hardness and brittleness. Antimony is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic.1
Antimony is mined both as a main metal and as a by-product: The main antimony ore is antimony sulfide (stibnite), but lead and copper ores often contain antimony, which is concentrated as a by-product and obtained during the recovery of the main metal. Antimony is recovered in its metallic form from ore primarily through pyrometallurgical techniques.2,3The production of antimony is currently concentrated mainly in China and the average price of antimony metal was about 3US$/kg in 2011* (see also Figure 2).4 After a peak in 2011, the price has been generally decreasing over recent years.5
Figure 1: Distribution of antimony production6 and corresponding scores of the producing countries in the Human Development Index (HDI),7Environmental Performance Index (EPI),8and World Governance Indicators (WGI).9Both the EPI and WGI are used to assess supply risks with the EU methodology for determining critical raw materials.10 CHN = China.
* New York dealer price for 99.5% to 99.6% metal, c.i.f. U.S. ports.
Figure 2: Antimony price development during 1980 – 2011. The unit value of antimony reports the value of 1 metric ton (t) of antimony apparent consumption (estimated).11
Uses and Substitutability
Flame retardants
With a share of 71% of antimony consumption, antimony as antimony trioxide is mainly used for flame retardants. The main applications within this sector include polyvinylchloride (PVC) for conveyor belts for example in mines, cable coatings; coated fabrics for wall coverings and cushion covers, among others. Moreover, it is used as high impact polystyrenes for television backs and domestic electrical appliances, as well as housings for electrical equipment (including PCs). Polyethylene and propylene is primarily used for wire sheathing and electrical conduits in buildings. Polyamides and engineering plastics such as nylons for automotive uses, industrial equipment, and electric moulded parts as well as unsaturated polyesters for applications such as building panels, automotive parts, and lifeboat hulls are further typical uses of antimony.2
When antimony trioxide is combined with a halogen, flame retardant properties are imparted to several materials through the formation of halides. Antimony halides promote reactions that cause the formation of carbonaceous char rather than volatile gases. This char then acts as a heat shield that retards the breakdown of the plastics, thus preventing the release of flammable gases.2
Antimony trioxide can be substituted with selected organic compounds, hydrated aluminum oxide or mixtures of zinc oxide and boric oxide.4,12 However, while substitutes are available, in general, antimony is seen to offer superior performance.
Lead alloys2
The second largest application for antimony is in lead alloys, making up a market share of 9%. Due to its weak mechanical properties, it is mainly used in numerous alloys with lead and tin. The final use of the
alloy is determined by both the percentage of antimony in the alloy as well as the other compounds present.
For antimonial, or hard, lead alloys containing antimony between 1-15%, the presence of antimony results in an increase of tensile strength, rendering the material more robust to stresses enforced by charging and discharging reactions. Antimonial lead alloys that contain 1-9% of antimony are used for cable sheathing and lead pipes, whereas the same alloys with 7-12% antimony are used for storage batteries and with an antimony content of 12-15% they are used for small-arms ammunition.
Antimonial lead alloys with an antimony content between 1.5-3% are mainly applied for grid plates, straps, and terminals of lead-acid batteries. Here, the addition of antimony improves fluidity, making the casting of battery grids easier. Tensile strength is also increased, as is the electrochemical stability of lead.
Babitt metals include both ternary tin-antimony-copper alloys and quaternary tin-antimony-copper-lead alloys, in both cases with a share of antimony ranging between 4.5-14%. Babitt metals are applied in low load bearings. The addition of antimony to the alloy results in good anti-seizure properties and corrosion resistance on the one side but low fatigue strength on the other side. Heavy load bearings, which require a higher fatigue resistance for applications such as railways, use quaternary tin-antimony-copper-lead alloys with an antimony share between 8 and 15%.
Type metals are antimony-lead alloys containing 2.5 – 25 % antimony. These alloys are used in the printing industry and the antimony is added in order to lower the casting temperature, increase the hardness and minimize shrinkage during freezing.
Brittania Metal and Pewter contain 7 - 20% antimony which increases the hardness of the metal and allows a highly polished surface to be obtained. These metals are used for the manufacture of vases, lamps, candlesticks, tea and coffee services, and other decorative applications.
Tin-lead alloys with an antimony share of less than 1% are used for soldering, whereby the antimony increases the hardness of the alloy.
Antimionide contains, in addition to antimony, indium, aluminum and gallium. Antimony is added due to its electrochemical properties as the applications include dopants in semiconductors for infrared detectors, Hall-effect devices and diodes.
In general, combinations of cadmium, calcium, copper, selenium, strontium, sulfur and tin can substitute antimony in most lead alloys.4
Rubber
For the vulcanization of red rubber compounds, a 7% share of antimony is utilized. Antimony pentasulfide, Sb2S5, adds the required flexibility.2 It is difficult to substitute.13
Glass
The glass industry represents a 5% share of antimony use in the form of sodium hexahydroxyantimonate. This compound is prepared by melting antimony or antimony oxides with excess sodium nitrate and is used as an opacifier for glass and enamels.2 Glass containing antimony trioxide or sodium antimonate is used for television tubes, as the oxide removes color and gas bubbles. Substitutes include compounds of chromium, tin, titanium, zinc and zirconium.4 Therefore, it is comparatively easy to substitute.13
Catalysts
Catalysts make up 4% of antimony use, mostly for the polymerization catalyst in the manufacture of polyester fibres, which requires antimony trioxide.2 A potential substitute is titanium catalysts, which can be inactivated when a dulling agent is applied. There are some concerns around heavy metals in plastics leaching e.g. into drinking water. However, titanium catalysts are not expected to replace antimony in PET production to a significant extent with 2020 as a time horizon (even though alternatives exist at the R&D stage) as there is no regulatory pressure from the FDA or the EC. Therefore antimony is assumed to be currently difficult to replace.14
Pigments & Others2
Pigments and other applications for antimony result in a 4% antimony use. Chromate pigments apply antimony trioxide for its unique pigmentation properties. However, compounds of chromium, tin, titanium, zinc and zirconium could be used as substitutes.4 Another use for antimony is as an opacifier for ceramic glazes and as a frit. Antimony trioxide is used in these applications as well. Antimony is comparatively easy to substitute in its use for pigments.13
Summary
The demand for antimony is dominated by its use in flame retardants (as antimony trioxide). Because the applications—and requirements—vary widely, there are options for substituting antimony trioxide partially or, in some cases, completely. Also, substitutes are available for its use in lead alloys, glass & pigments, apparently with limited loss of performance or additional costs. This is not the case for rubber and catalysts, where the use of antimony brings substantial advantages in either performance or costs.
Figure 3: Distribution of end-uses and corresponding substitutability assessment for antimony. The manner and scaling of the assessment is compatible with the work of the Ad-hoc Working Group on Defining Critical Raw Materials (2010).
References
1 Haynes WM (ed.) (2012) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 93rd edn.: Taylor & Francis
2 Grund, S. C., Hanusch, K., Breunig, H. J., Wolf, H. U. (2006) Antimony and Antimony Compounds, in:
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, pp. 11–42. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA
3 Butterman W.C., Carlin JF, JR. (2004) Antimony. Open-File Report 03-019
4 Carlin, J. F., JR. (2013) Antimony, in: U.S. Geological Survey (ed.) Mineral commodity summaries
2013, pp. 19–20
5 Metal Bulletin Antimony MB free market in warehouse $ per tonne monthly average: Latest Metal
Prices Tracking and Comparison Tool. https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/My-price-book.html?price=34138.
Accessed 3 September 2013
6 Reichl C, Schatz M, Zsak G (2013) World Mining Data: Production of Mineral Raw Materials of
individual Countries, by Minerals. in 2011 in metric tonnes
7 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2013) The 2013 Human Development Report –
"The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World"
8 Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy (YCELP) (2013) Downloads | Environmental
Performance Index. https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/downloads. Accessed 26 July 2013
9 World Bank Group (2013) Worldwide Governance Indicators.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/governance/wgi/sc_country.asp. Accessed 26 July 2013
10 Ad-hoc Working Group on defining critical raw materials (2010) Critical raw materials for the EU:
European Commission
11 Buckingham, D., Carlin, J., JR. (2012) Antimony: Supply-Demand Statistics, in: U.S. Geological Survey
Minerals Information
12 Borax Firebrake ZB: An unique zinc borate combining the optimum effects of zinc and boron oxides
and water release for developing fire retardant formulations processable up to 290 °C.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/product/firebrake-zb.aspx. Accessed 28 August 2013
13 Eurometaux (2013) Antimony Substitutability. personal notification
14 Joce C (2013) Antimony Substitutability. personal notification
2.Beryllium
Beryllium has a low density and one of the highest melting points of the light metals. Its high thermal conductivity and diamagnetic properties are also remarkable. Its electrical resistivity is significantly lower than that of copper or aluminium, while its modulus of elasticity is a third higher than that of steel. Beryllium transmits X-rays well, absorbs neutrons, and resists attacks by concentrated nitric acid. Furthermore, it resists oxidation in air at ordinary temperatures. However, a high price, its serious toxic effects on the lungs, and the room-temperature susceptibility to brittle fracture of the metal are drawbacks of beryllium.1 Beryllium is mainly (≈ 95%) produced from ores containing 0.3% –1.5% beryllium. In addition, it can be obtained in small quantities as a by-product (beryl) of emerald extraction.2 The largest producer of beryllium worldwide is the USA.
Figure 1: Distribution of beryllium production3 and corresponding scores of the producing countries in the Human Development Index (HDI)4, Environmental Performance Index (EPI)5, and World Governance Indicators (WGI)6. Both the EPI and WGI are used to assess supply risks with the EU methodology for determining critical raw materials7. USA = United States of America; CHN = China.
Beryllium is one of the most expensive raw materials. Its price increased over the last few years up to approximately 93 US$/kg in 2011 and is recovering from a peak (104 US$/kg) in 2010.*8
* Unit value, annual average, beryllium-copper master alloy, dollars per kg contained beryllium: Calculated from gross weight and customs value of imports; beryllium content estimated to be 4%.
Figure 2: Beryllium price development during 1980 –2011. The unit value is defined as the value of 1 metric ton (t) of beryllium apparent consumption (estimated).9
Uses and substitutability
Mechanical Equipment
With a share of 25%, the manufacture of mechanical equipment represents a key use of beryllium. Due to its high mechanical and thermal properties relative to its weight, especially compared to other materials, beryllium is used as a low-density metal.1 Beryllium is mainly used alloyed in small amounts with copper and nickel to improve their ability to conduct electricity and heat.10Another reason is to age harden the alloy. The main applications of these alloys are the sealing of metal to metal connections, drilling and mineral mining equipment, undersea housings of fiber optic cables, metal casting moulds, springs as well as electrode holders and components of welding robots.11,12 It is also used in nuclear reactors as a reflector or moderator.10 A further application is plastic casting moulds.
Since beryllium is only utilized in applications in which its properties are crucial 1, it is hard to substitute in general. Nevertheless, if it is used exclusively due to its mechanical properties, beryllium can be substituted with titanium, magnesium, aluminium and their alloys or with carbon fiber composites. If a thermal improvement is required, beryllium can be substituted with aluminium metal matrix composites with added silicon carbide / boron nitride.11
Electronics & ICT
The electronics & ICT sector accounts for 20% of European beryllium end-use. After further processing, it is primarily used to increase the electrical conductivity in: mobile telephone infrastructure equipment, power amplifiers, high substrates for mounting powered civil aviation radar systems as well as computer parts and other electronic equipment.1,10,11 Furthermore, it improves the mechanical properties of electrical contacts when used as beryllium copper in relays of electronic and telecommunications equipment and monitoring
equipment. Copper alloys containing beryllium can be substituted by using nickel and silicon, tin, titanium, or other alloying elements or phosphor bronze alloys instead.
Electrical equipment & domestic appliances
The electrical equipment & domestic appliances sector has a share of 20% and uses beryllium copper because of the properties outlined above. Therefore, it can also be substituted by the use of nickel and silicon, tin, titanium, or other alloying elements or phosphor bronze alloys, especially when used in household appliance temperature and other function controls as well as relays.
Road transport
The road transport sector, which has a share of 15% in European beryllium end-use, mainly uses beryllium copper alloys in automobile connectors for air-bag crash sensor, anti-lock brake systems and modifier for aluminium and magnesium castings 1. Purpose and substitutability of beryllium is as outlined above. However, the loss of performance upon substitution is generally unacceptable in safety-related applications.
Aerospace11
A 13% share of total beryllium consumption goes to use in alloys for aircrafts, mainly because of its mechanical properties. Therefore, beryllium is mainly applied in structural materials. Copper-beryllium is used in aircraft landing gear bearings and can be substituted by certain metal matrix or organic composites, high-strength grades of aluminium, pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide, steel, or titanium. Other applications are pitot tubes in the aerospace sector and electrical and electronic connectors in aircrafts. There, possible alternatives are copper alloys containing nickel and silicon, tin, titanium, or other alloying elements or phosphor bronze alloys, although there is a loss of performance that is generally unacceptable in safety-related applications.
Beryllium metal is used for example in gyroscope gimbals and yokes for use in guidance, navigational and targeting systems as well as in satellite mounted directional control devices for astronomical and other telescopes and instruments to provide GPS locations signals among others. Beryllium metal can be substituted with copper alloys in these applications.
Because of the above mentioned mechanical properties. Beryllium metal, which is used in the aerospace sector as satellite structural components or as alloying agent in producing beryllium copper, can be substituted with certain metal matrix or organic composites, high-strength grades of aluminum, pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide, steel, or titanium, magnesium, aluminum and their alloys, carbon fiber composites.11
Others
Other final consumer goods make up 7% beryllium consumption due to the fact that it is relatively transparent to X-rays. Copper beryllium is used in medical isotope production nuclear reactors; life fire sprinkler water control valve springs and X-ray lithography for the reproduction of micro-miniature integrated circuits. Furthermore it is used in X-Ray transparent windows, and mirrors for terrestrial and space mounted astronomical telescopes. Beryllium oxide is necessary in ceramic applications, medical excimer laser beam focusing and its control components.11
Summary
Beryllium, being a very expensive metal, tends to be used only where its properties are needed and no reasonable substitute can deliver the desired result. In particular in safety related applications (e.g. anti-lock brake systems in cars, some aerospace), reduced performance/durability is unacceptable.
Figure 3: Distribution of end-uses and corresponding substitutability assessment for beryllium. The manner and scaling of the assessment is compatible with the work of the Ad-hoc Working Group on Defining Critical Raw Materials (2010).
References
1 Petzow, G., Adlinger, F., Jonsson, S., Welge, P., Kampen, V., Mensing, T., Brüning, T. (2005)
Beryllium and Beryllium Compounds, in: Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, pp. 389–415.
Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
2 BesT - Beryllium Science & Technology Association (2013) Beryllium Extraction.
http://beryllium.eu/about-beryllium-and-beryllium-alloys/facts-and-figures/beryllium-extraction/.
Accessed 15 May 2013
3 U.S. Geological Survey (2013) Mineral commodity summaries 2013
4 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2013) The 2013 Human Development Report –
"The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World"
5 Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy (YCELP) (2013) Downloads | Environmental
Performance Index. https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/downloads. Accessed 26 July 2013
6 World Bank Group (2013) Worldwide Governance Indicators.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/governance/wgi/sc_country.asp. Accessed 26 July 2013
7 Ad-hoc Working Group on defining critical raw materials (2010) Critical raw materials for the EU:
European Commission
8 Jaskula, B. W. (2013) Beryllium, in: U.S. Geological Survey (ed.) Mineral Commodity Summaries
2013, pp. 28–29
9 Buckingham, D., Cunningham, L., Shedd, K., Jaskula, B. (2012) Beryllium: Supply-Demand Statistics,
in: U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Information
10 Royal Society of Chemistry (2013) Beryllium. https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/periodic-table/element/4/beryllium.
Accessed 15 May 2013
11 Calvez C (2013) Substitutes for beryllium and alloys containing beryllium. Email
12 https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html, (2013) Beryllium. https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/elements/beryllium.html. Accessed 15
May 2013
3.Cobalt
Cobalt is shiny, grey, brittle metal with a close packed hexagonal (CPH) crystal structure at room temperature but which changes at 421 °C to a face centred cubic form. It has a high melting point (1493 °C) and boiling point (3100 oC) and it maintains its strength and integrity at extremely high temperatures. In addition, cobalt, as well as nickel and iron, is ferromagnetic and retains this property up to 1100 °C, a higher temperature (Curie point) than any other material. Hence, one of its key uses is in magnets for high-temperature applications.
Cobalt is rarely used as a structural material in its pure form but rather is employed as an alloying element. The first use of cobalt was as a pigment in conjunction with silica to produce intense blue colours. This remained as the main use of cobalt until the 20th century. However, cobalt is a very versatile metal and over the 20th century it started to be employed for a wide array of applications such as metallurgical uses (e.g. superalloys), magnets, batteries, pigments, catalysts, etc.
In addition to its industrial uses and relevance, cobalt is one of the around 20 elements which are essential to humans. Cobalt is contained in vitamin B12, which is important in protein formation and DNA regulation. Cobalt is recovered both as a main metal from dedicated cobalt mines (minor source) and as a by-product (major source), especially of nickel and copper mining.1,2It is only extracted alone from Moroccan and Canadian arsenide ores. The main producer of cobalt worldwide is the Democratic Republic of Congo. Historical price data are shown in Figure 2. The average price in 2011 was 8.18 US$/kg*.3 When looking at the price of cobalt in more detail, the large scale fluctuation seen in Figure 2 continues. The price decreased in the beginning of 2013, rose up in the middle of the year and felt down after this peak recently.4
Figure 1: Distribution of cobalt production5and corresponding scores of the producing countries in the Human Development Index (HDI)6, Environmental Performance Index (EPI)7, and World Governance * Spot, cathode: As reported by Platts Metals Week
Indicators (WGI)8. Both the EPI and WGI are used to assess supply risks with the EU methodology for determining critical raw materials 9. COD = D. R. Congo; CAN = Canada; CHN = China.
Figure 2: Cobalt price development during 1980 –2011. The unit value is defined as the value of 1 t of cobalt apparent consumption (estimated).10.
Uses and substitutability
Batteries
The increase in demand for portable electronic devices since the 1980s boosted the demand for high capacity rechargeable batteries. In this context, rechargeable batteries containing cobalt display a high energy density, along with the capability of quick charging and low stand-by energy losses. For this reason, one of the preferred uses of cobalt is in batteries of portable devices, such as cell phones, laptops, smartphones, tablets, etc. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries containing cobalt-based cathodes contain the most cobalt with a market share of 30%, but nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH) and nickel cadmium (NiCd) batteries also use cobalt. Overall, close to 30% of cobalt demand is attributed to its use in batteries.
A continued increase in demand for Li-ion is expected in the electronics sectors correlating to the surge in demand for portable devices (especially telephones) in emerging economies. Moreover, emerging use of cobalt in some rechargeable batteries for electric vehicle applications is expected to increase cobalt demand over the next ten years.
Substitution of cobalt in Li-Ion batteries is potentially possible. Although LiCoO2 is the preferred material for portable battery applications11, both LiNiO2and LiMn2O4can also be used for the same purpose. In addition, latest industry predictions indicate that many of the disadvantages of alternative materials have been overcome and although rechargeable battery demand is expected to increase rapidly in the next few years, cobalt demand in this application could remain stable or even decrease slightly.
In addition, the recycling and recovery rates of cobalt from end-of-life batteries are promising. Recent research 12,13 shows that new recycling strategies are being implemented to increase the recovery valuable materials, especially cobalt, from batteries. In this regard, it should be noted that high recycling rates of end-of-life cobalt are reported14. Finally, it is worth mentioning the industrial scale end of life rechargeable batteries recycling facility set up by Umicore in Belgium in 201115.
Superalloys and magnets
Cobalt-based super-alloys are one of the largest markets for cobalt 16. They have their origins in the Stellite alloys patented in the early 1990’s by Elwood Haynes.Cobalt-based super-alloys have higher melting points than nickel-based ones and retain their strength at higher temperatures. They also show superior weldability, hot corrosion and thermal fatigue resistance than nickel-based alloys.17 These properties make them suitable for use in turbine blades for gas turbines and jet aircraft engines.18
Fiber-reinforced metal matrix composites (MMC), ceramic-ceramic and carbon-carbon composites, titanium aluminides, nickel-based single crystal alloys or iron-based super-alloys may substitute cobalt-based ones in these applications to some extent. Loss of performance at high temperatures (due to the unique physical properties of Co) can, however, be expected in some cases.19Therefore, substitution for cobalt in jet engine castings will probably not occur and cannot be considered as a meaningful solution to the cobalt supply problem.
Cobalt is also used in samarium-cobalt and aluminium-nickel-cobalt permanent magnets. These are widely used in electric motors, electric guitar pickups, microphones, sensors, loudspeakers, traveling-wave tubes, and cow magnets.20They have comparable strength but much higher temperature ratings and higher coercivity than neodymium magnets.21
There is some potential for substitution of cobalt-alloyed magnets by nickel-iron or neodymium-iron-boron ones. The substitution seems to be difficult though in high temperature applications since cobalt-alloyed magnets have significantly higher Curie temperatures and are the only magnets that have useful magnetism even when heated red-hot.22
Hard metal and surface treatment
Around 12% of the final cobalt consumed is destined to hard metal and surface treatment. Cobalt is used in cemented carbides as a binder phase. The carbides are usually Tungsten-Carbides although sometimes also Titanium-Carbo-Nitrides or Tantalum-Carbides are used. The binder phase is typically between 5 and 30 vol% of the component. The more hard carbide particles are within the material, the harder it is but the less tough it behaves during loading; and, vice versa, significant increases in toughness are achieved by a higher amount of metallic binder at the expense of hardness.
The high solubility of tungsten carbide (WC) in the solid and liquid cobalt binder at high temperatures provides a very good wetting of WC and results in an excellent densification during liquid phase sintering and in a pore-free structure.23There is potential for substitution of cobalt-iron-copper or iron-copper in diamond tools. Research and development in this field is very active and most of the competing matrix materials have a lower cost.24–26 However, there is a certain loss of performance.
Pigments
Pigments account for 9% of cobalt use. The unique colouring properties of cobalt produce light blue to black pigmentation for ceramics, glass, porcelain, enamel, paint and inks 2, whereby the amount of cobalt
oxide added to the final product depends on the required colour. As cobalt(II) acetate it is used in the production of drying agents for inks and pigments. Cerium, iron, lead, manganese, and vanadium can all be used as substitutes for cobalt for this application, unfortunately not necessarily with the same results.3 Catalysts
Cobalt is widely used in the oil and gas sector. It is used in hydrodesulfurization (a catalytic chemical process widely used to remove sulfur from natural gas and from refined petroleum products such as gasoline or petrol), where the catalyst must be sulfur resistant. 27 Catalysts account for 6% of cobalt use.
Cobalt catalysts also play an important role bulk chemical production of PTA (a monomeric precursor to polyester) and a process called hydroformylation which generates aldehydes and alcohols used in the plastics and detergent markets.27
In addition, it is also used in the catalysis of gas to liquid processes. 28 The application of this technology is expected to result in a major new demand for cobalt. 29
Finally, a potential emerging use (and subsequent increase in demand) of cobalt is as catalyst in hydrogen fuel cells.30
With regard to its application for hydrodesulfurization, ruthenium, molybdenum, nickel and tungsten can be used depending on nature of the feed, instead of cobalt.3,31–33Also alternative ultrasonic process can dispense with the use of cobalt, and rhodium can serve as a substitute for hydroformylation catalysts.3 Others
There is still a remaining 8% of cobalt that is used for various other applications. Cobalt powders are used for their high melting point, high-temperature strength and for the fact that they can be produced as a very fine powder in binders for the diamond tool industry. For this application, cobalt can be substituted by cobalt-iron-copper or iron-copper.1
Cobalt salts are used in agriculture as a supplement to animal feeds, as cobalt is an essential element in the human and animal metabolism.2
The cobalt isotope Co60is a strong gamma-ray emitter, which is used in the medical field for radiation therapy. Other medical applications for cobalt include the use of cobalt-chromium alloys for cast denture bases, complex partial dentures, and some types of bridgework for dental applications due to cobalt’s high strength and tension properties. The good castability, resistance to tarnish, compatibility with mouth tissues, high strength and stiffness, and low density makes cobalt suitable for these applications. Similar cobalt-chromium alloys are also used for surgical implants and bone replacement (e.g. hip joint replacement) and repair because of cobalt’s resistance to corrosion and high fatigue strength of the cobalt-chromium-alloy.1
Other applications include the manufacture of Elgiloy, a spring alloy containing 40% cobalt, 20% chromium, 15% nickel, 7% molybdenum, and 2% manganese, alloys composed of cobalt-nickel or cobalt-iron-magnesium-carbon used as magnetic recording materials and cobalt silicate, which is applied for electrical connectors and integrated circuits. A material with a very low coefficient of thermal expansion results from alloying cobalt in low-expansion iron–nickel alloys of the Invar type.1
Summary
Substitution of cobalt in Li-Ion batteries—the single largest application—is possible, although this is not the preferred option. Moreover, in this field, recycling and recovery hold some promising potential. Similarly, substitution comes at the expense of performance due to the unique properties of cobalt in superalloys, magnets, hard metals and surface treatment. Cobalt substitution in pigments by acetate, cerium, iron, etc. is possible but also leads to a decrease in performance. Finally, cobalt as a catalyst may be substituted to some extent for hydrodesulfurization and hydroformylation proceses.
Figure 3: Distribution of end-uses and corresponding substitutability assessment for cobalt. The manner and scaling of the assessment is compatible with the work of the Ad-hoc Working Group on Defining Critical Raw Materials (2010).
References
1 Donaldson, J. D., Beyersmann, D. (2010) Cobalt and Cobalt Compounds, in: Ullmann's Encyclopedia
of Industrial Chemistry, pp. 429–465. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA
2 Hannis, S., Bide, T. (2009) Cobalt, in: British Geological Survey (ed.) Commodity Profiles
3 Shedd, K. B. (2013) Cobalt, in: U.S. Geological Survey (ed.) Mineral commodity summaries 2013, pp.
46–47
4 Metal-Pages Cobalt metal prices, news and information. http://www.metal-
https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/metals/cobalt/metal-prices-news-information/. Accessed 3 September 2013
5 Reichl C, Schatz M, Zsak G (2013) World Mining Data: Production of Mineral Raw Materials of
individual Countries, by Minerals. in 2011 in metric tonnes
6 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2013) The 2013 Human Development Report –
"The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World"
7 Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy (YCELP) (2013) Downloads | Environmental
Performance Index. https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/downloads. Accessed 26 July 2013
8 World Bank Group (2013) Worldwide Governance Indicators.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/ef2039822.html,/governance/wgi/sc_country.asp. Accessed 26 July 2013
9 Ad-hoc Working Group on defining critical raw materials (2010) Critical raw materials for the EU:
European Commission
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