Chapter 6
Pragmatics: it can be defined as the study of language in use. it deals with how speakers use language in ways which cannot be predicted from linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.
Deixis: in all languages there are many words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances. This aspect of pragmatics is called deixis, which means “pointing” via language.
Reference:in pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or a writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.
Inference: an inference is an additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what is meant.
Anaphora: the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which is used in earlier text or conversation is called anaphora.
Presupposion: a spesker said to you “when did you stop beating your wife”,the speaker has the assumption that you used to beat your wife and no longer do so. Such assumptions are called presupposion.
Speech act theory: it was proposed by J.L.austin and has been developed by j.r. searle. Basically, they believe that language is not only used to inform or describe things, but to “do” things, perform acts.
Illocutionary acts: representatives directives commissives expressives declarations Indirect speech act: whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and a function, we have a indirect speech act.
The cooperative principle: H.P.grice belives that there must be some mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of the utterances. He suggests that there is a set of assumptions guiding the conduct of conversation. This is what he calls the CP. To put it simply, the cp means that we should say what is true in a clear and relevant manner.(quality quantity relation manner)
Conversatonal implicatures: a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.
The six maxims of the PP
(tact generosity approbati on modesty agreement sympathy)
Chapter 7
Discourse：language above the sentence or above the clause.
Discourse analysis: is also called discourse linguistics and discourse studies, or text linguistics. It is the study of how sentences in spoken and written language form a larger meaninful units such as paragraphs, interviews, conversations ,etc.
Given information: it is the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee.
New information: it is the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.
Topic: the topic represents what the utterance is about and it is the one that the
speaker decides to take as the starting point.The comment is what is said about it. Cohesion: it refers to the grammatical and lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse.
Cohesive devices include reference{endophora(anaphora and cataphora)and exophora}, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction(coordinators and subordinators) and lexical cohesion(repetition synonym and superordinate).
Discourse markers: expressions that are commonly used in the initial position of an utterance and are syntactically detachable from a sentence.
conversational analysis: the analysis of natural conversation in order to discover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are ans how conversation is used in oordinary life is called conversational analysis.(adjacency pairs, preference structure and presequences)
Adjacency pairs:a sequence of two related utterance by two different speakers. The second part is always a response to the first.
Presequences: the opening sequences that are used to set up some specific potential actions are called presequences.
赞同
Chapter8
Sociolinguistics: when we study the language in relation to society. It is called sociolinguistics.
Language varieties: language changes along social changes and it also changes from region to region, fron oone social group to another and from individual to individual. The products of such changes are called varieties of the language.lile the rise and fall of xiaojie.
Standard language: the dominant and prestigious variety of language is often called standard language or standard variety or standard dialect., the variety of language which had the highest status in one community or a nation and which is based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of a language.RP andSAEorGA. Dialect: a variety of language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called dialect. Dialects can be classified into four types(regional or geographical dialects and temporal dialects and sociolects and idiolects)
regional or geographical dialects: varieties of language spoken in a geographical area
temporal dialects:varieties of language used at a specific stages in the historical development.
Sociolects: varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social class. Idiolects:varieties of language used by individual speaker, wirh peculiarities of pronunciation, vocabulary ans grammar.
Register: most speakers of a language speak one way with friends, another on a job interview or presenting a report in class, another taling to children and still another with their parents. These varieties are classified according to use is called register.like(pickled, high, drunk and intoxicated)
M.A.K.Halliday’s register theory is determined by three factor field and mode and
tenor
Field of discours e refers to what is happening, including what is talking about.e.g. the fields of linguistics and religion and advertising.
Mode of discourse refers to the medium of language activity which determines the role played by the language in a situation.e.g. speech and writing
Tenor of discourse refers to the relationa among the participants in a language activity.e.g. colloquial and formal
Pidgins and creoles
Pidgins: a pidgin is a variety of language that is not a native language of anyone ,but is learnt on contact situation such as trading. The process by which the pidgin develops is called pidginization.
Creoles: when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trading language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole.
Creoles have large number of native speakers and not restricted at all in their uses. Once a creole is in existence, it may continue almost without change, it may be extinct, it may be evolve into a normal language or gradually merge with its base language through decreolization.
Language planning: the government carefully examine all the languages and dialects in the country and decide which is the standard official language. They also make plans for the regional use and development of other languages and dialects. This is now called language planning.
Status planning(change) and corpus planning(develop)
Diglossia:with a handful of languages, two very different varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functions. A situation of this kind is called diglossia.
Bilingualism: ir refers to a situation where two languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation. Multilingualis
Code-switching:bilinguals often switch between their two languages or language varieties in the middle of a conversation. This phenomenon is called code-switching. There are two major kinds of code-switching: situational code-switching (no topic change is involved) and metaphorical code-switching.
Taboo: a word that we are reluctant to use may be called a taboo word. Euphemisms: a moe acceptable substitute of a taboo word is called a euphemism.(euphemistic)
It has been suggested that there are a great deal of extra politeness in female speech which makes use of the following linguistics devices1 frequent use of hedges2 abundant use of tag question3 gereater use of qualifiers and intensifiers than men4preference for ues of the standard form of language.
Chapter10
Cognitive linguistics: the approach that language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it is called congnitive linguistics. Categorization: the mental process of classification is called categorazation, which is
one of the important capabilitied of the human mind.
Category: the special term for this phenomemon is called category(dog and tree) The classical theory: the classical theory of categorization. It has four assumptions 1 a thing can not both be and not be, cannot both have the feature and not have it, and cannot both belong to a category and not belong to it.2 the features are binary 3 the categories have clear boundaries 4 all members of a category have equal status.
The prototype theory: the best examples of one category are called prototype.(bird and color and fruit)
Levels of categorization: s uperordinate levels basic levels and subordinate levels Basic-level categories are basic in three respects:1 perception 2 communication 3 knowledge organization(feature and attributes)
Iconicity of order: it refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction.(open the bottle and pour wine) Iconicity of distance: that is, elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.(causation and multi-adjectives befoere a noun)
Iconicity of complexity: the phenomenon that linguistic complexity reflects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity. Grammaticalization:the process whereby an independent words are shifted to the status of the grammatical elements is called grammaticalization.
The difference of pragmatics and semantics
Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.
Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use. it deals with how speaker uses the language in ways which cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and how the hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers.
We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of the meaning that is not covered by semantics, pragmatics=meaning-semantics.
新旧信息的区别：
Sometimes, given information need not be introduced into a discourse by a second speaker, because it has been introduced in the previous sentence and can thus be assumed to be in the hear’s mind. A piece of information is sometimes taken as given information because of its close association with sth. that has just been mentioned in the discourse.(Kent returned my car. One of the wheel---) . Noun phrase carrying new information usually receive more stress than those carrying given information, and they are commomly expressed in a more elborate fashion.(There was a tall man with an old-fashioned hat on, quiet elegantly dressed. ). Given information is commonly expressed in more attenuated ways that are abbreviated or reduced. Sometimes given information is simply left out of a sentence altogether.(A:Who’s at th door? B:The mailman.)
皮钦语
A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and very reduced grammatical structure which may expand when it is used over a long time or for many purposes. Sometimes,
a pidgin dies out of its own accord. At other times it increases in importance, and becomes used in more and more areas of life.
Creoles: when a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trading language and becomes the first language of a social community, it becomes a creole.
Creoles have large number of native speakers and not restricted at all in their uses. Once a creole is in existence, it may continue almost without change, it may be extinct, it may be evolve into a normal language or gradually merge with its base language through decreolization.
对传统语言学的新认识：
Cognitive linguistics provides many new angles for our insight into language. Its significant position in linguistics is evident. It seems to give us hope that some unsolved problems in language studies may be solved in cognitive linguistics.
厕所委婉语：
There are many euphemisms for toilet, such as wc,power room, men’s room, ladies’room, gentlemen,bathroom,restroom, wash room, washing room, loo, john and so on. In many cultures, people avoid referring to this place by toilet or lavatory because they are unpleasant to the ear. The use of euphemisms reflect social attitudes or social customs. We choose the words or expressions of euphemisms because they are more polite and pleasant to use without embarrassing others.
女性更接近标准语：
There are two possible reasons. One is that women are usually more status-conscious than men and they are aware of their lower status in society and as a result, they may use more standard speech forms in their attempt to claim equality or even achieve a higher social status. The other reason might be attributed to the education. Women are educated to behave like a lady when they are little girls and such education may influence their speech as well.
隐喻转喻与传统隐喻转喻的区别及隐喻和转喻的相同点和不同点
Traditionally, metaphor is a figure of speech in which one thing is compared to another by saying that one thing is the other, as in “He is a tiger”. It is a property of words. In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is a property of concepts, and it is a powerful cognitive tool for our conceptualization of abstract categories. According to cognitive linguistics, metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain or cognitive domain in terms of another conceptual domain. According to the classical definition, metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word is substituted for another on the basis of some material, causal or conceptual relation. Some typical substitutions include author for work, abstract features for concrete entities. In the cognitive linguistic view, metonymy is a cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental process to another cognitive category, the target, within the same cognitive domain, or idealized cognitive model.
The main claims made by cognitive linguists in the description of metaphor also apply to metonymy: (i) both are regarded as being conceptual in nature; (ii) both can be conventionalized; (iii) both are means of extending the resources of a language; (iv) both can be explained as mapping processes. Difference: metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains, while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain.
Morphology 形态学，研究词的内部结构和构造规则 如colorful,由color和-ful两部分构成，由此概括出一条规则：名词词尾加上-ful可构成形容词 Morpheme, 语素，不能再简化的有意义的语言单位。如boys,由boy和-s构成 Morph 语素的具体形态 Allomorph 语素变体 英文单词illogical,imbalance,irregular和inactive有着共同的语素in-。换句话说，im-,ir-是语素in-的变体。 Free morphemes 能单独出现，独立构词的语素称为自由语素。如work,boy Bound morphemes 不能独立出现，必须附着在其他语素后才能构词的语素。如distempered中，dis-和-ed是黏着语素，temper是自由语素 Bound roots 不能独立出现，只能被词缀附着后出现 如refer中的-fer,consist中的-sist Content morphemes 包含语义内容的语素（包含简单词和能改变词根意义的词缀），如名词、动词、形容词、副词。如work Function morphemes 通过联系一个句子中的其他词提供语法功能的语素 如介词、连词、冠词 at，for，a,but Inflectional 曲折，生成同一语素的不同形式 -s,-‘s,-ing,-en,-er,-est，-s Derivational 派生，生成新词，通常可以改变词汇意义 Cat,caty Compounding合成 如Girlfriend Reduplication 重复 Abbreviation or shortening 简写 Blending 混合 Motor+hotel=motel Breakfast+lunch=brunch Alternation Man men Suppletion不规则 Go went Syntax句法
序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C 初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 语言的社会功能语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。语音部分语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主要使用拉丁字母和各种变形符号，是国际上通用的记音符号。语音的生理属性：指语音的动力、发音体和发音方法。 语音的物理属性：是指物体受到外力作用而发生振动，从而使周围的空气也发生振动，形成音波，音波传入人耳，使鼓膜发生振动，刺激听觉神经，于是人们产生了声音的感觉。语音的物理属性包括音高、音长、音重、音质。 语音的社会属性：指同一个音素在不同的语言或方言中具有不同的作用，执行不同的交际功能，是语音的本质属性。 音高：指声音的高低，取决于发音体振动的频率，具有区别意义的作用。如汉语的声调。音重：指声音的强弱，取决于振幅，具有区别意义的作用。语音的强弱与气流量的大小和发
Illocutionary act: The illocutionary act is the act performed in the performing of a locutionary act. When we speak we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of “Morning!” we can say it has the force of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. Cooperative principle: This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads “Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relation maxim, and manner maxims. Conversational implicature: This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意in Chinese. Entailment: This is a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second. For example, when “I saw a boy” is true, “I saw a child” is necessarily true;and if “I saw a child” is not true, “I saw a boy” will not be true either. Ostensive communication: “Ostensive communication”, or “inferential communication”, is a shorthand for “ostensive-inferential communication”. That is, communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference on the part of the hearer and ostension (making clear of one?s intention to express something) on the part of the speaker. Speech act theory: speech act theory is the first major in theory in the study of language in use which originated with J.L. Austin. In his opinion, to say something is to do something. He classified speech act into three kinds: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. Image Schema意向图式: is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. Sociolinguistics: is the linguistic study of society or the social study of language. Transformation-generative grammar (TG)转换生成语法TG refers to any grammar in which different syntactic structures are related by transformations. Hend commonly, from the 1960s, of the theories of Chomsky, or of Chomsky?s school, in general. In a transformational grammar as Chomsky first proposed it, the main role of transformations was to relate the sentences of a language as a whole to a small set of kernel sentences. Functional sentence perspective (FSP)功能句子观is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances or texts in terms of the information they contain. The principle is that Stimulus-response: A learning theory associated particularly with the American psychologist Skinner, which describes learning as the formation of association between responses. Behaviorism in linguistics holds that children learn language through a chain of “stimulus-response reinforcement”, and the adult?s use of language is also a process of stimulus-response. A stimulus is the behavior
语言学名词解释汇总 一、名词解释。 1、语言学：①～是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；②从方法上分为历史…、比较…、历史比较…、描写…；从研究对象上可分为个别…和普通…； ③19世纪初的历史比较学标志着语言学的诞生。 2、语文学：…是为给古代文化遗产——政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。 3、小学：指我国古代传统的文学学、音韵学和训诂学,虽然我国古代没有语文学，但一般认为…属于语文学的范围。 4、训诂：是解释字义和研究它的演变的一门学科，其目的是从词义方面来解释古书的文字。 5、专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学称为…。 ＊共时语言学和历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化,把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究,共时…研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系,如对现代汉语的研究;历时…研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变,如对汉语发展史的研究。＊普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。 ＊历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学称为…。 ＊比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的叫…。 6、表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 7、语言：是从言语中概括出来的音义结合的词汇系统和语法系统。 ＊言语：是说的行为和结果。 ＊说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。 8、语言层级性（二层性）：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节；上层分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。 ＊语言的线条性：是指在交际过程中，语言符号或者作为符号的形式的声音，只能一个跟着一个依次出现，随着时间的推移而逐渐延伸，绝不能在同一时间里说出两个符号或两个声音。 ＊任意性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，音义之间交没有必然的、本质的联系，也就是它们之间的结合是不可论证的，是约定俗成的。 ＊依存性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 9、语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经 过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 ＊语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、
语言学概论名词解释 序论部分 语言学：是以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立的科学；从方法上分为历史语言学、比较语言学、历史比较语言学、描写语言学；从研究对象上可分为个别语言学和普通语言学；19C初的历史比较语言学标志着语言学的诞生。 语文学：是为给古代文化遗产，即政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。“小学”：中国传统的语文学，围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，形成了文字学、音韵学、训诂学，分别探讨和研究汉字的字形、字音、字义。 专语语言学：以某种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。 共时语言学、历时语言学：根据语言体系的稳固和变化，把语言研究分为共时的和历时的研究,。共时语言学研究的是在特定时期内相对稳固的语言体系，如对现代汉语的研究；历时语言学研究的则是描写语言体系的历史演变,如对汉语发展史的研究。 普通语言学：是对人类语言从理论方面进行研究的一门学科，它探索各种语言所共有的规律以及各种语言在结构上的共同特点。 历史语言学：用历史的方法来考察语言的历史演变、研究它的变化规律的语言学。 比较语言学：用比较的方法，对不同的语言进行对比研究，找出它们相异之处或共同规律的语言学。 表层结构、深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 索绪尔：现代语言学的创始人，代表著作是《普通语言学教程》。（简单要加补充） 语言的社会功能 语言：就其本质而言，语言是一种音义结合的符号系统；就其社会功能来说，语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和必不可少的思维工具。 言语：是对语言的运用，是语言的行为和结果。 说话：是人们运用语言工具表达思想所产生的结果。 思维：是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思维、形象思维、抽象思维。 社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文体传统的人类共同体，即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。 符号：是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记。 语言符号：是由音义结合构成的，代表或指称现实现象的符号。“音”是语言符号的物质表现形式，“义”是语言符号的内容，只有音义结合才能指称现实现象，构成语言符号。 语言的线条性：是指语言符号在交际过程中，其声音只能一个跟着一个依次出现，随着时间的推移而逐渐延伸，绝不能在同一时间里说出两个符号或两个声音。 语言的任意性：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，由社会约定俗成，没有什么必然的、本质的联系。 语言的依存性（强制性）：语言符号的音义结合是任意的，但一经社会约定俗成后,音义之间就具有互相依存的关系，不得任意更改。 语言层级性：语言是一种分层装置。语言结构要素的各个单位，在语言结构中，并非处在同一个平面上，而是分为不同的层和级。语言可分为二层——底层是一套音位和由音位组成的音节，为语言符号准备了形式部分；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，分为三级：第一级是词素，是构词材料'；第二级是词，是造句材料；第三级是句子，是交际的基本单位。 语言发展的渐变性：指语言从旧质过渡到新质不是经过爆发，不是经过消灭现存的语言和创造新的语言，而是经过新质要素的逐渐积累，旧质要素的逐渐死亡来实现的。语言结构的体系的演变只能采取渐变，不能爆发突变。 语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 组合关系：构成线性序列的语言成分之间前后相继的关系。语言单位顺着时间的线条前后相继，好像一根链条，一环扣着一环，处于这个组合链中的两个符号或符号序列之间的关系就叫组合关系。如：主谓、动宾等都是具体的组合关系类型。 聚合关系：在线性序列的某一结构位置上语言成分之间相互替换的关系。在同一位置上能够相互替换的语言单位具有相同的语法功能。在这个线性序列中，每一个语言单位都占有一个特定的位置，在这个位置上它可以被其他语言单位替换下来，犹如一根链条，某一环可以被另一环替换下来，从而形成一根新的链条。 语言习得性：是指虽然人类先天就具有潜在的语言能力，但要掌握一门语言，必须通过后天的学习，没有现实的语言环境，不能掌握任何一种语言。 语言能力：抽象思维能力和发音能力的结合，即，掌握语言需要有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。 征候：是事物本身的特征，它代表着事物，可以让我们通过它来推知事物。如：炊烟代表人家。 语音部分 语音：即语言的声音，由人的发音器官发出，负载一定的意义，是语言的物质外壳，语言依靠语音来实现其社会交际功能。 音素：从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位，分为元音和辅音。 国际音标：由国际语音学会于1888年制定的一套记音符号，它根据“一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素”的原则，主
When I was preparing the postgraduate entrance examination of NNU(Nanjing Normal University),some of these following concepts had been tested,but there's no specific or clear explanation in the textbook required by the university.As in preparing the second-round examination I read them in other relevant books, I wrote down here for your reference.Hope they are useful to some of you. 1. Acculturation(同化过程）is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group. 2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）;a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange. 3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way. 4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day.There is an agreement in number between boy and goes. 5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds. 6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the temporal structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体) 7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant. E.g. /p/ in the word pit. 8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation. 9. converstional implicature（会话含义）:meanings that are explicable in the light of converational maxims. https://www.doczj.com/doc/d218268990.html,municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriately in social situations. 11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause. 12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin. 13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence. 14.closed class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members. 15.coinage（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words. 16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can appear in a language. 17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small number of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful units. 18.entailment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second)
1、Descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety. 2、Arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer. 3、Duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units(e.g. words) and meaningless segments(e.g. sounds, letters). 4、Displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker's immediate situation. 5、Phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact. 6、Langue: the language system shared by a "speech community". 7、allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. 8、morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 9、inflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached. 10、endocentric: Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i. e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable Centre or Head. In the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the Centre or Head of this phrase or word group. 11、recursiveness: it mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within(i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to any means to extend any constituent. Together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. 12、cohesion: cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesion devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. 13、conceptual meaning: this is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech also used "sense" as a briefer term for this conceptual meaning. As a result, Leech's conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.
语言学考研术语-名词解释 1.赵元任 赵元任，字宣仲，又字宜重，江苏武进（今常州）人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。赵元任成功了，中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批优秀学者的共同努力下，终于逐步而又缓慢地走向了现代化。 2.哥本哈根学派 哥本哈根学派是受到索绪尔语言学思想影响而出现的世界三个结构主义语言学的主要流派之一。它以1931年哥本哈根语言学会的成立为标志，主要创始人和理论家是丹麦哥本哈根大学的语言学教授L.叶尔姆斯列夫。哥本哈根学派的理论叫做“语符学”。 叶尔姆斯列夫认为，语言的内在结构是各级要素共同构成的关系网络。为了确定语言的基本要素，他把语言成分分为“内容”和“表达”两个平面。这两个平面又各分为“形式”和“实质”两层，“形式”是结构关系，“实质”是体现形式的语言的实体（一方面是声音，另一方面是意义）。另一方面，叶尔姆斯列夫在语言中区分“序列”和“系统”。“序列”是词、短语、句子等形式结构。符号的序列包括内容平面和表达平面，两者都由系统中的要素构成。 3.描写语言学 描写语言学是结构语言学的一个分支，是20世纪美国的一些学者在对美洲印第安语调查和研究的基础上逐步形成和发展起来的，它以面向语言材料、注重语言结构的形式描写而著称。它的主要特点如下：注重口语的描写和共时的研究；注重形式的分析，回避意义问题；在结构分析中主要运用分布和替换的方法，以便从一堆语言素材中切分出独立的单位并加以分类；对句法结构进行层次分析；建立语素音位这个新的单位，这是在语法和语音结合的基础上建立的一个新的单位；强调验证。 4.语言学 语言学是以语言为专门研究对象的一门独立学科。其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来揭示语言存在和发展的规律。 5.应用语言学 应用语言学是研究语言学的应用的一门学科。事实上是一种交叉学科，是相关学科的学者将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究而产生的新的学科。如社会语言学、心理语言学等。 6.理论语言学，应用语言学 理论语言学是从理论上研究语言的性质、功能和结构的语言学，以研究对象的不同又分为个别语言学和普通语言学。 应用语言学是研究语言学的应用的一门学科。事实上是一种交叉学科，是相关学科的学者将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究而产生的新的学科可以分为狭义和广义两种。狭义的指研究语言教学中的理论和方法，广义上有社会语言学、神经语言学、计算语言学、数理语言学和心理语言学等多种分支学科。 7.发音语言学，声学语言学 研究发音语音学的语言学家希望能翔实记载人类发出语音的过程，以了解发音孔道中各个器官（称为发音器官，包括舌头、嘴唇、牙齿、下颚、硬腭、软腭）是如何协调运作以发出某个语音。声学语言学研究和描述携带口耳之间言语声波的声学特性、韵律和嗓音音质，不但与发音语音学和语音感知直接有关，而且对信号处理和语音技术的应用也是非常重要的。
Define the following terms: 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. . 4. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. 9. Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 10. Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 11. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability. 12. Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds 13. Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. 14. Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker 15. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings. 16. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 17. Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language, 18. Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 19. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently 20. Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 21. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But