Intercultural Communication
September,2013
Chapter one
Human beings draw close to one another by their common nature, but habits and customs keep them apart.
---CONFUCIUS
性相近，习相远。
---孔子
You live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economic and political systems, immigration patterns, and population density have created a world in which you may regularly interact with people from different cultures. Whether or not you welcome those changes, they will continue to grow in both frequency and intensity.
在我们所处的时代，科技、旅行、经济和政治系统、人口迁移的方式、人口的密集程度的变化都导致不同文化间的交流越来越频繁。不管你愿意与否，这种交流都将以前所未有的深度和广度向前发展。
Intercultural communication occurs when a member of one culture produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture. More precisely,intercultural communication involves interaction between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
跨文化交流的定义：当一个文化的成员发出信息为另一个文化的成员所接受，跨文化交流就产生了。确切地说,跨文化交流指的是拥有不同文化感知和符号系统的人们之间进行的交流，他们的这些不同足以改变交流事件。
The Dominant Culture
?In the past, terms such as umbrella culture, mainstream culture, U.S. Americans, or European Americans have been used.
?the one in power; setting the tone and agenda
?White males are at the center of the dominant culture.
?the beginning of the diffusion of power signaled by the election of Barack Obama as President of the United States.
Co-Cultures
?The word co-culture is used when discussing groups or social communities exhibiting communication characteristics, perceptions, values, beliefs, and practices that are sufficiently different to distinguish them from other groups and communities and from the dominant culture.
?These co-cultural affiliations can be based on race, ethnic background, gender, age, sexual preference, or other factors.
The Functions of Communication
? Communication Allows You to Gather Information About Other People
?Communication Helps Fulfill Interpersonal Needs
?Communication Establishes Personal Identities
?Communication Influences Others
Communication Defined
Communication is a dynamic process in which people attempt to share their internal states with other people through the use of symbols.
Defining Culture
Culture is a set of human-made objective and subjective elements that in the past have increased the probability of survival and resulted in satisfaction for the participants in an ecological niche, and thus became shared among those who could communicate with each other because they had a common language and they lived in the same time and place.
The Basic Functions of Culture
? Cultures exist to serve the vital, practical requirements of human life.
?Culture sets the limits on behavior and guides it along predictable paths.
?Life without the guidelines of culture is unimaginable.
Elements of Culture
? HISTORY
Each history is unique to a particular culture and carries specific cultural messages.
? RELIGION
The six most prominent religious traditions are Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.
? VALUES
The strength of a value is often very different as you move from culture to culture.
? SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
Social structures reflect our culture, for example, whether we have kings and queens, or presidents and prime ministers.
? LANGUAGE
Language is one of the chief methods for the transmission of culture. It is common to all cultures.
Culture Is Learned
?A little boy in the United States whose grandfather tells him to shake hands when he is introduced to a friend of the family is learning good manners.
?An Arab father who reads the Koran to his one-day-old son, the father is teaching the child about God.
?An Indian child who lives in a home where the women eat after the men is learning gender roles.
?A Jewish child who helps conduct the Passover ceremony is learning about traditions.
Culture Is Learned
?Learning Culture through Proverbs.
CF Actions speak louder than words. // A man’s tongue is his sword. // Those who know do not speak and those who speak do not know.
?Learning Culture through Folktales, Legends, and Myths.
Folktales and storytelling usually have an important moral; legends and myths often confront cosmic questions about the world and usually deal with actions and deeds that reflect supernatural powers.
?Learning Culture through Art.
Chinese art often concerns with the mind in meditation, with human striving in the great cosmos, and with the beauty of nature. American and European art, however, often emphasizes people.
?Learning Culture through Mass Media.
By presenting “cultural life,”mass media shape beliefs and values.
Culture Is Shared
?Culture is the common denominator that makes the actions of individuals intelligible to the other members of society.‖
?By sharing a common set of perceptions and behaviors, members of a culture can also share a common cultural identity.
Culture Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation
?“All the past is here.”The past becomes the present and helps prepare for the future.
?Any break in the learning chain would lead to a culture’s disappearance.
Culture Is Based on Symbols
?Cultural symbols can take a host of forms, encompassing gestures, dress, objects,flags, religious icons, and the like. Yet “the most important symbolic aspect of culture is language.
?Although all cultures use symbols to share their realities, the specific realities and the symbols
employed are often quite different.
Culture Is Dynamic
?Cultures do not exist in a vacuum; because of “other waters continually flowing in,”they are subject to change.
?Cultural groups face continual challenges and evolve over time.
?Change is not welcomed and is even greeted with hostility;cultures adopt to and be compatible with the existing without causing much disruption; the deep structure of a culture resists major alterations.
Culture Is an Integrated System
?Culture is, like communication, systemic. You touch a culture in one place and everything else is affected.
?“God gave to every people a cup, a cup of clay, and from this cup they drank life. . . . They all dipped in the water, but their cups were different.‖
?Intercultural communication is about how those ―different cups‖ influence how people perceive the world and behave in that world.
Individual Uniqueness
?There have never been two people exactly alike.
?Every person has a unique personality. Personality is partly genetic and partly learned. ?Therefore, you must be cautious and prudent when making cultural generalizations.
CF I am going to the racetrack.
1. Horse racing is an evil form of gambling.
2. Horse racing is animal abuse.
3. I love horse races.
Stereotyping
?Cultural stereotypes are popular because they are easy to create.
?Irish spend most of their time drinking and singing in beer halls and pubs. Muslims do not have time to do anything but pray five times a day.
? How to minimize the damaging effects of stereotyping.
1. No absolute representations.
2. Focus on ―core values‖.
3. Only cautious generalizations.
Objectivity
?Ethnocentrism can impede intercultural Communication, so trying to be objective is no simple assignment.
?Our view about appreciating and accepting differences is clearly expressed in the following: ―. . . diversity need not divide; . . . the fear of difference is a fear of the future; . . . inclusiveness rightly understood and rightly practiced is a benefit and not a burden.‖
Communication is not a Cure-all
?Communication cannot be regarded as a solution to and panacea for what plagues the individual and society.
?With four admonitions, we are ready to begin the process of improving the manner in which you interact with people from cultures different from your own.
?Communication is dynamic, symbolic, contextual, self-reflective, learned, and has a consequence.
?Culture is learned, shared, and transmitted from generation to generation, based on symbols and a dynamic and integrated system.
?Some of the problems with studying intercultural communication involve individual uniqueness, stereotyping, lack of objectivity, and viewing communication as a cure-all.
Chapter two
It is the deep structure that unifies a culture, makes each culture unique, and explains the “how”and “why” of a culture’s collective action.
At the core of any culture’s deep structure are its social organizations. These organizations, sometimes referred to as social institutions.
The three most enduring and influential social organizations that deal with deep structure issues are(1) family, (2) state (community), and (3) religion (worldview).
These institutions have a long history, today they remain the “essential components of modern life.
Deep Structure Institutions Carry a Culture’s Most Important Beliefs
Deep Structure Institutions and their Messages Endure
Deep Structure Institutions and their Messages are Deeply Felt
Deep Structure Institutions Supply much of a Person’s Identity
The Importance of Family
? Family is such a crucial social organization is highlighted by Galvin and Brommel: “We are born into a family, mature in a family, form new families, and leave them at our death.”
? Above all, family is where people get their start in life.
Functions of the Family
? Reproduction
? Teaching Economic Values
? Socialization
? Teaching Core Values and Worldview
? Identity Development
? Communication Training
Communication, Culture, and Family
A human being’s development can take any number of paths, and culture is one of the major determinants of that path.
“At birth, babies can grow up to be members of any society. . . . It depends on how they are trained and taught, loved and punished, whether they turn into one kind of person or another. So, if we make a study of this and find out the steps by which these human babies become one kind of grown-up person instead of another, we learn a great deal about them . . . the details of a bath, or the way the baby is fed, the way it’s punished or rewarded give us a great many clues about the way character is formed in that society.”-----by the anthropologist Margaret Mead Cultural Variants in Family Interaction
Four Disclaimers
First, we remind you that all the major institutions of a culture are tied together.
Second, family interaction variations among and within cultures exist. “Societies differ, between and within cultures”.
Third, gender roles are subject to change. Females are now socialized to assume a host of different roles.
Finally, interaction patterns within the family offer clues to communication patterns found outside the family, or, as the Swedish proverb says, “Children act in the village as they have learned at home.”
The study of history recognizes that our contemporary culture is but one expression of human life within a vast panorama of different communities and societies.
Our interest in the study of history is predicated on two assumptions.
? First, historical events help explain the character and actions of a culture.
? Second, what a culture seeks to remember and pass on to following generations tells us about the character of that culture.
? The deep structures of a culture, which include such elements as family, history (country), and religion (worldview), are important because they carry a culture’s most important beliefs. ? Globalization has had a major impact on traditional family structures throughout the world.
? Families perform a series of key functions in all cultures. These functions include teaching members of the culture about reproduction, economics, socialization, values and religion, identity, and communication.
? The family also teaches gender roles, views on individualism and collectivism, perceptions of aging, and social skills.
? History and culture are interwoven.
? Historical events help explain the character of a culture.
Chapter three
Western Abrahamic Religions
Judaism, Christianity & Islam
Comparative View
Overview
?Abrahamic religions
?What are they?
?What common bond is the term derived from?
?The figure of Abraham
?Who was he?
?His significance in each religion
?Foundation & religious texts
?A look at the common stories and figures that evolve from Judaism‘s traditions to foundation of Islam
The Abrahamic religions
?World‘s three major monotheistic religions
?Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
?Although each are distinct, a number of parallels exist amongst them
?All three were founded in the Middle East, similarities seem to reflect this closeness in proximity
?Term ―Abrahamic‖ derived from the common patriarchal figure of Abraham
Abrahamic religions today
A look at Abraham
?Born between 1900-1800 BCE (depending on religious interpretation)
?Originally from Sumerian city of Ur (modern Iraq), eventually migrated to Canaan (modern Israel) ?―Original believer‖ – identified with early monotheistic struggle in age of polytheism
?Accounts of Abraham appear in the holy books of all three religions at hand
Abraham (cont.)
In Judaism & Christianity
?Was known as Abram (―exalted father‖) in Hebrew
?Lineage: Father of Isaac, grandfather of Jacob – leads to the Israelites, and eventual branch-off of Christians
?Story of Abraham‘s near-sacrifice of Isaac appears in the Torah‘s book of Genesis (subsequently included in the Old Testament)
Maps of Canaan, Israel, & Jerusalem
Map of Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Three Main Western Religions
?Judaism/ Jews/ Jewish around 2000BC/BCE
?★Tanakh (Hebrew Bible, esp, Torah)
?★15 million
?★Star
?Islam/ Moslems/ Muslim7th century AD/CE
?★Koran (or Qur‘an)
?★1.5 billion
?★Crescent(新月)
Three Main Western Religions
?Christianity/ Christians/ Christian
?1st century AD/CE
?★Bible (Old Testament & New Testament)
?★2.2 billion
?★Cross
Foundation of Judaism
?Time period: 5th to 3nd century BC
?Location: Jerusalem, Palestine (modern Israel)
?Jewish faith asserts that the Israelites received the Torah from God in 1313 BC
?After some 800-900 years, and periods of exile from their homeland, Israelites resettle Jerusalem
?Recognize the Tanakh as scripture in 450 BC
?By 3rd century BC, Judaism spreads to Egypt and into larger area of Roman Empire
Foundation of Christianity
?Time period: 1st to 2nd century AD
?Location: Palestine (modern Israel)
?Jesus of Nazareth, born approx. 4 BC, in Galilee (northern region of Israel)
?Expressed alternate views to contemporary rabbis (priests), inspired Apostolic church, texts of New Testament
?Christianity spread beyond Jewish community to become predominantly Gentile religion Foundation of Islam
?Time period: 7th century AD
?Location: Mecca, modern Saudi Arabia
?Muhammad began to preach Islam in Mecca, migrated to Medina in 622 CE
?There he was able to unify Arabian tribes under Islam, these Muslims overtook Mecca in 630 AD
?Qu‘ran was compiled by Muhammad‘s followers after his death in 632 AD
Religious texts (Judaism‘s Tanakh)
?Often referred to as the Hebrew Bible
?Includes the texts…
?Torah: focuses on law and beginnings of Judaism
?Nevi‘im: largely narratives of prophets following the death of Moses
?Ketuvim: includes historical acount following the events of other two texts
?Traditionally claimed that Israelites recognized the Tanakh as scripture in 450 BC
Religious texts (Christian Bible)
?Old Testament: largely composed of the Tanakh
?Shows the influence of Judaism‘s concepts in Christianity
?New Testament: collection of writings spanning period from mid-1st to mid-2nd century AD
?Generally includes 27 books - numerous writings attributed to apostles
?Final book of Revelation introduces the apocalyptic concepts that go on to shape many Christian sects
Religious texts (Islamic Qur‘an)
?Final product of the angel Gabriel‘s revelations to Muhammad
?Compiled shortly after Mu hammad‘s death in 7th century AD
?Includes number of elements from Judaeo-Christian texts
?Jesus, Moses, John the Baptist, etc. regarded as prophets
?These earlier texts are seen as having merit, but simply being corrupted
The element of monotheism
?Not only are each of these religions monotheistic, but figures from each have asserted that they are merely interpretations of one truth (one God, and one shared God)
?Islam‘s founding adhered to clear separation of deity and prophets, as seen earlier in Judaism
?Christian divinity of Jesus, resulting Holy Trinity diverges from this
?Judaist and Islamic principles lead many to be critical of this concept
Question – The Big Picture
Larger Concepts
How was a minor monotheistic belief able to become a universal, lasting religion
?Religion historically linked with politics (Church & State)
?High Priest & King combined role
?CAN YOU THINK OF ANY EXAMPLES OF THIS?
?When rulers were converted, the State supported the Church – judiciously & financially
?Monks were sent to convert others along trading routes
?Abrahamic religions appealed to many cultures and social levels
Regarding Jesus of Nazareth
?In Judaism
?Traditionally regarded as false prophet
?Deny concept of ―virgin birth‖
?Acknowledge death by crucifixion
?Deny concepts of initial resurrection and the second coming
?In Christianity
?Son of god
?Born of virgin birth
?Believe he was crucified
?Was resurrected, and will return in second coming
?In Islam
?A true prophet whose message was corrupted in earlier religious texts
?Born of a virgin birth
?Did not die during crucifixion, but instead ascended to Heaven
?Thus was not resurrected, but concept of second coming is accepted
Appearance of spiritual figures
?Abrahamic religions all endorse existence of spiritual beings that are not deities – namely angels and demons
?Concept of prophets exists in all three as well
?Prophets of Judaism have text attributed to their stories in the Tanakh
?Concept less prevalent in Christianity outside of Judaism-inspired writings
?Notion of prophets is central to Islam – stretch from Adam down to Muhammad
Clergy & hierarchical structure
?All three religions embrace concept of religious clergy connecting worshippers with God
?Judaism: rabbis – rooted in scholarly knowledge, answer questions of congregation
?Christianity: priests, pastors, etc. – in charge of congregation level of churches of Christian sects
?Pontificate of Catholic Church epitomizes the existence of hierarchical order in religious sects
?Islam: imams – religious leaders that also, perhaps as a result of Islam‘s lack of distinction between church and state, have degree of political power
?The sense of ―communal worship‖ is perhaps most strong in Islam
Judaism
?Judaism was founded by Moses, although Jews
trace their history back to Abraham.
?Jews believe that there is only one God with
whom they have a covenant契约.
?In exchange for all the good that God has done
for the Jewish people, Jewish people keep God‘s
laws and try to bring holiness into every aspect
of their lives.
Judaism
?Judaism has a rich history of religious text, but the central and most important religious document is the Torah.
?Jewish traditional or oral law, the interpretation of the laws of the Torah, is called halakhah.
?Spiritual leaders are called Rabbis.
?Jews worship in Synagogues.
Judaism – Laws of God
?The First Covenant
?The covenant between God and the Jewish people is a thread running throughout the early parts of the Bible, and one of the vital pillars of Judaism.
?The Second Covenant
?The covenant that God gave at Mount Sinai reinforced the covenant that God had given to Abraham. Leaders of Judaism
?Moses
?The father of the Jewish people who received the Ten Commandments from God.
?David
?David was the first king in Jerusalem whose reign was later looked back on as a golden era. He is known both as a great fighter and as the source of poems and songs, some of which are collected in the book of Psalms.
Judaism - Scriptures
The Talmud
?The Talmud is the comprehensive written version of the Jewish oral law and the subsequent commentaries on it.
?The Talmud is the source from which the code of Jewish Halacha (law) is derived.
?It is made up of the Mishnah and the Gemara. The Mishnah is the original written version of the oral law and the Gemara is the record of the rabbinic discussions following this writing down.
?It includes their differences of view.
Judaism - Scriptures
The Torah
?The Torah is the first part of the Jewish bible. It is the central and most important document of Judaism and has been used by Jews through the ages.
?Torah refers to the five books of Moses which are known in Hebrew as Chameesha Choomshey Torah.
?These are: Bresheit (Genesis创世记), Shemot (Exodus出埃及记), Vayicra (Leviticus利未记),
Bamidbar (Numbers民数记), and Devarim (Deuteronomy申命记).
Judaism - Scriptures
The Tanakh
?The Tanakh is an acronym of the initial Hebrew letters of the Tanakh's three traditional subdivisions: Torah, Nevi'im and Ketuvim.
?According to Jewish tradition, the Tanakh consists of twenty-four books.
?The Tanakh counts as one book what are sometimes counted as two in Christian Bibles (e.g. 1 and 2 Samuel, 1 and 2 Kings and so forth), and counts the Twelve Prophets as a single book.
?The eight books of Nevi‘im (Prophets) are also considered part of the Tanakh.
?The eighth book of Nevi‘im is referred to as the writing s of Minor Prophets and are thought to have been added to the Tanakh after the time of the Great Assembly.
Judaism - Clergy
?The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are:
?– Rabbi of a congregation - Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal questions of a congregation.
?This role requires ordination by the congregation's preferred authority
?– A congregation does not necessarily require a rabbi.
?– Hazzan - a trained vocalist
?–Chosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. A congregation does not need to have a dedicated hazzan.
Judaism - Beliefs
?God exists
?There is only one God
?There are no other gods
?God can't be subdivided into different persons (unlike the Christian view of God)
?Jews should worship only the one God
?God is Transcendent:
?God is above and beyond all earthly things.
Judaism - Beliefs
?God doesn't have a body
?Which means that God is neither female nor male.
?God created the universe without help
?God is omnipresent:
?God is everywhere, all the time
?God is omnipotent:
?God can do anything at all
?God is beyond time:
?God has always existed
?God will always exist
Judaism - Beliefs
?God is just, but God is also merciful
?God punishes the bad & rewards the good
?God is forgiving towards those who mess things up
?God is personal and accessible.
?God is interested in each individual
?God listens to each individual
?God sometimes speaks to individuals, but inunexpected ways
Islam
Islam
Islam
?The Five Pillars of Islam
?Unite Muslims into a community
?the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. These duties are:
?Shahadah(profession of faith),
?Salat (prayers),
?Zakat (giving of alms),
?Sawm (fasting, specifically during Ramadan) and
?Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).
?These five practices are essential to Sunni Muslims;
?Shi‘a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the five Pillars. Five Pillars of Islam: patterns of worship
?Repetition of the Creed: there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah.（念）?Prayer: five times a day（拜）
?Almsgiving: 2.5% of one‘s income（课）
?Fasting: the 9th month of the lunar calendar（斋）
?Pilgrimage: to Mecca as an evidence of devotion to Allah（朝）
?Against idolatry(偶像崇拜)
The sixth pillar: jihad
?One of the most misinterpreted concepts in Islam. Jihad is a complex term that has too often been reduced in the western media and popular imagination to only one of its meanings, i.e. ―holy war‖, the slogan of modern radical Islamic movement.
?Two meanings of jihad: the inner and the outer
?The inner jihad: the struggle with oneself, to ―struggle‖ to master one‘s passions and leading to virtuous life, to achieve a perfect moral order in society. (to be continued)
?The outer jihad covers all activiti es that either ―defend Islam or else further its cause‖. Somewhat like the Christian crusade (十字军东征).
?When Arabs believe that Muslin lands or the Islamic faith are in danger, they are bound by Islamic tradition to wage a ―Jihad of the sword‖, therefore c ontributes to a militant vision of the Islamic tradition.
伊斯兰的“吉哈德（JIHAD）
?可以翻译为―圣战‖，但也可以翻译为―奋斗‖和―努力‖，重点倾向含意是奋斗和努力。吉哈德分为小吉哈德和大吉哈德。
?小吉哈德是狭义的，指穆斯林为了反抗迫害、捍卫正义的武装斗争，是有条件的吉哈德。伊斯兰是和平的宗教，真主派遣穆圣宣传真理，一开始就以―哲理‖、―美好的劝诫‖教育人，不要以力服人，而用非暴力的和平方式宣教。
?大吉哈德是穆斯林在信仰基础上的所有努力与奋斗，重点是纯洁自己的灵魂。指个人尽力与私欲斗争，驱除内心的罪恶、诱惑，特别是嫉妒、憎恨等。大吉哈德内容丰富，具体到每个人的工作生活中，比如：努力学习、勤奋劳动、发展生产、劝善戒恶都是大吉哈德。
武力Jihad作为自卫手段
?武力Jihad的一个条件是自卫：穆斯林不应主动侵略他人，必须是对压迫者和侵略者的，护主护教的反抗；战争是万不得已才使用的手段，战争有战争的规则，不得滥杀无辜，要尽量的人道，等。
Jihad必须是宗教的，只有在以下条件满足时才能被发起
★为了保护安拉、安拉的土地不被侵占
★为了恢复和平和对主的崇拜
★为了反迫压迫者；为了从暴君手下获得自由；为了反对侵略者
★必须有精神、宗教领袖来宣布和领导（强调领袖的作用）
★战斗，直到敌人放下武器（何时结束jihad也需要领袖来决定）
★不伤害无辜、妇女老幼
?（2：190）谁与你们战争，你们就在安拉的道上对他们战争，但不要过当，安拉不爱过当的
人。
武力Jihad
?Jihad不包括
★侵略他人领土；企图剥削、压迫他人；
★领土或部族争端；
★强迫异教者转变信仰。
?Jihad - 对压迫者的反抗
?伊斯兰教认为人们应该反抗压迫者，包括使用武力；
?比起其他几个主要宗教，伊斯兰教大概要更重视人的尊严和荣誉，这是一种外向型的、具有张力的，积极的反抗性思维；它不可能是那种教人完全隐忍的消极宗教。
?伊拉克人说：?伊拉克的穆斯林是骄傲的人们，所以不能容忍美国人的占领！‘，这既是伊斯兰思维，恐怕也是阿拉伯整个文明传统的思维。这样的宗教信徒是会起来反抗的。
尚武：为主而战死是最高牺牲和最高荣誉
?[4:74]以后世生活出卖今世生活的人，教他们为主道而战吧！谁为主道而战，以致杀身成仁，或杀敌致果，我将赏赐谁重大的报酬。
?为主道而死的人，他们爱主胜过爱自己，愿意做最大的牺牲。这样的人被称为shahid，他们死后自然有最大的报酬。宗教文本内部明确提供了这样的激励机制，鼓励人们作出这种牺牲。?在伊斯兰教近年在中东的实践来看，也确如此。只有克己的牺牲精神才能解释自杀炸弹这样的极端行为。
Christianity
Christianity briefly
?Christianity is the world's biggest religion, with about 2.2 billion followers worldwide. It is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ who lived in the Holy Land 2,000 years ago.
Christianity Beliefs
?Christians believe that Jesus Christ was the Son of God
?God sent his Son to earth to save humanity from the consequences of its sins
?Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his Crucifixion (the Resurrection)
?Christians believe that Jesus was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament
?Christians believe that there is only one God, but that this one God consists of 3 "persons"
?Christians believe that God made the world.
Christianity Beliefs continued
?Christians believe that they can have a personal relationship with God, and that they are saved by faith, not works. Grace is the law code.
?They believe in actual heaven and hell.
?They believe that the Bible is the inspired word of God.
?Their giving is a tithe or offerings.
Christians Holy Book
?The Bible is the Christian holy book. It is divided into the Old and New Testaments. Parts of the writing contained in the Old Testament are also sacred to Jewish and Muslim people.
Christian Place of Worship
?The Christian place of worship is called a Church, which are built in the shape of a cross with the altar facing east towards the rising sun. Services are led by a priest, pastor or reverend.
?Day of worship is normally Sunday but most recently Saturday has been added.
Comparison
History of Hinduism
?Originated between 4000 and 2000 BC
?No single founder
?Vedas 吠陀经: the oldest scriptures of Hinduism
?Veda means ―to know‖
?Upanishads 奥义书（印度古代哲学典籍）explain the philosophical ideas in story and dialogue form
Scriptures
?Hundreds of scriptures
?oldest scriptures: the Vedas吠陀经（印度最古的宗教文献和文学作品的总称）
?all scriptures divided into two broad categories: shruti思鲁提and smriti思姆里提或传承
?Most popular scripture: Bhagavad Gita 薄伽梵歌
What ―ism‖ is Hinduism?
?Everything from Atheism 无神论to Polytheism
?Different interpretations of the same scriptures led to differences in belief
?Sanatana Dharma 永恒之道
Eternal Philosophy
Concept of God
?Nirguna Brahman梵，婆罗门- God without attributes
?Saguna Brahman - God with attributes 属性的梵
?Saguna Brahman can be worshipped in any shape or form, human or otherwise
Hindu Trinity
?Brahma 梵天- the Creator
?Vishnu 毗湿奴- the Preserver
?Shiva 湿婆- the Destroyer
?Three aspects/powers of the same divine being
Basic Beliefs
?Karma 因果报应- the law of cause and effect; ―you reap what you sow‖?Reincarnation 转世| 轮回- eternal soul traverses through different bodies till it finds liberation Symbolism in Hinduism
Four Goals of Human Life
?Kama欲– fulfillment of desires
?Artha利– accumulation of wealth
?Dharma法– performance of social and religious duties
?Moksha解脱– freedom from want
Four Paths to Moksha
?Karma Yoga无我瑜珈- Path of righteous action
?Bhakti Yoga至善瑜伽
- Path of selfless devotion
?Jnana Yoga智慧瑜伽
- Path of rational inquiry
?Raja Yoga胜王瑜伽
- Path of renunciation
Six Philosophical Schools
?Sankhya数论派- Sage Kapila
?Yoga瑜珈派- Sage Patanjali
?Mimamsa弥曼沙派- SageJaimini
?Vedanta吠檀多派– Sage V yasa
?Nyaya正理派- Sage Gautama
?Vaisheshika胜论派- Sage Kanada
Temple Worship
Holy Cow!
?Hindus have always had great respect for Mother Nature and its creatures ?Cow is especially significant because it symbolizes gentleness Festivals
?Hinduism is a celebratory religion
?The motive: Festivals keep us close to Gods,
invigorate our household and renew our
personal life.
?Festivals signify victory of good over evil.
?Every month of Hindu calendar has at least one
significant festival. Each festival has regional
significance also.
?Celebration of diversity.
holi festival of colors
Introduction
?One of the world's three major religions
?Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (乔达摩悉达多) ?Founding Time: 6th ~ 5th century BC
?Doctrine: To do good and no evil
诸恶莫作，众善奉行
Bodhi 菩提
Wisdom 智慧
Compassion 慈悲
Karma 因果报应
Samsara 轮回
Nirvana 涅槃
Emptiness 空
The First Rank
The Second Rank
Avalokiteshvara 观音菩萨
?观世音菩萨
Literal meaning:
―观察（世间民众的）声音‖
六字真言或称“六字大明咒”
即“嗡嘛呢呗咪吽”
汉字发音为：嗡（ōng嘛（mā）呢（nī）叭（bēi）咪（mēi）吽（hòng）。
是藏传佛教中最尊崇的一句咒语，
六字大明咒是大慈大悲观世音菩萨咒，
象征一切诸菩萨的慈悲与加持
The Great Mercy Mantra大悲咒
是观世音菩萨的大慈悲心，无上菩提心，以及济世渡人，修道成佛的重要口诀。本咒是观世音菩萨「大悲心陀罗尼经」中的主要部分，共有八十四句
南无、喝啰怛那、哆啰夜耶．南无、阿唎耶，婆卢羯帝、烁钵啰耶．菩提萨埵婆耶．摩诃萨埵婆耶．摩诃、迦卢尼迦耶．唵，萨皤啰罚曳．数怛那怛写．南无、悉吉栗埵、伊蒙阿唎耶．婆卢吉帝、室佛啰楞驮婆．南无、那啰谨墀．醯利摩诃、皤哆沙咩．萨婆阿他、豆输朋，阿逝孕，萨婆萨哆、那摩婆萨哆，那摩婆伽，摩罚特豆．怛侄他．。
The Third Rank
?Arhat 罗汉在大乘佛教中，罗汉是修证的第三等果位。大乘对罗汉指明的任务是在世间流通佛法
?Bodhisattva Skanda 韦驮菩萨
?Buddhist temple 伽蓝
?Eighteen Disciples of the Buddha 十八罗汉
?Four Heavenly Kings 四大天王
?四十阿罗汉
Presentation of Buddhism
ZhanShan Temple
Confucius (Kongzi 孔子)
?Confucius (551-479 BCE).
?Trained in traditional rites and ceremonies 礼
?Wanted to reconstruct the dysfunctional Zhou 周dynasty
?Traveled to convince dukes and lords to adopt his ―way‖ (dao 道)
?But failed and dedicated his later years to teaching
Question
?1. What are the Four Books and Five Classics(四书五经)?
Question
?2 ．What are the five cardinal virtues of Confucius ethical thought?
Concentric circles of identification: The Great Learning (Daxue大学)
?Self
?Family
?Society
?Empire (world)
Ultimate aim of Confucianism
?Self-transformation of individuals, transcend egotistic desires and aspirations
?A harmonious society of civilized, educated individuals, creative in action but holistic in thought. ?To expand the social awareness beyond the borders of o ne‘s local society –world peace and harmony of diverse elements (tasty minestrone).
Confucius
Confucius Institute
First Confucius Institute
Confucius Institute has become the global brands and platforms for
the dissemination of Chinese culture
and promotion of Chinese teaching .
孔子学院在海外
Confucius Institutes in Russia
Confucius Institutes in America
Confucius Institutes in Germany
Confucius Institute in Ireland
苏格兰孔子学院
泰国孔子学院
法国里昂
中华第一楷书：欧阳询《仲尼梦奠帖》
?Traditional Chinese Music
Chapter four
The particular human chain we’re part of is central to our individual identity.
--- ELIZABETH STONE
我们个人身份的的核心是作为人类链条中的一员。
---伊丽莎白·斯通
Who am I ? ? ?
Stop for a minute and reflect on that question.
EXPLAINING IDENTITY
? Identity is dynamic and multiple. By this we mean that identity is not static, but changes as a function of your life experiences.
? different categories of identities
Turner: three categories of classification --human, social, personal.
Hall: three levels of identity -- personal, relational, and communal.
? An individual’s identity is “made up of numerous overlapping aspects or subidentities.”
SELECTED SOCIAL IDENTITIES
? Racial Identity
? Ethnic Identity
? Gender Identity
? National Identity
? Regional Identity
? Organizational Identity
? Personal Identity
? Cyber and Fantasy Identity
ACQUIRING AND DEVELOPING IDENTITIES
Phinney: a three-stage model of identity development
? The initial stage, Unexamined ethnic identity, is “characterized by the lack of exploration of ethnicity.”
? The second stage, ethnic identity search, begins when individuals become interested in learning about and understanding their own ethnic identity.
? The final stage, Ethnic achievement, is reached when individuals have a clear and confident understanding of their own cultural identity.
ACQUIRING AND DEVELOPING IDENTITIES
Martin and Nakayama : four-stage identity development
?Unexamined identity, is similar to Phinney’s model, in which individuals are not really concerned with issues of identity.
?Conformity, minority members endeavor to fit in with the dominant culture and may even possess negative self-images.
?Resistance and separatism, is usually the result of some cultural awakening that stimulates a greater interest in and adherence to one’s own culture. Concurrently, rejection of all or selected aspects of the dominant culture may occur.
?Integration, individuals have a sense of pride in and identity with their own cultural group,
and demonstrate an acceptance of other cultural groups.
IDENTITY IN A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
? Globalization, immigration, and intercultural marriage are bringing about an increased mixing of cultures, and this mixing is producing people who possess multiple cultural identities. ?To explore this further, we will look at the change in attitude toward identity in international adoption, the growth phenomenon of “ethnic shopping,”and the rise of what are called “intercultural transients. ”
Multiracial America
Acculturative Stress in Ethnic Identity Development of Asian
亚洲族群认同发展中的异文化压力
Gender Identity Disorder
transnational identity VS National character
Virtual Identity & Virtual Reality
Stereotypes Defined
? A stereotype is a cognitive structure containing the perceiver’s knowledge, beliefs, and expectancies about some human social groups.
? Stereotypes can be positive or negative.
? Stereotypes tend to overgeneralize the characteristics of a group of people.
Stereotypes and Intercultural Communication
? why stereotypes hamper intercultural communication?
First, stereotypes are a kind of filter; they only allow in information that is consistent with information already held by the individual.
Second, it is not the act of classifying that creates intercultural problems; rather, it is assuming that all culture-specific information applies to all individuals from a particular cultural group.
Third, stereotypes also keep you from being successful as communicators because they are oversimplified, exaggerated, and overgeneralized.
Fourth, stereotypes are resistant to change.
Functions of Prejudice
Ego-Defensive Function
“My history grades are low this semester because the professor feels sorry for the minority students and is giving them the higher grades.”
Utilitarian Function
“Those immigrants have so little education that they are lucky to have the jobs we offer them.”
V alue-Expressive Function
Their attitudes are expressing the highest and most moral values of the culture.
Knowledge Function People are seen as labels.
Racism Defined
Racism is the belief in the inherent superiority of a particular race. It denies the basic equality of humankind and correlates ability with physical composition. Thus, it assumes that success or failure in any societal endeavor will depend upon genetic endowment rather than environment and access to opportunity.
what would you do racism and illegal immigration
Racism in China by an English Teacher
Racism in England
Defining Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the notion that one’s own culture is superior to any other. It is the idea that other cultures should be measured by the degree to which they live up to our cultural standards. We are ethnocentric when we view other cultures through the narrow lens of our own culture or social position.
Characteristics of Ethnocentrism
Levels of Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism can be viewed as having three levels: positive, negative, and extremelynegative.
Ethnocentrism Is Universal
“Most people are ethnocentric”and “some ethnocentrism seems necessary as a kind of glue to hold a society together.”
Ethnocentrism Contributes to Cultural Identity
To function effectively, we may expect a society to embrace at least a degree of ethnic pride and a loyalty to its unique cultural traditions, from which its people derive psychological support and a firm social bond to their group. In societies where one’s self-identification derives from the group, ethnocentrism is essential to a sense of personal worth.
Chapter Five
SHAPING INTERPRETATIONS OF REALITY: CULTURALV ALUES
Contents
Understanding Perception
Culture and Perception
Beliefs
Values