Chapter 6 Pragmatics
1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?
Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful
communication In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and
hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right
meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. What essentially distinguishes
semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of
pragmatics.( Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not.
Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by
semantics.)
2.Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic
communication?
The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is
generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g.
knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before,
knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other.
Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's
interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic
communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense.
3.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they
differ?
A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied
as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if
we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how
we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence. If we
take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then
we are treating it as an utterance.
Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of
an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based
on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a
real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results
in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEAVY). Then a pragmatic analysis of
the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:
a) The room is messy. b) Oh, it is raining! c) The music of the movie is good.
d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.
a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.
b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. S o when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”, he meant they couldn’t play outside.
c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person said,
“The story of the movie is very moving”, so when the other person said, “The music
of the movie is good”, he meant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.
d) A person wanted his notes back, so when he said, “you have been keeping my notes for a whole week now”, he was d emanding the return of his notes.
5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.
According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is th e act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
Example: You have left the door wide open.
The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the words “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.
The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.
The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.
6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?
(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true
(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something
(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing
(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.
Directives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases.
Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.
The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.
Declarations has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.
7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?
When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means t o say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.
When a speaker is using indirect language, he is performing two speech acts simultaneously; one is the primary speech act and the other is the secondary speech act. The primary speech act is the speaker’s goal of communication while the secondary speech act is the means by which he achieves his goal. So the relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.
And the recognition is achieved through inferences made by the hearer based on his general knowledge and also his knowledge of some pragmatic theories and principle.
8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?
(1) The maxim of quantity
1.Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange).
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
A: When is Susan’s farewell party? B: Sometime next month.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B knows exactly when Susan is going to given her farewell party. Thus B is withholding some of the information required at this stage of conversation and is thus floating the maxim of quality. The implicature that results is “ I do not wish to tell you when the party is going to be held.”
(2) The maxim of quality
1.Do not say what you believe to be false.
2.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
A: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?
B: I’m afraid I have got a class on Sunday.
This is said when it is known to both A and B is not having any class that will prevent his from going for the picnic. Thus B is that A also know it is false, and he is thus floating the maxim of quality. Hs implied message is “ I do not want to join you for the picnic on Sunday .”
(3) The maxim of relation
Be relevant.
A: How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?
B: We had a basketball match with the other class and we beat them.
This is said when it is known to do both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to tell A how well or how badly he did in the math exam. B’s response is thus totally irrelevant to A’s question. Therefore he is floating the exam of relation. The implicature is “ I don’t wish to talk about the math exam.”
(4) The maxim of manner
1. Avoid obscurity of expression.
2.Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).
4. Be orderly.
A: Shall we get something for the kids?
B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
This is said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word “ice-cream”. Thus B has floated the maxim of manner. The only reasonable explanation for B’s flouting of the maxim of manner is that he is implying that “ I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about getting them some ice-cream.”
9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English used by Chinese learners of English.
The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure. Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker?s utterance in the context of communication.
Instances of pragmatic failure are often found in the English used by foreign learners of it. For example, as we Chinese can use “没关系” as a response to an expression of thanks, some learners of English tend to use its literal English translation “ it doesn’t matter” as a response to an expression of thanks in English. This is a case of pragmalinguistic failure. The speaker is transferring a form in his own language to a foreign language, wrongly assuming that it performs the same communicative function. In fact, the same linguistic form is not always associated with the same
illocutionary force in different languages. This also explains why “ have you had your lunch?” is not an appropriate way to greet a speaker of English around lunch time.
《语言学纲要》名词解释 导言 4.交际工具：人类交际活动所使用的工具。语言是人类最重要的交际工具。此外，身势等伴随动作是非语 言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具； 5.思维：是认识现实世界时的一种动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。 是人脑能动地反映客观现实的机能和过程。根据思维活动的不同形态可分为三种类型：直观动作思
维、形象思维、抽象思维。 6.社会：指生活在一个共同的地域中、说同一种语言、有共同的风俗习惯和文化习惯的人类社会的共同体， 即一般所说的部落、部族和民族。与此相关联的现象就是社会现象。 7.社会现象：指那些与人类共同体的一切活动——产生、存在和发展密切联系的现象。 取渐变，不能爆发突变。 8.语言发展的不平衡性：指语言结构体系发展变化是不平衡的，即词汇、语义、语音、语法的发展速度是 不一样的。与社会联系最直接的词汇、语义变化最快，语音次之，语法最慢。 9.表层结构和深层结构：表层结构和深层结构相对，表层结构赋予句子以一定的语音形式，即通过语音形
式所表达出来的那种结构，表层结构是由深层结构转换而显现的；深层结构是赋予句子以一定的语义解释的那种结构。 10.组合关系：符号和符号组合起来的关系。符号和符号的组合形成语言的结构。 11.聚合关系：在链条的某一环节上能够相互替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然聚集成群。它们彼 此的关系称为聚合关系。 23.音高：声音的高低，是由发音体形状及振动频率快慢决定的。 24.音重：声音的强弱，它取决于声波振幅的大小，而振幅的大小与发音时用力大小有关。 25.音质：也叫音色，指声音的品质或个性。
语言学概论期末复习 1. diachronic linguistics Linguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present. 2. arbitrariness Language is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between the linguistic signs and their meanings is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages. 3. langue According to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language that members of a speech community seem to abide by. 4. competence Chomsky defines competence as the abstract ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. According to him, anyone who knows a language has internalized a set of rules about the sequences permitted in his language. This internalized set of rules is termed as a person's competence. 5. morpheme The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. The “morpheme' is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning. 6. Morphology Morphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. So it refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed 7. Semantic triangle According to Ogden and Richard's semantic triangle, there is no direct link between language and the world, or between the symbol ( the linguistic elements, the word, the sentence) and referent ( the object in the world of experience). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds. 8. Lingua franca Lingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers. 9. componential analysis Componential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning, and it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. 10. Cooperative Principle Cooperative Principle (CP) was proposed by Paul Grice, under which there are four maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the
Linguistics is a systematic study of language. ?Language is a system of verbal, arbitrary symbols for human communications. 3. Design features of language Design features: the features that define human languages. ▲arbitrariness ▲duality ▲creativity ▲displacement 4. Do animals have languages? 5. Perspectives of language studies Language involves three activities: a. Human brain b. muscular activity of the body c. social activity ?5.1 Language as innate天生的human knowledge Noam Chomsky (1928-) ?Institute Professor; Professor of Linguistics Language Acquisition Device (LAD) or Universal Grammar (UG) language acquisition is innately(biologically ) determined, that we‘re born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language. (innateness hypotheses) ?Cook(1985) defines UG as being made up of ―the language properties inherent in the human mind.‖ ?There are 2 components which contribute to language acquisition: ※the innate knowledge of the learner (UG: principles) ※the environment (parameter) ?5.2 Language as a fixed code Language is a code, namely, it is the sets of phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic rules that, together with the lexicon, can be used to construct any or all sentences of a language; ?when these sentences are combined into larger units, we get texts. ?5.3 Language as a system ?5.4 Language as interaction ?― Language and communication are the two sides of the sa me coin‖. Implications for classroom teaching ?（1）to provide opportunities for communication. ? ?（2）To provide opportunities for group work. 6. Functions of language ?6.1 Referential function Informational信息的, or referential指示的, or ideational概念的function is associated with what objects and ideas are called and how events are described. ?6.2 Interpersonal function It is concerned with interaction betw. the addresser and addressee in a discourse 交谈situation and the addresser‘s attitude toward what he speaks or writes about. ?6.3 Performative function ?6.4. Emotive function (in the hearer) ?6.5 Phatic communion ?Different cultures have different topics of phatic交流感情的communion: 6.6 Recreational function 7. Important distinctions in linguistics
绪论、第一章、第二章 一、名词解释 1．语言学 2．语言 5．文言文 6．符号 7．符号形式 8．符号的任意性 9．语言符号 10．组合关系 11．聚合关系 二、填空 1．__________、________ 、________________ 具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2．__________ 是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为__________。 3．__________ 、__________ 、__________ 是我国传统的语文学。 4．研究语言的结构，主要是研究 __________、____________ 、__________ 三个部分。 5．运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为________、________ 、_________ 、__________ 、__________ 五个阶段。 6．语言是人类社会的______________，而且也是思维的______________。 7．在一定条件下，身体姿势等伴随动作还可以离开语言独立完成交际任务。例如汉民族点头表示____________，摇头表示____________，送别时挥手表示 ______________，____________表示欢迎，咬牙切齿表示_____________，手舞足蹈表示____________。 8．人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，右半球掌管不需要语言的感性____________。 9．汉语的“哥哥”、“弟弟”，英语用________________表示，汉语的“舅舅、姨父、姑父、叔叔、伯伯”，英语用______________表示。 10．英语可以直接用数词修饰名词，汉语数词修饰名词一般要加上一个 _____。 11．儿童最早的智力活动就是学习_________。 12．任何符号，都是由和两个方面构成的。 13．一个符号，如果没有_______，就失去了存在的必要，如果没有_______，我们就无法感知，符号也就失去了存在的物质基础。 14．语言符号是_________和_________的统一体，声音是语言符号的______。
《语言学概论》期末试卷 1.( 单选题 ) 下列关于“语言”的说法 ,不正确的一项是 (D )(本题 2.0 分) A、语言系统是由多个子系统组合而成的 B、语言是一个符号系统 C、语言符号具有任意性和线条性特征 D、 语言符号的音义关系可以任意改变 2.( 单选题 ) 下列元音音素都是后元音的一组是 ( B)(本题 2.0 分) A、[u, ε] B、[α, Λ] C、[α,y] D、[o, a] 3.( 单选题 ) 下列辅音音素都是塞音的一组是 ( B)(本题 2.0 分) A、[k, 1] B、[p, k] C、[p, n] D、[t, v] 4.( 单选题 ) 从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是
( A)(本题 2.0 分) A、音位 B、音素 C、音节 D、音渡 5.( 单选题 ) 汉语普通话中的“我”和助词“的”单念时发音分别为[uo]和[te],而在实际语流中 ,“我的”发音是 [uo de],这是语流音变中的( A)(本题 2.0 分) A、顺同化现象 B、逆同化现象 C、弱化现象 D、异化现象 6.( 单选题 ) 语音的本质属性是 (C )(本题 2.0 分) A、物理属性 B、生理属性 C、社会属性 D、心理属性 7. ( 单选题) 英语“ students”中的“ -s”是 ( C)(本题 2.0 分)
A、虚词语素 B、词根语素 C、构形语素 D、构词语素 8. ( 单选题) 从词的构造方式看, 下列各项中属于复合词的是( D)(本题 2.0 分) A、木头 B、念头 C、苦头 D、山头 9.( 单选题 ) 划分词类的最本质的标准是 (A )(本题 2.0 分) A、分布标准 B、意义标准 C、形态标准 D、逻辑标准 10.( 单选题 ) 下面词组中 ,结构类型与其他各组不同的一组是( D)(本题 2.0 分) A、年轻漂亮/朴素大方 B、我们大家/首都北京
英语专业八级语言学总结来源：谢萌Fighting的日志 一、语言和语言学 1、语言的区别性特征：Design of features of language 任意性arbitrariness 指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系 二重性duality 指语言由两层结构组成 创造性creativity 指语言可以被创造 移位性displacement 指语言可以代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、时间、观点 2、语言的功能（不是很重要） 信息功能informative 人际功能interpersonal 施为功能performative 感情功能emotive function 寒暄功能phatic communication 娱乐功能recreational function 元语言功能metalingual function 3、语言学主要分支 语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音 音位学phonology 研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列 形态学morphology 研究词的内部结构和构词规则 句法学syntax 研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则 语义学semantics 不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义 语用学pragmatics 在语境中研究意义 4、宏观语言学macrolingustics 心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学anthropological li nguistics 计算机语言学computational linguistics 5语言学中的重要区别 规定式和描写式：规定式：prescriptive说明事情应该是怎么样的 描写式：descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的 共时研究和历时研究：共时：synchronic 研究某个特定时期语言 历时：diachronic 研究语言发展规律 语言和言语：语言：langue指语言系统的整体 言语：parole指具体实际运用的语言 语言能力和语言运用：乔姆斯基(chomsky提出) 能力：competence用语言的人的语言知识储备 运用：performance 真实的语言使用者在实际中的语言使用 二、语音学 1、语音学分支 发音语音学articulatory phonetics研究语言的产生 声学语言学acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性 听觉语音学auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知 2 IPA（国际音标）是由daniel Jones琼斯提出的 三、音位学
语言学纲要名词解释 导言 1.语言学：以语言作为专门研究对象的一门独立学科，其主要任务是研究语言的性质、结构和功能，通过考察语言及其应用的现象，来解释语言存在和发展的规律。 2.语文学：指19世纪历史比较语言学之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸而存在，语言研究的主要目的是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。 3.小学：中国传统的语文学，由于汉语书面语使用的文字——汉字的特点，中国传统语言研究抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 4.理论语言学：也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。理论语言学的水平在很大程度上决定于具体语言学的研究成果。 5.共时语言学：以同时的、静态的分析方法，研究语言相对静止的状态，描写分析语言在某一时期、某一阶段的状况，是从横的方面研究语言。 6.历时语言学：研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史。涉及到一种语言的叫做历时语言学，如历史语音学，历史词汇学，历史语法学等；涉及到多种语言和方言的叫做历史比较语言学。 7.索绪尔：瑞士语言学家，现代语言学的奠基人，结构主义语言学的开创者，著有《普通语言学教程》，被人们誉为“现代语言学之父”。他提出语言是符号体系；符号由能指所指两部分构成，这两部分的关系是任意的，一旦形成以后又是约定性的；符号系统内部存在“组合关系”和“聚合关系”；区分了“语言”和“言语”；“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”；“历时语言学”和“共时语言学”。他的学说标志着现代语言学的开始，在不同的程度上影响着20世纪的各个语言学派。 8.布龙菲尔德：美国描写语言学派的代表人物，它的主要贡献是将语言学从哲学理念建设成为一门科学。早期的著作是出版于1914年的《语言研究导论》，立足于心理学来阐释语言、刺激—反应论来解释语言的产生和理解的过程。1933年他的最有影响的著作《语言论》出版。这时，他已经从构造心理学转到行为心理学。他在该书中提出了美国结构语言学派研究语言的基本原则和描写语言结构的总框架。 9.乔姆斯基：转换生成语法的创始人，著有《句法结构》。最出他用结构主义的方法研究希伯来语，后来发现这种方法有很大的局限性，转而探索新的方法，逐步建立了转换生成语法，1957年出版的《句法结构》就是这一新方法的标志。这种分析方法风靡全世界，冲垮了结构语言学的支配地位，因而被人们成为“乔姆斯基革命”，对语言学的发展方向产成了巨大影响。 10.韩礼德：英国语言学家，功能主义语言学派的代表人物，继承了以弗斯为首的伦敦学派的基本理论，并吸收布拉格学派和哥本哈根学派的某些观点的基础上发展起来和创立了系统功能语法，著有《普通语言学教程》《语法功能论》等著作。他从人类学和社会学的角度出发研究语言与社会的关系，把语言看做“社会符号”，其包括功能系统、层次和语境等概念，在语法中认为系统中存在连锁系统和选择系统，在功能语法中他用功能的配置来解释语法结构，提出了概念功能、人际功能、语篇功能。20世纪70年代后，他将注意力转移到语言与社会学、符号学的关系上，对社会语言学进行研究。 11.赵元任：字宣仲，江苏常州人，生于天津。赵元任是“中国语言学之父”。他将科学运用于语言学研究的结果：用自然科学中的基本概念说明语言问题；用自然科学的先进成果记录和分析语音；把自然科学中的研究方法引入语言学；引入科学的描述事物的方式以及解决问题的程序等等。中国的传统语言学在他和同时代的一批学者的努力下，逐步走向现代化。 12.历史比较语言学：出现于18世纪末19世纪初，中心在德国。该学派采用历史比较的方法，通过语音和词形的比较研究语言的发展和演变，发现了语言之间的亲缘关系并建立了语言的谱系分类。历史比较语言学的兴起，是语言学成为一门独立的学科。经过一个多世纪的探索研究，弄清了世界上很多语言的同源关系，建立了世界语言的谱系分类，为语言学的发展做了很大贡献。历史比较语言学也有局限：他强调了语言的历史比较，忽视了语言的共时研究；孤立地研究语言单位，缺乏对语言系统性的研究。 13.结构主义语言学：1916年索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》标志着结构主义语言学的诞生。索绪尔语言理论的核心是语言是符号系统，突破了历史比较语言学的局限，开拓了语言研究的新领域，给语言学带来革命性的变化。
语言学概论 一、单项选择题（每小题2分，共20分} 1．下列说法只有是正确的。 A．语言是人类最重要的辅助性交际工具。 B．语言就是说话，说话就是语言。 C．语言是一种特殊的社会现象。 D．语言具有地方色彩，说明语言不具有社会性。 2．下列说法只有是错误的。 A．汉语的声调是由音高变化形成的。 B．语言中的轻重音是由音重变化形成的。 C．音位具有区别词形的作用。 I)．音素具有区别词形的作用。 3．下列说法只有是正确的。 A．“老”可以同“新、旧、少、嫩”等构成反义词。 B．“大”和“小”是绝对对立的反义词。 C．“红”与“黑”这对反义词具有非此即彼的关系。 D．反义词“冷”和“热”具有相对性。 4．下列说法只有____正确。 A．意译词如“激光”、“电话”都是借词。 B．仿译词如“机关枪”、“铁路”都是借词。 C．“尼姑”、“和尚”、“玻璃”是借词。 D．“爱神”、“北极熊”、“超人”都是借词。 5．下列词义的变化，属于词义的缩小。 A．“meat”原指菜肴，现在指荤菜。 B．“走”本义是跑，现在指步行。 C．“江”原指长江，今泛指江河。 D．“book”原指一种树木，今指成本的著作。 1．C 2．D 3．D 4．C 5．A 3．下列说法只有( )是正确的。 A.语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字也是人类最重要的交际工具 B．不同的阶级使用语言具有不同的特点，说明语言具有阶级性 C．人类多种多样的语言说明语言具有任意性特点 D．语言是一种纯自然的现象 4.下列说法只有( )是正确的。 A.语法的组合规则是潜在的 B．语法的聚合规则是潜在的 C．语法的组合规则存在于书面语言中 I)．语法的聚合规则存在”ji【j头沿吉中 5．单纯阋就是由一个( )构成的词。 A．词根 B．词干 【！．词缀
Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning in a context)语用学 1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. 2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical development https://www.doczj.com/doc/c312660958.html,ngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view 4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically. 5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework Modern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework https://www.doczj.com/doc/c312660958.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic units https://www.doczj.com/doc/c312660958.html,bine small units into big units 3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings. 4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. 5.cultural transmission 7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. 8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context. 9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doesn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is a
Chapter 1 The gree n con sumer 教学内容: Chapter 1 The green consumer Language, writing （一） 本章语法内容： why 与because 的用法、同级比较、like, the same as 与different from 法 （二） 写作练习：如何解决环境污染问题 （三） 课外阅读理解练习：污染 二.知识总结与归纳 （一）语法内容 why 与because 的用法 why 能引导下列几种从句： 1. 主语从句 Why he took Chin ese n ati on ality in 1901 is a que sti on that i nterests us 他为什么在1901年取得中国国籍，这是一个使我们很感兴趣的问题。 2. 宾语从句 He asked her why she was doing that. 他问她为什么要那样做。 3. 表语从句 That ' s why I ' ve come to see you. 这就是我来见你的原因。 Could you tell me the reas on why she refused to go to college 你能否告诉我为什么她不愿意上大学吗 4. 状语从句 No matter why she became angry with you, you should apologize to her. 不管她为什么对你生气，你也应当向她道歉。 why 作疑问词 可以用来向对方问及原因，可以用 Why 或Why not 二者都是省略句。 1. “ Why 用来针对肯定的内容发问。 A: What are you going to do tomorrow B: Noth ing much. Why (=Why do you ask me that) and more practice 的用
导言 一,名词解释(分,每小题分) ,研究语言的本质,语言的结构和发展规律. .指我国传统的语文学,包括文字学,音韵学,训诂学三方面的内容. ,个别语言学,以一种(或几种有联系的)语言为研究对象,研究某一种语言的结构. ,静态分析的方法,研究语言相对静止的状态,描写分析语言在某一个时期,某一个阶段的状况,是从横向的方面研究语言. ,动态的角度研究语言发展的历史,观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变,是从纵向的方面研究语言的历史. ,探讨人类语言的共同规律,是在具体语言学基础上建立起来的,下面又分普通语音学,普通语法学,普通词汇学等分支学科. 二,填空题(分,每空分) .中国印度古希腊罗马 .文字学音韵学训诂学 .语音词汇和语义语法 .编码发送传递接收 .历时共时历史描写 .历史比较 .《语言论》 .索绪尔 三,问答题(分,每小题分) ①研究对象不同:古代的语言学主要以书面语为主要研究材料,不重视口头语言的研究,而今天的语言学则十分重视口语研究,如制定语言规范,确立共同语的各方面标准等,都要依据口语的研究成果; ②研究目的不同:古代语言学研究语言,主要是给政治,哲学,宗教,历史,文学方面的经典著作作注解,比如我国古代的语文学主要就是围绕阅读先秦经典著作的需要来研究文言的,而现代语言学的研究目的主要是分析语言的结构,以此探讨语言发展的共同规律. 正因为有这些差别,所以古代的语言学还不是独立的学科,处于附庸地位,而现代语言学已经发展成为一门独立的学科,随着现代科学的发展又产生了许多边沿性学科. 人类语言交际的过程,实际上就是信息的传递与接收问题,可分为编码,发送,传递,接收,解码五个阶段.编码就是发话人利用词语组织语句;发送就是把思维成果变成话语,通过发音器官表达出来;传递就是通过空气振动形成声波,把话语传达给受话人;接收是受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话;解码则经过大脑的思维把声波还原成语言,理解对方话语的含义,从而完成信息传递接收.如果受话人收到语言信息有所反馈,那么上述五个阶段则又重复一遍,只是发话人与受话人调换了. (举例说明略,可结合分析任举一个句子作说明.) 语言是伴随着人类一起出现的,是人类社会生活必不可少的,所以人类很早就注意到了语言的重要性,很早就注意研究语言,所以语言学是古老的,但语言学直到世纪下半叶,产生了历史比较语言学,后来又建立了语言学的各个部门,语言研究才发展成为一门独立的学科,同其它学科相比,语言学的确是十分年轻的.语言是社会现象,与社会的政治,经济,文化,历史等密切相关,而语言的发生又与物理,生理,心理等学科密切相关,而现代社会语言与语言的信息处理(如机器翻译,语码转换等)又涉及到数学,计算机科学,所以语言学既与社会科学有密切的联系,又与自然科学有密切的联系.正因为如此,随着语言学与别的学科的交融,又产生了许多新的语言学分支学科,如社会语言学,心理语言学,统计语言学,话语语言学,数理语言学,宇宙语言学等等,这些也体现了语言学是一门年轻的学科. 语言学的作用主要表现在以下几个方面:①学习语言文字是掌握科学技术,提高文化水平的基础,而要学好用好语言,就必须利用语言学的研究成果;②制定语言文字的有关政策,制定语言规范,都要在对语言进行充分研究的基础上进行,而语言学的研究成果正好可以作指导;③新兴技术的出现扩大了语言学的应用范围.至于个人,同样可以利用语言学的成果,比如学习一种语言或方言,最好的办法是找到所学语言同自己母语的各方面的对应规律,这样可以收到事半功倍的效果,这就需要利用语言学的研究成果. (结合实际部分可以根据自己的学习,工作或生活经历举例) 语言学首先可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学,一般所说的语言学,主要是指理论语言学.根据研究对象的不同,理论语言学又分普通语言学和专语语言学(具体语言学).普通语言学以人类所有的语言为研究对象,探讨人类语言的共同规律,是在具体语言学基础上建立起来的,下面又分普通语音学,普通语法学,普通词汇学等分支学科.专语语言学以个别的,具体的语言为研究对象.探讨研究某一种语言的规律.从是静态研究还是研究语言的历史看,又分历时语言学和共时语言学:历时语言学研究具体语言的发展历史,是纵向研究,比如汉语史研究,共时语言学研究具体语言在某一时代的状态(相对静止的状态),规律,对之进行客观的描述,是横向研究.如描写语言学,又分描写语音学,描写语汇学,描写语法学等分支学科,现代汉语就是共时语言学. .在历史语言学产生以前,语言学
丽水学院 —学年第一学期期终考试试卷答案（B卷）课程语言学概论使用班级 班级：学号：姓名： 一、填空题（本大题共14空格，每空格1分，共14分） 1．在中国，早期的语言研究主要是围绕着汉字的字义、字音、字形进行的，产生了训诂学、音韵学、文字学三个分支，统称为“小学”。 2．被尊称为“19世纪的亚里土多德”的德国哲学家和数学家弗雷格于1892年提出预设的概念，他的理论被公认为人工智能的理论基础。 3．每个元音的音质是由舌位前后、舌位高低、圆唇与否3个方面的因素决定的。 4.语言的变异可以分为地域变异、社会变异和功能变异等3类。 5．言语行为理论的创始人是英国道德哲学家奥斯汀，他认为，语句有命题意义和施为意义两层意义。 二、判断是非题：对的写“√”，错的写“×”（本大题共10小题，每小题1分，共10分） （√）1．语言是一种符号系统。 （√）2．肺是人类发音的动力站，声带是发音体。 （×）3．元音发音时，声带不一定振动，辅音发音时，声带一定要振动。（√）4．超音质音位又叫“超音段音位”或“非音质音位”。 （×）5．在现代汉语普通话中，[b]和[p]是两个音位。 （√）6．福建“沙县县”简称为“沙县”体现了语言的经济机制。
（×）7．词序和虚词是俄语最重要的语法手段。 （√）8．语法手段中的“零形式”也表示语法意义。 （√）9．就其实质而言，语法规则表现的就是组合关系或聚合关系。（×）10．湖南江永的“女书”体现了语言的性别变异。 三、选择题（本大题共10小题，每小题1分，共10分） （②）1．语言符号的符号是： ①声音②文字③它所代表的事物④发音器官（④）2．我国青海五屯话是一种： ①皮钦语②洋泾浜③新美拉尼西亚语④克里奥尔语（③）3．合作原则理论的最早提出者是： ①奥斯汀②利奇③格赖斯④莫里斯（④）4．英语的man→men采用的语法手段是： ①异根式②重音③词缀④内部屈折（③）5．关于元音和辅音的区别，正确的描述是： ①元音发音时间短暂，辅音发音时间较长。 ②辅音发音响亮，元音发音不响亮。 ③发辅音气流受阻，发元音气流不受阻。 ④发元音和辅音发音器官的各个部位均衡紧张。 （④）6．俄语、汉语、日语3种语言所属的语法结构类型按次序是：①粘着语-屈折语-孤立语②屈折语-粘着语-孤立语 ③孤立语-屈折语-粘着语④屈折语-孤立语-粘着语（③）7．与“春光明媚”结构相同的组合是： ①阳光的温暖②马上开始
英语专业语言学考试试题 Information for the examinees: This examination consists of Four sections. They are: Section I: Content Awareness of the Course (30 points, 20 minutes) Section II: General Principles of Language and Linguistics (30 points, 25 minutes) Section III: Some Specific Aspects of Language and Linguistics (20 points, 35 minutes) Section IV: Analysis and Application (20 points, 40 minutes) The total marks for this examination are 100 points. Time allowed for completing this examination is 2 hours. You must write all your answers on the Answer Sheet. Section I: Content Awareness of the Course 30 points I. Choose the best answer to complete the following statements. Write your answers on the Answer Sheet. (10 points, 1 point for each item) 1. "Historical linguistics" seeks to provide scientific evidence ( ) A. of the reasons for human speech B. of human habitation in Africa C. why there are many world languages D. concerning the origins of speech 2. Which of the following does NOT have something to do with the production of speech sounds? ( ) A. Organic analysis B. Linguistic analysis C. Acoustic analysis D. Phonetic analysis 3. In determining the symbolic nature of language humans( ) A. examine Braille and signs B. examine the media and signs C. examine the language of the media D. examine the language itself 4. The aims of Unit 4 are to understand that language functions in the world ( ) A. through the use of naming devices and education B. by people experiencing abstractions in education C. based on experience, abstraction and symbolism D. through symbolic and abstract experiences 5. The aim of Unit 5 is for students to understand that speech acts( ) A. need to be defined precisely through oral actions B. need to be terminated under appropriate circumstances C. need to be defined, analysed and comprehended D. need to be analysed by definition and example: 6. Generally speaking, 脸and 面子is: ( ) A. more important for teenage girls than boys B. something teenagers don"t worry about C. not the same for adults as for teenagers