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Chemical Composition of the Intracluster Medium

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Carnegie Observatories Astrophysics Series,Vol.4:Origin and Evolution of the Elements ed.A.McWilliam and M.Rauch (Cambridge:Cambridge Univ.Press)Abstract Clusters of galaxies are massive enough to be considered representative samples of the Uni-verse,and to retain all of the heavy elements synthesized in their constituent stars.Since most of these metals reside in hot plasma,X-ray spectroscopy of clusters provides a unique and fundamental tool for studying chemical evolution.I review the current observational status of X-ray measurements of the chemical composition of the intracluster medium,and its interpretation in the context of the nature and history of star and galaxy formation pro-cesses in the Universe.I provide brief historical and cosmological contexts,an overview of results from the mature ASCA observatory database,and new results from the Chandra and XMM-Newton X-ray observatories.I conclude with a summary of important points and promising future directions in this rapidly growing ?eld.1.1Introduction 1.1.1Rich Clusters of Galaxies and their Cosmological Setting Rich clusters of galaxies,characterized optically as concentrations of hundreds (or even thousands)of galaxies within a region spanning several Mpc,are among the brightest

sources of X-rays in the sky,with luminosities of up to several 1045erg s ?1.The hot intr-acluster medium (ICM)?lling the space between galaxies has an average particle density n ICM ≈10?3cm ?3and an electron temperature ranging from 20to >100million K.In-terpreted as virial temperatures,these correspond to masses of ～(1?20)×1014M ⊙;rich clusters are believed to be the largest gravitationally bound structures in the Universe.They are also notable for their high fraction (typically ～75%)of member galaxies of early-type morphology,as compared to galaxy groups or the ?eld.Within the framework of large-scale structure theory,rich clusters arise from the largest ?uctuations in the initial random ?eld of density perturbations,and their demographics are sensitive diagnostics of the cosmological world model and the origin of structure (e.g.,Schuecker et al.2003).Rich galaxy clusters are rare and (including their dark matter content)account for less than 2%of the critical density,ρcrit ,characterizing a ?at Universe.

Embedded in the ICM of rich clusters—where 70%?80%of cluster metals reside—lies a uniquely accessible fossil record of heavy element creation.To the extent that the cluster galaxy stars where these metals were synthesized are representative,measurement of ICM chemical abundances provides constraints on nucleosynthesis—and,by extension,the

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Table1.1.Mass-to-Light Ratios and Mass Fractions

Parameter Universe Clusters

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(Mulchaey2000).Groups present their own unique interpretive challenges.They may not behave as closed boxes and evidently display a spread in their mass inventories,metallici-ties,and morphological mix of galaxies that re?ect the theoretically expected cosmic vari-ance in formation epoch and evolution(Davis,Mulchaey,&Mushotzky1999;Hwang et al. 1999).However,since extending consideration to the poorest groups encompasses most of the galaxies(and stars)in the Universe,it is crucial to study the chemical composition of the intragroup,as well as the intracluster,medium.

1.1.2Advantages of X-ray Wavelengths for Abundance Studies

From both scienti?c and practical perspectives,X-ray spectroscopy is uniquely well suited for studying the chemical composition of the Universe.Most of the metals in the Universe are believed to reside in the intergalactic medium;this is demonstrably true for rich galaxy clusters(e.g.,Finoguenov et al.2003).The concordance in mass breakdown between clusters and the Universe discussed above implies that,because of their deep potential wells, clusters,unlike most,if not all,galaxies,are“closed boxes”in the chemical evolution sense. Thus,modelers are provided with an unbiased and complete set of abundances that enables extraction of robust constraints on the stellar population responsible for metal enrichment.

For high temperatures,such as those found in the ICM,the shape of the thermal contin-uum emission yields a direct measurement of the electron temperature,and thus the ioniza-tion https://www.doczj.com/doc/c57400103.html,plications arising from depletion onto dust grains,optical depth effects,and uncertain ionization corrections are minimal or absent.The energies of K-shell(→n=1) and/or L-shell(→n=2)transitions for all of the abundant elements synthesized after the era of Big Bang nucleosynthesis lie at wavelengths accessible to modern X-ray astronomical telescopes and instruments.The strongest ICM emission lines arise from well-understood H-and He-like ions,and line strengths are immediately converted into elemental abundances via spectral?tting.Of course,the quality and usefulness of X-ray spectra are limited by the available sensitivity and spectral resolution.In the following sections,I detail how the rapid progression in the capabilities of X-ray spectroscopy drives the evolution of our un-derstanding of intracluster enrichment and its ultimate origin in primordial star formation in cluster galaxies.New puzzles are revealed with every insight emerging from subsequent generations of X-ray observatories,a situation that will surely continue with future missions.

1.2Earliest Results on Cluster Enrichment

The6.7keV He-like Fe Kαemission line is the most easily detectable feature in ICM X-ray spectra,because it arises from a high-oscillator strength transition in an abun-dant ion and lies in a relatively isolated wavelength region.It was?rst detected in the Ariel V spectrum of the Perseus cluster(Mitchell et al.1976),and OSO-8observations of the Perseus,Coma,and Virgo Clusters(Serlemitsos et al.1977).Spectroscopic analysis of ～30clusters(many observed with the HEAO-1A-2satellite)revealed the ubiquity of this feature at a strength generally indicating an ICM Fe abundance of one-third to one-half solar (Mushotzky1984).These early results demonstrated the origin of cluster X-ray emission as a thermal primordial plasma enriched by material processed in stars and ejected in galactic winds.Although not immediately realized,this provided the?rst indications of the prodi-gious magnitude of galactic out?ows,since the measured amount of ICM Fe was of the same order as the sum of the Fe in all of the stars in all of the cluster galaxies.

Prior to1993,Fe was the only element accurately measured in a large number of clusters,

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although some pioneering measurements of O,Mg,Si,and S features were obtained with the Solid State Spectrometer and Focal Plane Crystal Spectrometer aboard the Einstein X-ray Observatory(see Sarazin1988and references therein for these results,as well as a complete survey of the?eld prior to the the launch of the ROSAT and Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics(ASCA)X-ray observatories).Given the ambiguous origins of Fe,known to be synthesized in comparably large quantities by both Type Ia and Type II supernovae(henceforth,SNe Ia and SNe II)integrated over the history of the Milky Way,this represented a serious impediment to interpreting the data in terms of star formation history. Fortunately,the launch of ASCA provided the means to utilize the ICM as a repository of information on historical star formation and element creation.

1.3ICM Abundances from the ASCA Database

With the combination of modest imaging capability,good spectral resolution,and large collecting area over a broad X-ray bandpass realized by its four telescope/detector pairs,the ASCA X-ray Observatory ushered in a new era of X-ray spectroscopy of astrophys-ical plasmas and revolutionized cluster elemental abundance studies(Arnaud et al.1994; Bautz et al.1994;Fukazawa et al.1994).The clusters with accurate Fe abundance de-terminations cover a range of redshifts out to z≈0.5.This enabled the?rst investigation of the evolution of[Fe/H],as needed to understand the epoch and mechanism of enrich-ment(Mushotzky&Loewenstein1997).The?rst results on gradients in ICM metallicity and abundance ratios were obtained(see§1.5),and the?rst signi?cant sample ofα-element abundances were measured with ASCA.Well over400observations of galaxy clusters and groups were made over the1993–2000duration of the ASCA mission.Because the ASCA data archive is now complete,and a comparable database based on observations with the current generation of X-ray observatories is many years away,an assessment of ASCA ICM enrichment results is timely.

The ASCA Cluster Catalog(ACC)project(Horner et al.2004),initiated by K.Gendreau (NASA/GSFC),is the subject of the University of Maryland Ph.D.theses of D.Horner and W.Baumgartner,and includes contributions from R.Mushotzky,C.Scharf,and the au-thor.Its overarching goal is to perform uniform and semi-automated spectral analysis on the integrated X-ray emission from every target in the ASCA cluster observational database,uti-lizing the most current processing and calibration.ASCA observed434galaxy clusters and groups in564pointings.Among these,273clusters are deemed suitable for spectroscopy, superseding previous samples(e.g.,White2000)by more than a factor of2.

1.3.1Fe Abundance Trends

The Fe abundance shows a remarkable uniformity in rich clusters,with a distribu-tion that sharply peaks at～0.4solar(where solar Fe abundance is de?ned such that log (Fe/H)+12=7.5;Grevesse&Sauval1998).The Fe abundance tends to be higher in clus-ters with the highest central densities and shortest cooling times(see also Allen&Fabian 1998).It is unclear from these data alone whether this is an artifact of the presence of Fe gradients:since the X-ray emissivity is proportional to the gas density squared,X-ray spec-tra of more concentrated ICM are disproportionately weighted toward the more abundant central regions.There are also systematic trends with electron temperature,with Fe tending to be overabundant with respect to the average de?ned by the hottest clusters,for clusters with ICM temperatures2keV

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Fig.1.1.Average abundances with respect to the solar abundances of Grevesse&Sauval (1998)as a function of temperature.90%con?dence errors are shown.(From Baumgartner et al.2004.)

ASCA data revealed evidence for a lack of evolution in Fe abundance out to redshift0.4 (Mushotzky&Loewenstein1997;Rizza et al.1998;Matsumoto et al.2000,2001)and no evidence of a decline at higher redshift(Donahue et al.1999).XMM-Newton and Chan-dra measurements are further expanding the redshift range of precise cluster Fe abundance

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measurements(Jeltema et al.2001;Arnaud et al.2002;Maughan et al.2003;Tozzi et al. 2003).On average,rich cluster Fe abundances are invariant out to z≈0.8,and show no sign of decline out to z≈1.2.The epoch of cluster enrichment is yet to be identi?ed.Most of the star formation in the Universe occurred at z>1(Madau et al.1996;Lanzetta et al. 2002;Dickinson et al.2003),and fundamental plane considerations imply that most stars in clusters formed at z>2(van Dokkum et al.1998;J?rgensen et al.1999).Therefore,one expects synthesis of most cluster metals prior to the redshifts where they can presently be observed.However,it does not necessarily follow that the metals are in place in the ICM at such early epochs.As observations push back the enrichment era,scenarios where ICM metal injection from galaxies rapidly follows their synthesis during the early period of active star formation are favored over those with delayed metal release from galaxies,for example, via ongoing SN Ia-driven winds or stripping of enriched galaxy gas halo.

1.3.2Metallicities,Abundance Patterns,and their Interpretation

Although often blended,emission features from O,Ne,Mg,Si,S,Ar,Ca,Fe,and Ni were measured in ASCA spectra of individual clusters.However,most of these are not detectable for the vast majority of the273observed systems.In order to obtain abundances with small statistical uncertainties,and smooth over both instrumental and astrophysical systematic effects and biases,Baumgartner et al.(2004)undertook joint analyses of multiple observations grouped into“stacks”of13–47clusters(Baumgartner et al.2004)according to temperature(11keV-wide bins centered on temperatures from0.5–10.5keV)and metallicity (high-and low-abundance bins).Ultimately,the two abundance stacks were merged for each temperature,and mean Si,S,Ar,Ca,Fe,and Ni abundances proved robust and reliable.

The results of the stacking analysis are summarized as follows(Fig.1.1).For rich clusters (kT>4keV),the ratio of Si to Fe is1.5?3times solar and displays an increasing trend with temperature.However,in contrast,the S-to-Fe ratio is solar or less(i.e.Si/S≈3times solar), and Ar and Ca are markedly subsolar with respect to Fe.The Ni-to-Fe ratio is3?4times solar in these systems.This con?rms and generalizes previous results(Mushotzky et al. 1996;Fukazawa et al.1998;Dupke&White2000a;Dupke&Arnaud2001).Intermediate-to-poor clusters(2keV

Baumgartner et al.(2004)compare these ratios with those in various other systems, including the Galactic thin(Fig.1.3)and thick disks,damped Lyαsystems,Lyman-break galaxies,and the Lyαforest.In general,the high Si/Fe is not out of line with other systems of comparable Fe/H inferred to undergo rapid and ef?cient conversion of gas into stars. However,the low ratios of Ca to Fe and S to Si,and the high ratio of Ni to Fe evidently are unique to the ICM:a clear analog among observed classes of systems to the population responsible for enriching the ICM is not evident.

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Fig.1.2.Si/Fe and S/Fe ratios vs.Fe/H ratio,expressed as the logarithm with respect to solar.(From Baumgartner et al.2004.)

Fig.1.3.Si/Fe and S/Fe ICM abundances vs.kT compared to those found in the Milky Way from Timmes,Woosley,&Weaver(1995).The range of Galactic Si/Fe is illustrated with the lower shaded rectangle,S/Fe with the upper,overlapping rectangle(Baumgartner et al. 2004).

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Fig.1.4.Decomposition into SNe Ia and SNe II,using standard yields and the observed Si/Fe and S/Fe ratios,expressed in terms of the fraction of Fe from SNe Ia.(From Baum-gartner et al.2004.)

1.4On the ICM Abundance Anomalies

Since bulges account for～90%of the stellar mass in clusters,it is straightforward to estimate ICM enrichment under standard assumptions.Consider a simple stellar pop-ulation with a local IMF(e.g.,Kroupa2001),assume that stars more massive than8M⊙explode as SNe II,that the rate of SN Ia explosions is as determined in nearby elliptical galaxies(0.16SNU,where1SNU≡1SN per1010solar blue luminosities per century; Cappellaro,Evans,&Turatto1999)and injected for a duration of1010yr,and utilize SNe II and SNe Ia(“W7”model)yields from Nomoto et al.(1997a,b)with the former averaged over a standard IMF extending to40M⊙as in Thielemann,Nomoto,&Hashimoto(1996). The fractions of Fe originating in SNe Ia separately inferred from the Si/Fe and S/Fe ratios are shown in Figure1.4,illustrating that no combination of standard SNe Ia and SNe II can explain the ICM abundance pattern.Baumgartner et al.(2004)demonstrate that this holds regardless of which published SN II yields are considered(see also Gibson,Loewenstein,& Mushotzky1997;Loewenstein2001).

In addition to ratios,it is instructive to consider the ICM mass in metals,normalized to the total starlight in cluster galaxies.Table1.2compares the mass-to-light ratios of the elements addressed in the stacking analysis,computed using the standard assumptions detailed above, with the observed averages in three ICM temperature regimes.The predicted SN II and SN Ia

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Table1.2.Metal Mass-to-Light Ratios

Predicted Observed SNe II SNe Ia SNe Ia SNe II kT>84

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Fig.1.5.Relative contributions to the enrichment of various elements in a typical clusters for a toy model including Population III hypernovae in addition to SNe Ia and SNe II in standard numbers with standard yields(Baumgartner et al.2004).

the ICM abundance anomalies,their existence demonstrates that there are nucleosynthetic channels—likely associated with very massive and/or very metal-poor stars—that result in relative enhancements of Si.Figure1.5shows the respective contributions of SNe Ia,SNe II, and hypernovae(Heger&Woosley2002)to each element in a toy model that reproduces a typical rich cluster ICM abundance pattern(Baumgartner et al.2004).

There are now possible signatures of Population III and hypernovae in the level and pat-tern of enrichment in low-metallicity Milky Way stars(Umeda&Nomoto2003),in the level and epoch of intergalactic medium enrichment as inferred from the Lyαforest(Songaila 2001),and in the reionization of the Universe(e.g.,Wyithe&Loeb2003).The number of hypernovae required in the ICM is reasonable in terms of the expected number of Population III progenitors(Loewenstein2001).

1.5Chandra and XMM-Newton Results on Abundance Gradients

ASCA data revealed clear evidence of central excesses of Fe in clusters with cooling ?ows and in clusters not involved in recent major mergers(Matsumoto et al.1996;Ezawa et al.1997;Ikebe et al.1997,1999;Xu et al.1997;Kikuchi et al.1999;Dupke&White 2000a,b),which are consistent with generally?at metallicity pro?les outside of the central ～2′(Tamura et al.1996;Irwin,Bregman,&Evrard1999;White2000).Limitations in ASCA imaging precluded resolving gradients in Fe or drawing robust conclusions on the

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spatial distribution ofα/Fe ratios,although there were indications thatαelements may not display the central excess(Finoguenov et al.2000;Fukazawa et al.2000;Allen et al.2001). BeppoSAX provided Fe pro?les with better spatial resolution,and De Grandi&Molendi (2001)attributed the central Fe excess to injection by SNe Ia associated with the stellar population in the central cluster galaxy.If this is the case,milder or absent central excesses in SN II-synthesizedαelements are expected,as claimed by Finoguenov et al.(2000).

These questions of gradients in abundance ratios are addressed through observations with the Chandra(Weisskopf et al.2002)and XMM-Newton(Jansen et al.2001)X-ray obser-vatories.The former represents a huge leap in broad-bandpass imaging,with an angular resolution～0.′′5,the latter in collecting area(a total of～5times that of ASCA,with an order of magnitude better angular resolution).New results demonstrate that the central Fe excess is concentrated to within100kpc of the cluster center(Iwasawa et al.2001;Kaastra et al.2001;Lewis,Stocke,&Buote2002;Smith et al.2002),that there may be a central metallicity inversion(Johnstone et al.2002;Sanders&Fabian2002;Schmidt,Fabian,& Sanders2002;Blanton,Sarazin,&McNamara2003;Dupke&White2003),and that abun-dance pro?les are generally very?at from～100kpc out to a signi?cant fraction of the virial radius(Schmidt,Allen,&Fabian2001;Tamura et al.2001).The apparent inversion may be an artifact of using an oversimpli?ed model in spectral?tting(Molendi&Gastaldello 2001).The question of the presence ofα/Fe gradients is not yet de?nitively settled(David et al.2001),although early results indicate a mix of abundances in the central regions that is closer to the SN Ia pattern than is globally the case(Tamura et al.2001;Ettori et al.2002).

1.6XMM-Newton RGS Measurements of CNO

The XMM-Newton Re?ection Grating Spectrometer provides high-spectral resolu-tion(E/?E ranges from200to800over the0.35–2.5keV RGS bandpass;den Herder et al.2003)spectroscopy in the wavelength region containing the strongest X-ray features of the elements carbon through sulfur.Since individual lines are more distinctly resolved than in previous studies using CCD spectra(where E/?E≈50),abundance determinations are much less sensitive to the assumed thermal emission model.C,N,and O lines are all widely accessible for the?rst time.These are unique probes of star formation and the era of ICM enrichment because of their distinctive nucleosynthetic origins.For an extended X-ray source such as a galaxy cluster,RGS spectra correspond to an emission-weighted average over the inner～1′(see Peterson et al.2003)—within the central galaxy(if there is one)for a nearby cluster;thus,caution must be exercised in applying the results to the source as a whole.

1.6.1Oxygen

The strong0.65keV OV III Lyαfeature is measured with XMM-Newton in clusters out to redshifts as high as0.3.The O/Fe ratio for the sample of cooling?ow clusters in Peterson et al.(2003)is shown in Figure1.6.[Note that Peterson et al.adopt the de?nition of solar abundances from Anders&Grevesse(1989),where log(Fe/H)+12=7.67and log(O/H)+12=8.93,～1.5and～1.7times higher than currently more commonly used “cosmic abundances”of Fe and O,respectively.]O/Fe is generally subsolar,and overlaps with the range measured in Galactic stars of comparable Fe/H(Reddy et al.2003).Low O abundances were previously reported in Abell1795(Tamura et al.2001a),Abell1835 (Peterson et al.2001),Sèrsic159-03(Kaastra et al.2001),Abell496(Tamura et al.2001b),

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Fig.1.6.O/Fe vs.Fe for cooling?ow clusters.(Adapted from Peterson et al.2003.) NGC5044,the central(elliptical)galaxy in the WP23group(Tamura et al.2003),and the elliptical galaxy NGC4636(Xu et al.2002),which resembles a group in X-rays.The Galactic O/Fe-Fe/H trend is thought to re?ect the delayed enrichment in Fe from SNe Ia relative to that of O from short-lived,massive SN II progenitors.In the intergalactic medium of clusters and groups,we may be seeing systematic variations in the relative stellar lock-up fractions of SN II and SN Ia products,relative retention of injected SN II and SN Ia material,or IMF.Low O/Si ratios in these systems were interpreted as a possible signature of enrichment by hypernovae associated with Population III(Loewenstein2001).Intriguingly, as shown in Figure1.7,Mg appears not be a good surrogate for O,as often assumed in studies of elliptical galaxies.

1.6.2Carbon and Nitrogen

The Lyαlines of the H-like ions of C and N are weak compared to O,and fall in a less sensitive and less well-calibrated wavelength region of the RGS.As a result,there presently are few measurements of C and N:C and N in A496and M87(Peterson et al. 2003)and N in the elliptical galaxies NGC4636(Xu et al.2002)and NGC5044(Tamura et al.2003).N is of particular interest,since its origin in intermediate-mass stars provides

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Fig.1.7.Mg/Fe and Mg/O vs.Fe for cooling?ow clusters.(From Peterson et al.2003.) crucial leverage in distinguishing the mass function of the enriching stellar population.In these objects C(when measured)and N are～solar,and C/O and N/O are～twice solar[solar as in Anders&Grevesse1989:loG(C/H)+12=8.56,log(N/H)+12=8.05].On a plot of N/O vs.O/H,these systems overlap with measurements in extragalactic H II regions(Pettini et al.2002),where the secondary production of N dominates,but do extend to somewhat higher N/O at the same O/H.

1.7XMM-Newton Observations of M87

Because of its brightness,M87in the Virgo cluster is among the most extensively X-ray spectroscopically studied extended extragalactic objects.Its proximity enables one to extract detailed plasma conditions and composition,and to evaluate and correct for sys-tematic effects.Previous work based on spectra from the Einstein(Canizares et al.1982; Stewart et al.1984;White et al.1991;Tsai1994a,b),ROSAT(Nulsen&Bohringer1995; Buote2001),and ASCA(Matsumoto et al.1996;Hwang et al.1997;Buote,Canizares, &Fabian1999;Finoguenov&Jones2000;Shibata et al.2001)observatories is rapidly becoming superseded by Chandra and XMM-Newton data.

The RGS results for M87show that,in the inner～10kpc,abundances of C,N,Ne,and Mg have best-?t values(relative to Anders&Grevesse1989)of0.7–1.0solar,with90% uncertainties of0.2–0.3,while Fe is0.77±0.04solar,and O0.49±0.04solar(Sakelliou et al.2002).With respect to the M87stellar abundances(Milone,Barbuy,&Schiavon2000), theαelements are apparently preferentially diluted with respect to Fe.

Gastaldello&Molendi(2002)derive detailed abundance distributions from analysis of XMM-Newton EPIC-MOS CCD data,obtaining O,Ne,Mg,Si,Ar,Ca,Fe,and Ni in10 radial bins extending to14′.The MOS results are generally consistent with the RGS and indicate negative gradients on arcminute scales in all of the elements,with the possible exception of Ne.Gradients inα/Fe ratios are modest.Ratios with respect to Fe vary among theαelements:O/Fe,Ne/Fe,Mg/Fe,and S/Fe are subsolar;Si/Fe,Ar/Fe,and Ca/Fe are slightly supersolar.Ni/Fe increases from～1.5solar in the center to～2.5solar at50kpc.

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Not surprisingly,Gastaldello&Molendi?nd that no unique combination of published SN Ia (either de?agration or delayed detonation models)and SN II yields is consistent with the full abundance pattern at any radius.Moreover,the combination of SN subtypes that provides the best?t varies with radius(i.e.delayed detonation models provide a better?t in the center, W7further out where Ni/Fe is greater).

Finoguenov et al.(2002)utilize a cruder spatial division,thus obtaining higher precision for individual abundances(this is enhanced by their inclusion of XMM-Newton EPIC-PN CCD data).They propose explaining the observed abundance pattern and its radial varia-tion with(1)a radially increasing SN II/SN Ia ratio,(2)high Si and S yields from SNe Ia (favoring delayed detonation models)and an ad hoc reduction in SN II S yields,and(3) a radial variation in SN Ia yields(corresponding to delayed detonation models with differ-ent de?agration-to-detonation transition densities).As they note,de?agration models must also play a role to account for the high Ni/Fe ratio found in other clusters.Whether such a complex model can coherently explain cluster abundance patterns in general is unclear. Matsushita,Finoguenov,&Bohringer(2003)follow this up with more sophisticated ther-mal modeling,and an analysis that includes individual line ratios,and they reach conclusions that are qualitatively similar in terms of the outwardly increasing importance of SNe II,the diversity of SNe Ia,and the yields of Si and S.

It is important to keep in mind that these new results are for the central～70kpc—still well within the in?uence of the M87galaxy.The larger-scale cluster plasma(as studied in the ACC project discussed above)is not as profoundly affected by SNe Ia,and,indeed,there are indications of a transition to a more cluster-like abundance pattern at large radii in M87 (Finoguenov et al.2002).In fact,the narrowing redshift window when the Fe in clusters must be synthesized and mixed into the ICM,as inferred from the lack of Fe abundance evolution,is becoming comparable to the time delay characteristic of many models of SN Ia explosions.

1.8Concluding Remarks

The era of high-precision X-ray spectroscopy has arrived.Accurate and robust measurements can now be made of abundances and their variation in space and time,for a wide variety of elements in intracluster and intragroup media.This enables astronomers to utilize the ICM,where metals synthesized in cluster galaxy stars over the age of the Universe accumulated,as a laboratory for testing theories of the environmental dependence and impact of star formation.

1.8.1Mean ICM Metallicities and Redshift Dependence

There are now hundreds of measurements,out to redshifts greater than1,of Fe abundances and many tens of measurements(or signi?cant upper limits)of Si,S,Ar,Ca,and Ni.The distribution function of Fe abundance outside of the central regions in rich clusters is sharply peaked around～0.4solar,and shows no evidence of a decline with increasing redshift out to z≈1.With the average Fe yield per current mass of stars～3times solar,a prodigious rapid enrichment is implied:a time average of～0.1M⊙yr?1of Fe per(present-day)L?galaxy integrated over2Gyr.This is equivalent to the nucleosynthetic yield of～1 SN II yr?1per L?galaxy,corresponding to～100M⊙yr?1per L?galaxy forming stars with a Salpeter IMF,or～20SNU of SNe Ia!As a point of reference,note that the mean star formation rate in the Universe at high redshift,normalized to the cluster light,is～0.02

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M⊙yr?1per L?galaxy.So,despite a stellar fraction consistent with the universal average, several times the amount of metals that might be expected was synthesized in clusters.It is intriguing that Lyman-break galaxies were enriched to similar levels on a comparably brief time interval.In the extreme overdense regions that represent clusters of galaxies, the primordial IMF was skewed toward high masses,or an additional separate primordial population of massive stars was present.Clusters are thus strong candidates for the source of the missing metals at z≈3(Finoguenov et al.2003),even though only about5%of the total universal baryon content resides in clusters.

1.8.2Abundance Gradients

Centrally concentrated(<100kpc)excesses in Fe are common,and evidently ex-clusively occur in those clusters that can be characterized either as cooling?ow clusters,as clusters with a massive central galaxy,or as clusters without recent major merging activity. An explanation of this phenomenon awaits additional Chandra and XMM-Newton results on the radial distribution ofαelements.Early indications are that SNe Ia play a more impor-tant role at the location of central cluster galaxies,although other giant elliptical galaxies evidently did not retain such large masses of interstellar Fe.Metallicity gradients evidently are mild or absent beyond these central regions.

1.8.3Abundance Patterns

There is more Si,Fe,and Ni than one might expect based on the observed stellar population.The relative abundances of elements measured in the ICM show clear depar-tures from solar ratios and the abundance pattern in the Galactic disk and other well-studied galactic and protogalactic systems.The ICM abundance pattern shows systematic variations with ICM temperature(i.e.cluster gravitational potential well depth).These variations are apparent even in the relative abundances,which are not generally in solar ratios,among dif-ferentαelements(O,Mg,Si,S,Ar,and Ca).Contribution from an additional,primordial source of metals may be required to?nally explain these anomalies.The ICM Ni/Fe ratio is 2?4times solar,higher than in any other known class of object where this ratio is measured. Since both Fe and Ni are ef?ciently synthesized in SNe Ia,and given the importance of SNe Ia as fundamental probes of the cosmological world model,the origin of the Ni excess is clearly worthy of further investigation.

1.8.4The Future

As the Chandra and XMM-Newton cluster databases mature,one can expect many more measurements of abundance gradients(ofαelements,as well as Fe),tight constraints on the evolution of Si and O abundances out to z>0.4and Fe out to z>1,and additional accurate measurements of C and N.ASTRO-E2,scheduled for launch in2005,will provide true spatially resolved,high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy,which will yield cleaner mea-surements of N,O,Mg,and Ne,and their gradients.

Acknowledgements.I would like to acknowledge the organizers for their kind invitation to participate in this meeting,and for all of their efforts in assembling the conference and these proceedings.My gratitude extends to Richard Mushotzky and Wayne Baumgartner for their assistance in preparing this review.

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尊重的素材

尊重的素材（为人处世）思路人与人之间只有互相尊重才能友好相处要让别人尊重自己，首先自己得尊重自己尊重能减少人与人之间的摩擦尊重需要理解和宽容尊重也应坚持原则尊重能促进社会成员之间的沟通尊重别人的劳动成果尊重能巩固友谊尊重会使合作更愉快和谐的社会需要彼此间的尊重名言施与人，但不要使对方有受施的感觉。帮助人，但给予对方最高的尊重。这是助人的艺术，也是仁爱的情操。—刘墉卑己而尊人是不好的，尊己而卑人也是不好的。———徐特立知道他自己尊严的人，他就完全不能尊重别人的尊严。———席勒真正伟大的人是不压制人也不受人压制的。———纪伯伦草木是靠着上天的雨露滋长的，但是它们也敢仰望穹苍。———莎士比亚尊重别人，才能让人尊敬。———笛卡尔谁自尊，谁就会得到尊重。———巴尔扎克人应尊敬他自己，并应自视能配得上最高尚的东西。———黑格尔对人不尊敬，首先就是对自己的不尊敬。———惠特曼

每当人们不尊重我们时，我们总被深深激怒。然而在内心深处，没有一个人十分尊重自己。———马克·吐温忍辱偷生的人，绝不会受人尊重。———高乃依敬人者，人恒敬之。———《孟子》人必自敬，然后人敬之；人必自侮，然后人侮之。———扬雄不知自爱反是自害。———郑善夫仁者必敬人。———《荀子》君子贵人而贱己，先人而后己。———《礼记》尊严是人类灵魂中不可糟蹋的东西。———古斯曼对一个人的尊重要达到他所希望的程度，那是困难的。———沃夫格纳经典素材 1元和200元（尊重劳动成果）香港大富豪李嘉诚在下车时不慎将一元钱掉入车下，随即屈身去拾，旁边一服务生看到了，上前帮他拾起了一元钱。李嘉诚收起一元钱后，给了服务生200元酬金。这里面其实包含了钱以外的价值观念。李嘉诚虽然巨富，但生活俭朴，从不挥霍浪费。他深知亿万资产，都是一元一元挣来的。钱币在他眼中已抽象为一种劳动，而劳动已成为他最重要的生存方式，他的所有财富，都是靠每天20小时以上的劳动堆积起来的。200元酬金，实际上是对劳动的尊重和报答，是不能用金钱衡量的。富兰克林借书解怨（尊重别人赢得朋友）

那一刻我感受到了幸福_初中作文

那一刻我感受到了幸福本文是关于初中作文的那一刻我感受到了幸福，感谢您的阅读！每个人民的心中都有一粒幸福的种子，当它拥有了雨水的滋润和阳光的沐浴，它就会绽放出最美丽的姿态。那一刻，我们都能够闻到幸福的芬芳，我们都能够感受到幸福的存在。在寒假期间，我偶然在授索电视频道，发现(百家讲坛)栏目中大学教授正在解密幸福，顿然引起我的好奇心，我放下了手中的遥控器，静静地坐在电视前，注视着频道上的每一个字，甚至用笔急速记在了笔记本上。我还记得，那位大学教授讲到了一个故事：一位母亲被公司升职到外国工作，这位母亲虽然十分高兴，但却又十分无奈，因为她的儿子马上要面临中考了，她不能撇下儿子迎接中考的挑战，于是她决定拒绝这了份高薪的工作，当有人问她为什么放弃这么好的机会时，她却毫无遗憾地说，纵然我能给予儿子最贵的礼物，优异的生活环境，但我却无当给予他关键时刻的那份呵护与关爱，或许以后的一切会证明我的选择是正确的。听完这样一段故事，我心中有种说不出的感觉，刹那间，我仿拂感觉那身边正在包饺子的妈妈，屋里正在睡觉的爸爸，桌前正在看小说的妹妹给我带来了一种温馨，幸福感觉。正如教授所说的那种解密幸福。就要选择一个明确的目标，确定自已追求的是什么，或许那时我还不能完全诠释幸福。当幸福悄悄向我走来时，我已慢慢明白，懂得珍惜了。那一天的那一刻对我来说太重要了，原本以为出差在外的父母早已忘了我的生日，只有妹妹整日算着日子。我在耳边唠叨个不停，没想到当日我失落地回到家中时，以为心中并不在乎生日，可是眼前的一切，让我心中涌现的喜悦，脸上露出的微笑证明我是在乎的。

爸爸唱的英文生日快乐歌虽然不是很动听，但爸爸对我的那份爱我听得很清楚，妈妈为我做的长寿面，我细细的品尝，吃出了爱的味道。妹妹急忙让我许下三个愿望，嘴里不停的唠叨：我知道你的三个愿望是什么?我问：为什么呀!我们是一家人，心连心呀!她高兴的说。那一刻我才真正解开幸福的密码，感受到了真正的幸福，以前我无法理解幸福，即使身边有够多的幸福也不懂得欣赏，不懂得珍惜，只想拥有更好更贵的，其实幸福比物质更珍贵。那一刻的幸福就是爱的升华，许多时候能让我们感悟幸福不是名利，物质。而是在血管里涌动着的，漫过心底的爱。也许每一个人生的那一刻，就是我们幸运的降临在一个温馨的家庭中，而不是降临在孤独的角落里。家的感觉就是幸福的感觉，幸福一直都存在于我们的身边!

初中语文古文赏析曹操《短歌行》赏析(林庚)

教育资料《短歌行》《短歌行》赏析(林庚) 曹操这一首《短歌行》是建安时代杰出的名作，它代表着人生的两面，一方面是人生的忧患，一方面是人生的欢乐。而所谓两面也就是人生的全面。整个的人生中自然含有一个生活的态度，这就具体地表现在成为《楚辞》与《诗经》传统的产儿。它一方面不失为《楚辞》中永恒的追求，一方面不失为一个平实的生活表现，因而也就为建安诗坛铺平了道路。这首诗从“对酒当歌，人生几何”到“但为君故，沉吟至今”，充分表现着《楚辞》里的哀怨。一方面是人生的无常，一方面是永恒的渴望。而“呦呦鹿鸣”以下四句却是尽情的欢乐。你不晓得何以由哀怨这一端忽然会走到欢乐那一端去，转折得天衣无缝，仿佛本来就该是这么一回事似的。这才是真正的人生的感受。这一段如是，下一段也如是。“明明如月，何时可掇?忧从中来，不可断绝。越陌度阡，枉用相存。契阔谈宴，心念旧恩。月明星稀，乌鹊南飞。绕树三匝，何枝可依。”缠绵的情调，把你又带回更深的哀怨中去。但“山不厌高，海不厌深”，终于走入“周公吐哺，天下归心”的结论。上下两段是一个章法，但是你并不觉得重复，你只觉得卷在悲哀与欢乐的旋涡中，不知道什么时候悲哀没有了，变成欢乐，也不知道什么时候欢乐没有了，又变成悲哀，这岂不是一个整个的人生吗?把整个的人生表现在一个刹那的感觉上，又都归于一个最实在的生活上。“我有嘉宾，鼓瑟吹笙”，不正是当时的情景吗?“周公吐哺，天下归心”，不正是当时的信心吗? “青青子衿”到“鼓瑟吹笙”两段连贯之妙，古今无二。《诗经》中现成的句法一变而有了《楚辞》的精神，全在“沉吟至今”的点窜，那是“青青子衿”的更深的解释，《诗经》与《楚辞》因此才有了更深的默契，从《楚辞》又回到《诗经》，这样与《鹿鸣》之诗乃打成一片，这是一个完满的行程，也便是人生旅程的意义。“月明星稀”何以会变成“山不厌高，海不厌深”?几乎更不可解。莫非由于“明月出天山”，“海上生明月”吗?古辞说：“枯桑知天风，海水知天寒”，枯桑何以知天风，因为它高；海水何以知天寒，因为它深。唐人诗“一叶落知天下秋”，我们对于宇宙万有正应该有一个“知”字。然则既然是山，岂可不高?既然是海，岂可不深呢?“并刀如水，吴盐胜雪”，既是刀，就应该雪亮；既是盐，就应该雪白，那么就不必问山与海了。山海之情，成为漫漫旅程的归宿，这不但是乌鹊南飞，且成为人生的思慕。山既尽其高，海既尽其深。人在其中乃有一颗赤子的心。孟子主尽性，因此养成他浩然之气。天下所以归心，我们乃不觉得是一个夸张。 .

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