Chapter 1 Basics of the WTO
Glossary
1.GATT(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade，《关税与贸易总协定》)
2.WTO(World Trade Organization，世界贸易组织)
3.MFN(Most-Favored-Nation Treatment，最惠国待遇)：The principle of not discriminating between one’s trading partners.Simply putting, Grant someone a special favor (such as a lower customs duty rate for one of their products) and you have to do the same for all other WTO members. The MFN principle applies to both the border measures (applied only to imported goods) and domestic measures (applied to goods produced domestically).
4.NT(National Treat m ent，国民待遇)：The principle of giving others the sam e treatm ent as one’s own nationals.For example, the im porting country applies a VAT rate of 15% to cars produced dom estically, then it should apply the sam e VAT rate to imported cars of the sam e kind. GATT Article 3 requires that imports be treated no less favorably than the sam e or similar domestically-produced goods once they have passed custom s. GATS Article 17 and TRIPS Article 3 also deal with national treatm ent for services and intellectual property protection.
5.Multilateral(多边): It means global or world. In WTO affairs, “multilateral” also contrasts with actions taken regionally or by other smaller groups of countries.
6.Plurilateral agreement（诸边协议）: An agreement that WTO member countries would be given the choice to agree to new rules on a voluntary basis. This contrasts with the multilateral WTO agreement, where all WTO members are party to the agreement. Today, there are 2 plurilateral agreements in effect. Agreement on Trade in Civil Aviation; Agreement on Government Procurement
7.Bilateral（双边）: Involving only two sides. For exam ple, a bilateral agreement is negotiated and signed by two countries.
8.Trade Barrier（贸易壁垒）:Any government policy or regulation that restricts international trade. The barriers can take many forms, including many restrictions in international trade within multiple countries that import and export any items of trade. Trade barriers can be divided into two kinds.
Tariff barrier:
Non-tariff barriers: quota, allowances for export/import.
9.Round（回合）: Multilateral trade negotiations which were held under GATT’s auspices. 8 rounds during GATT years. The first round since the establishment of WTO - Doha round is still underway.
10.Consensus(协商一致)：An opinion or position reached by a group as a whole or by majority will. It contrasts with voting. The decision achieved by consensus is more acceptable than that achieved by voting. However，consensus is more time-consuming then voting. A consensus could not be reached even if only one member opposes to it explicitly.
11.Panel(专家小组)：In the WTO dispute settlement procedure, an independent body is established by the Dispute Settlement body, consisting of three experts, to examine and issue recommendations on a particular dispute in the light of WTO provisions.
12. Appellate Body(上诉机构):An independent seven-person body that considers appeals in WTO disputes. When one or more parties to the dispute appeals, the Appellate Body reviews the findings in panel reports.
13.Bound rates(约束税率) :The highest level of tariff rates a WTO member could apply within the WTO framework.
14.Applied rates(实际税率): Duties that are actually charged on imports. These can be below the bound rates.
15.Dumping(倾销): Occurs when goods are exported at a price less than their normal value, generally m eaning they are exported for less than they are sold in the dom estic m arket or third-country m arkets, or at less than production cost.
16.Anti-dumping duties(反倾销税): GATT’s Article 6 allows anti-dum ping duties to be imposed on goods that are deem ed to be dum ped and causing injury to producers of com peting products in the im porting country. These duties are equal to the difference between the goods’ export price and their normal value, if dumping causes injury.
17. Subsidy(补贴): Any financial contribution by a government or any public body when a benefit is thereby conferred. There are two general types of subsidies: export and domestic. An export subsidy is a benefit conferred on a firm by the government that is contingent on exports. A dom estic subsidy is a benefit not directly linked to exports.
18.Countervailing measures(反补贴税): Action taken by the importing country, usually in the form of increased duties to offset subsidies given to producers or exporters in the exporting country.
19.Least-developed country(最不发达国家): A country which according to the United Nations exhibit the lowest indicators of socioeconomic development, with the lowest Human Development Index ratings of all countries in the world.
A country is classified as a Least Developed Country if it meets three criteria based on:
?low-income (three-year average Gross National Income per capita of less than US $905, which must exceed $1,086 to leave the list) ?human resource weakness (based on indicators of nutrition, health, education and adult literacy) and
?economic vulnerability (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of
non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by
natural disasters)
20.Grandfather clause(祖父条款): A grandfather clause is an exception that allows an old rule to continue to apply to some existing situations, when a new rule will apply to all future situations. Paragraph 1(b) of the Protocol of Provisional Application of the GATT is such a grandfather clause. It provides that Part II of the GATT should be applied to the fullest extent not inconsistent with existing legislation. That is to say, the existing legislations within the contracting parties should prevail when they conflict with the GATT rules.
§1.1 What is the WTO?
The WTO began life on 1 January 1995, but its trading system is half a century older. Since 1948, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) had provided the rules for the system. There are a number of ways of looking at the WTO.
●It’s a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements.
Essentially, the WTO is a place where m ember governments go, to try to sort out the trade problems they face with each other. The first step is to talk. The WTO was born out of negotiations, and everything the WTO does is the result of negotiations. The bulk of the WTO's current work com es from the 1986-94 negotiations called the Uruguay Round and earlier negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO is currently the host to new negotiations, under the “Doha Development Agenda” launched in 2001.
Where countries have faced trade barriers and wanted them lowered, the negotiations have helped to liberalize trade. But the WTO is not just about liberalizing trade, and in some circumstances its rules support m aintaining trade barriers — for example to protect consum ers or prevent the spread of disease.
●It operates a system of trade rules.
At its heart are the WTO agreem ents, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations. These docum ents provide the legal ground-rules for international commerce. They are essentially contracts, binding governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits. Although negotiated and signed by governments, the goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business, while allowing governments to m eet social and environmental objectives.
The system’s overriding purpose is to help trade f low as freely as possible — so long as there are no undesirable side-effects — because this is important for economic development and well-being. That partly m eans removing obstacles. It also m eans ensuring that individuals, companies and governments know what the trade rules are around the world, and giving them the confidence that there will be no sudden changes of policy. In other words, the rules have to be “transparent” and predictable.
●It’s a place for them to settle trade disputes.
Dispute settlement is the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and the WTO’s unique contribution to the stability of the global economy. Without a means of settling disputes, the rules-based system would be less effective because the rules could not be enforce d. The WTO’s procedure underscores the rule of law, and it makes the trading system more secure and predictable. The system is based on clearly-defined rules, with timetables for completing a case. First rulings are made by a panel and endorsed (or rejecte d) by the WTO’s full membership. Appeals based on points of law are possible.
●It’s an organization for liberalizing trade.
Apart from its predecessor, the WTO has full legal status. It has permanent institutions to carry the WTO agreements into execution. The highest authority is the Ministerial Conference. Normally it is held every two years. The Day-to-day work in between the ministerial conferences is handled by three bodies: The General Council, The Dispute Settlement Body and The Trade Policy Review Body. The third-level institutions are councils for each broad area of trade and more. The fourth-level institutions are subsidiary bodies to the higher level of councils.
§1.2 Purpose of the WTO
Preamble of the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the WTO
The Parties to this Agreement,
Recognizing that their relations in the field of trade and economic endeavor should be conducted with a view to raising standards of living, ensuring full employm ent and a large and steadily growing volume of real incom e and effective dem and, and expanding the production of and trade in goods and services, while allowing for the
optim al use of the world’s resources in accordance with the objective of sustainable development, seeking both to protect and preserve the environment and to enhance the m eans for doing so in a m anner consistent with their respective needs and concerns at different levels of econom ic development. (newly added part)
Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations.
The addition recognizes the im portance of environmental protection and allows for the legitim ate use of trade-related environmental m easures. For example, a country bans the import of certain goods which is proved to be detrim ental to the environment. However, the trade protectionist m easures under the guise of environmental protection should be banned.
Glossary
Treaty signature: Signature of a treaty is an act by which the State expresses its interest to the treaty and its intention to become a Party. The State is not bound by the signature. However, he has the obligation not to defeat the object and purpose of the treaty until it has made its intention clear not to become a Party to the treaty.
Treaty ratification (approval): An act by which the State expresses its definitive consent to be bound by the treaty. Then, the State Party must respect the provisions of the treaty and implement it. In international law, a treaty does not come into force until it has been ratified. Usually, a multilateral agreement may provide that it will take effect upon its ratification by a specified number of signatories, rather than all.
Schedule: A WTO member’s list of commitments on market access including bound tariff rates and access to services markets.
Schedule of concessions: List of bound tariff rates.
Protocol: A legal instrument which complements, amends or modifies the main treaty.
Quota: A type of protectionist trade restriction that sets a physical limit on the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country in a given period of time. Binding: A commitment, an obligation, or a duty which must be adhered to.
§1.3 Principles of the WTO System
The WTO agreements are lengthy and complex because they are legal texts covering a wide range of activities. They deal with: agriculture, textiles and clothing, banking, telecommunications, government purchases, industrial standards and product safety, food sanitation regulations, intellectual property, and much more. But a number of simple, fundamental principles run throughout all of these documents. These principles are the foundation of the multilateral trading system.
●Trade without discrimination
-Most-favored-nation: treating other people equally
Under the WTO agreements, countries cannot normally discriminate between their trading partners. Grant someone a special favour (such as a lower customs duty rate for one of their products) and you have to do the same for all other WTO members.
-National treatment: Treating foreigners and locals equally
Imported and locally-produced goods should be treated equally — at least after the foreign goods have entered the market. The same should apply to foreign and domestic services, and to foreign and local trademarks, copyrights and patents.National treatment only applies once a product, service or item of intellectual property has entered the market. Therefore, charging customs duty on an import is not a violation of national treatment even if locally-produced products are not charged an equivalent tax.
●Freer trade: gradually, through negotiation
Lowering trade barriers is one of the m ost obvious m eans of encouraging trade. The barriers concerned include custom s duties (or tariffs) and measures such as import bans or quotas that restrict quantities selectively. From tim e to tim e other issues such as red tape and exchange rate policies have also been discussed.
Since GATT’s creation in 1947-48 there have been eight rounds of trade negotiations. A ninth round, under the Doha Development Agenda, is now underway. At first these focused on lowering tariffs (custom s duties) on imported goods. As a result of the negotiations, by the mid-1990s industrial countries’ tariff rates on industrial goods had fallen steadily to less than 4%.
But by the 1980s, the negotiations had expanded to cover non-tariff barriers on goods, and to the new areas such as services and intellectual property.
Opening m arkets can be beneficial, but it also requires adjust m ent. The WTO agreements allow countries to introduce changes gradually, through “progressive liberalization”. Developing countries are usually given longer to fulfill their obligations.
●Predictability: through binding and transparency
Som etimes, promising not to raise a trade barrier c an be as im portant as lowering one, because the prom ise gives businesses a clearer view of their future opportunities. With stability and predictability, invest m ent is encouraged, jobs are created and consum ers can fully enjoy the benefits of com petition — choice and lower prices. The m ultilateral trading system is an attem pt by governments to m ake the business environment stable and predictable.
In the WTO, when countries agree to open their markets for goods or services, they “bind” their commit ments. For goods, these bindings amount to ceilings on custom s tariff rates. Som etimes countries tax imports at rates that are lower than the bound rates. Frequently this is the case in developing countries. In developed countries the rates actually charged and the bound rates tend to be the sam e.
A country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could m ean com pensating them for loss of trade. One of the achievem ents of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade talks was to increase the am ount of trade under binding commit ments. In agriculture, 100% of products now have bound tariffs. The result of all this: a substantially higher degree of m arket security for traders and investors.
The system tries to im prove predictability and stability in other ways as well. One way is to discourage the use of quotas and other m easures used to set limits on quantities of imports — administering quotas can lead to m ore red-tape and accusations of unfair play. Another is to m ake countries’ tr ade rules as clear and public (“transparent”) as possible. Many WTO agreements require governments to disclose their policies and practices publicly within the country or by notifying the WTO. The regular surveillance of national trade policies through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism provides a further means of encouraging transparency both dom estically and at the m ultilateral level.
Promoting fair competition
The WTO is som et imes described as a “free trade” institution, but that is not entirely accurate. The system does allow tariffs and, in limited circum stances, other form s of protection. More accurately, it is a system of rules dedicated to open, fair and undistorted com petition.
The rules on non-discrimination — MFN and national treat m ent — are designed to secure fair conditions of trade. So too are those on dum ping (exporting at below cost to gain m arket share) and subsidies. The issues are com plex, and the rules try to establish what is fair or unfair, and how governments can respond, in particular by charging additional import duties calculated to compensate for dam age caused by unfair trade.
Many of the other WTO agreem ents aim to support fair com petition: in agriculture, intellectual property, services, for exam ple. The agreem ent on government procurement (a “plurilateral” agreement because it is signed by only a few WTO members) extends com petition rules to purchases by thousands of government entities in many countries. And so on.
●Encouraging development and economic reform
The WTO system contributes to developm ent. On the other hand, developing countries need flexibility in the tim e they take to im plement the system’s agreements. And the agreem ents them selves inherit t he earlier provisions of GATT that allow for special assistance and trade concessions for developing countries.
Over three quarters of WTO m embers are developing countries and countries in transition to m arket economies. During the seven and a half years of the Uruguay Round, over 60 of these countries implem ented trade liberalization programs autonom ously. At the sam e time, developing countries and transition econom ies were much m ore active and influential in the Uruguay Round negotiations than in any previous round, and they are even m ore so in the current Doha Development Agenda.
At the end of the Uruguay Round, developing countries were prepared to take on most of the obligations that are required of developed countries. But the agreements did give them transition periods to adjust to the more unfamiliar and, perhaps, difficult WTO provisions — particularly so for the poorest,
“least-developed” countries. A ministerial decision adopted at the end of the round says better-off countries should accelerate im plem enting market access
commit ments on goods exported by the least-developed countries, and it seeks increased technical assistance for them. More recently, developed c ountries have started to allow duty-free and quota-free imports for almost all products from least-developed countries. On all of this, the WTO and its m embers are still going through a learning process. The current Doha Development Agenda includes develop ing countries’ concerns about the difficulties they face in implementing the Uruguay Round agreem ents.
§1.4 The GATT Years: From Havana to Marrakesh
●The Birth of GATT
From 1948 to 1994, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided the rules for much of world trade and presided over periods that saw som e of the highest growth rates in international commerce. It seem ed well-established, but throughout those 47 years, it was a provisional agreement and organization. The reason is that it had never been ratified by its contracting parties.
This first round of negotiations resulted in a package of trade rules and 45,000 tariff concessions affecting $10 billion of trade, about one fifth of the world’s total. The group had expanded to 23 by the tim e the deal was signed on 30 October 1947. The tariff concessions cam e into effect by 30 June 1948 through a “Protocol of Provisional Application”. And so the new General Agreem ent on Tariffs and Trade was born, with 23 founding m embers (officially “contract ing parties”).
The 23 were also part of the larger group negotiating the ITO Charter. One of the provisions of GATT says that they should accept som e of the trade rules of the draft. This, they believed, should be done swiftly and “provisionally” in order to protect the value of the tariff concessions they had negotiated. They spelt out how they envisaged the relationship between GATT and the ITO Charter, but they also allowed for the possibility that the ITO might not be created. They were right.
The Havana conference began on 21 November 1947, less than a month after GATT was signed. The ITO Charter was finally agreed in Havana in March 1948, but ratification in some national legislatures proved impossible. The m ost serious opposition was in the US Congress, even though the US government had been one of the driving forces. In 1950, the United States governm ent announced that it would not seek Congressional ratification of the Havana Charter, and the ITO was effectively dead. So, the GATT becam e the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1948 until the WTO was established in 1995.
●The legal status of the GATT: A provisional agreement and organization.
It has never been ratified by the contracting parties.
●The main activities of the GATT: To hold multilateral trade negotiations
(ranging from tariffs to non-tariff measures, from trade to other areas such as environment and Intellectual Property) and settle trade disputes among contracting parties.
●The GATT Trade Rounds
In the early years, the GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT Anti-Dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first m ajor attempt to tac kle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to im prove the system. The eighth, the Uruguay Round of 1986-94, was the last and m ost extensive of all. It continued detailed work on m any non-tariff measures, but greatly expanded the scope of the trading system by adding services and intellectual property subjects. It also created significant new institution——WTO. Preliminary estim ates of the trade affected by the Uruguay Round include $2.7 trillion for goods, plus approximately $1 trillion for services.
●The Uruguay Round and the Final Act
The seeds of the Uruguay Round were sown in November 1982 at a ministerial meeting of GATT m embers in Geneva. Although the ministers intended to launch a major new negotiation, the conference stalled on agric ulture and was widely regarded as a failure. In fact, the work programme that the m inisters agreed formed the basis for what was to becom e the Uruguay Round negotiating agenda.
Nevertheless, it took four more years of exploring, clarifying issues and painstaking consensus-building, before ministers agreed to launch the new round. They did so in Septem ber 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay. They eventually accepted a negotiating agenda that covered virtually every outstanding trade policy issue. The talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles. All the original GATT articles were up for review. It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed, and the ministers gave
them selves four years to com plete it.
Two years later, in Decem ber 1988, ministers m et again in Montreal, Canada, for what was supposed to be an assessm ent of progress at the round’s half-way point. The purpose was to clarify the agenda for the remaining two years, but the talks ended in a deadlock that was not resolved until officials met m ore quietly in Geneva the following April.
Despite the difficulty, during the Montreal meeting, ministers did agree a package of early results. These included som e concessions on m arket access for tropical products — aim ed at assisting developing countries — as well as a streamlined dispute settlem ent system, and the Trade Policy Review Mechanism which provided for the first comprehensive, system atic and regular reviews of national trade policies and practices of GATT m embers. The round was supposed to end when ministers met once m ore in Brussels, in Decem ber 1990. But they disagreed on how to reform agricultural trade and decided to extend the talks. The Uruguay Round entered its bleakest period.
Despite the poor political outlook, a considerable amount of technical work continued, leading to the first draft of a final legal agreement. This draft “Final Act” was com piled by the then GATT director-general, Arthur Dunkel, who chaired the negotiations at o fficials’ level. It was put on the table in Geneva in December 1991. The text fulfilled every part of the Punta del Este m andate, with one exception — it did not contain the participating countries’ lists of commit ments for cutting import duties and opening their services m arkets. The draft becam e the basis for the final agreement.
Over the following two years, the negotiations lurched between impending failure, to predictions of imminent success. Several deadlines cam e and went. New points of major conflict em erged to join agriculture: services, m arket access, anti-dum ping rules, and the proposed creation of a new institution. Differences between the
United States and European Union becam e central to hopes for a final, successful conclusion.
In November 1992, the US and EU settled most of their differences on agriculture in a deal known informally as the “Blair House accord”. By July 1993 the “Quad” (US, EU, Japan and Canada) announced significant progress in negotiations on tariffs and related subjects (“m arket access”). It took until 15 Decem ber 1993 for every issue to be finally resolved and for negotiations on m arket access for goods and services to be concluded (although som e final touches were com pleted in talks on market access a few weeks later). On 15 April 1994, the deal was signed by ministers from most of the 123 participating governm ents at a m eeting in Marrakesh, Morocco.
The total package of the Uruguay Round results contains 60 agreements and decisions totalling 550 pages.
●The achievements of the GATT
GATT was provisional with a limited field of action, but its success over 47 years in promoting and securing the liberalization of much of world trade is incontestable. Continual reductions in tariffs alone helped spur very high rates of world trade growth during the 1950s and 1960s — around 8% a year on average. And the momentum of trade liberalization helped ensure that trade growth consistently
out-paced production growth throughout the GATT era, a m easure of countries’ increasing ability to trade with each other and to reap the benefits of trade. The rush of new m embers during the Uruguay Round demonstrated that the multilateral trading system was recognized as an anchor for developm ent and an instrum ent of econom ic and trade reform. As of today, the WTO’s m embership has increased from 23 to 153.
●The limitations and problems of the GATT
-GATT application was controversial, flawed and still provis ional, although the GATT rules did apply as binding intl. treaty obligations. Grandfather rights still existed, even though they were originally intended to be temporary. Moreover, a number of other institutional problems stemmed from this basic treat structure, including the difficulty of the amendment process, its uncertain relationship to domestic laws, the lack of a unified dispute settlement procedure, questions of membership, and the ill-defined powers of the contracting parties. -The GATT did not have permanent institution to carry into execution the GATT Accord of 1947.
-The GATT only dealt with manufactured goods. It did not cover textile goods, services, agricultural products, intellectual property and investments.
-The GATT did not have any enforcement provisions. If a nation violated the provisions of the GATT, there was no mechanism to impose sanctions of the non complying nation.
-The dispute settlement process experienced some problems with delays and failures to adopt reports because of blocking tactics by losing parties that prevented a consensus in the GATT Council.
-The GATT did not address labor issues nor environmental issues.
§1.5 The Legal Personality and organization of the WTO
●Unlike the GATT, the WTO Charter clearly establishes an intl. org., endows it
with legal personality, and supports it with the traditional treaty organizational clauses regarding “privileges and immunities”, secretariat, director general, budgetary measures, and explicit authority to develop relations with other inter-government organizations and, important to som e interests, non-government organizations. The Charter prohibits staff of the Secretariat from seeking or accepting instructions from any government “or any other authority external to the WTO.”
●The Ministerial Conferences since the establishment of WTO(教材55页) Geneva, 30 November - 2 Decem ber 2009
> Hong Kong, 13-18 Decem ber 2005
> Cancún, 10-14 Septem ber 2003
> Doha, 9-13 November 2001
> Seattle, November 30 – December 3, 1999
> Geneva, 18-20 May 1998
> Singapore, 9-13 December 1996
Heads of Delegations (including full membership)
Negotiating group
Green room
§1.6 WTO’s Continuity with the GATT
As the successor of the GATT, WTO keeps strong legal and practice continuity with the GATT.
Art.1.6:1 of the WTO Charter
― Except as otherwise provided under this Agreement or the Multilateral Trade Agreements, the WTO shall be guided by the decisions, procedures and customary practices followed by the CONTRACTING PARTIES to GATT 1947 and the bodies established in the framework of GATT 1947. ‖
§1.7Membership and Accession to the WTO
●Two kinds of membership
-original membership (Art.11 of the WTO Charter)
-membership obtained by accession (Art.12 of the WTO Charter)
●The Accession Process
§1.8 China and WTO
China’s accession to the WTO
The original GATT1947 Contracting Party
Taiwan withdrew China from the GATT in 1950
China asked for reentry into the GATT in 1986
China failed to reentry into the GATT in December 1994
China opened accession to the WTO in 1995
Bilateral negotiations with WTO members
China was officially accepted as a WTO member in November 2001.
China’s three other memberships in the WTO(One country, four memberships)
Separate customs territories
Hongkong: an original member of the WTO
Macau: an original member of the WTO
Chinese Taipei: Accepted as a WTO member in November 2001.
Play video: Student tour
Chapter 2 Procedural Rules of the WTO
§2.1 Decision-making Mechanism
Principle:Consensus is always preferred. In case consensus could not be reached, the matter at issue shall be decided by voting(one member, one vote). The decision to adopt an interpretation: 3/4 majority
The decision to waive an obligation of a member: 3/4 majority Amendments of WTO agreements: consensus; 3/4
majority;2/3majority
Dispute settlement: adverse consensus
§2.2 Trade Policy Review Mechanism
Objective:To facilitate the smooth functioning of the multilateral trading system by enhancing the transparency of Members’ trade policies.
Subject matter: All aspects of trade policy in all the WTO Members
The authority: TPRB
Review cycles: (based on the Member’s share of world trade in goods and services) Every 2 years: U.S.; EC ; Japan; Canada(4 members)
Every 4 years: China Hong Kong; China; Korea; Singapore; Switzerland; Mexico; Australia; Malaysia; Thailand; Norway; Indonesia; Brazil; Turkey; South Africa; Israel; India; United Arab Emirates(16 members)
Every 6 years: all the other WTO members
The procedure:
Collection of information
Visit to the capital
Final preparation of documents
-A policy statement by the Member under review
-A report prepared by economists in the Secretariat (not legally binding)
Review meeting organized and conducted
Publication of documents
§2.3 The Dispute Settlement Mechanism
The legal basis:DSU; provisions on dispute settlement in other WTO agreements(like SCM, Anti-dumping agreement)
The coverage: disputes under all covered WTO agreements
Authority:
●DSB
-to establish panels
-to adopt the reports of panels or AB
-to monitor the implementation and recommendation of the panel and AB
-to authorize suspension of concessions or other appropriate obligation of the member nations
●Panel/AB: to help the DSB make rulings or recommendations
Four stages: consultation(a diplomatic stage)- panel- appellate review- enforcement
The general principles:
Improvements:
- Rule-based: rather than power-based, decisions shall be made in accordance with preexisted rules and shall not be the result of diplomatic compromise.
- automaticity: through reverse consensus
- compulsory jurisdiction on WTO members
- quickness: through strict deadlines
- legal quality: guaranteed by the AB members’ qualification(persons of recognized authority and with demonstrated expertise in law, international trade and the subject matter of the WTO and the annexes)
- enforcement: through cross-retaliation in case of non-implementation
【The consultation】:
-Necessary stage;
-A diplomatic measure aimed to reach amicable solution;
-Time limit: 60 days after the request
【Panel process】:
A. Establishment of a panel:
a. Condition: consultations fail within 60-day time frame
b. The selection of 3 panelists:
(i) suggestion from the Secretariat
(ii) parties nominate the panelists (never happened, because they never agree with each other)
(iii)DG nominates the panelists ( it’s always the case)
c. 3 categories of panelists: government officials(current or former); former secretariat
officials; trade academics or lawyers.
d. Qualification of panelists: no nationals of parties or third parties, absent agreement of
the parties; one panelist coming from a developing country if requested in a case involving a developing country.
e. Rules of conduct: be independent and impartial, avoiding direct or indirect conflicts of
interest and respecting the confidentiality of proceedings.
B. Who appears before panels
(a) Complainants & Respondents
- whether a complainant needs to demonstrate legal interest as a pre-requisite to submit a particular dispute?
- The composition of delegations participating in WTO dispute settlement proceedings.
(b) Third parties
-Legal basis: Art.10 of DSU
-timing of the request to participate as third party
-rights
(c) Amicus curiae
U.S.—Shrimp (WT/DS58)
The statement of AB: the panel was not prohibited from examining amicus curiae briefs.
C. The task of panels
(a) Terms of reference(DSU Art.7.1) showing webpage
―To examine, in the light of the relevant provisions in (name of the covered agreement(s) cited by the parties to the dispute), the matter referred to the DSB by (name of party) in document ... and to make such findings as will assist the DSB in making the recommendations or in giving the rulings provided for in that/those agreement(s).‖
Panel request: (DSU Art.6.2)
―The request for the establishment of a panel shall be made in writing. It shall indicate whether consultations were held, identify the specific measures at issue and provide a brief summary of the legal basis of the complaint sufficient to present the problem clearly. ‖
●The roles of the panel request:
-To define the terms of reference of the panel. The panel is not entitled to cite other provisions or agreements not cited by the complaining party in the panel request.
-To inform the responding party and third parties its claim (the measure and the provisions which the complainant claims the respondent violated) so that they have chances to respond to the case.
●The requirement for drafting the panel request:
-The complaining party must include all the relevant provisions in the panel request since it could not add new claims afterwards. (due process) In other words, a claim (including new measure and provisions or agreements) which is not included in the panel request lies outside the terms of reference of the panel and consequently, will not be examined by the panel.
The reason: If the complainant adds new claims after its submission of the panel request, the responding party has not enough time to prepare its defending materials, which is unfair for the responding party.
To show how to search the document at the website of WTO, and explain the citation. WT/DS8/AB/R, WT/DS8/R: the 8th case which has been submitted to the DSB for consultation since the establishment of WTO.
(b) Objective assessment of the matter before it(DSU Art.11)
-The facts of the case
-The applicability of and conformity with the relevant WTO agreements
-The deliberate disregard of, refusal to consider, wilful distortion or misrepresentation of the evidence put before a panel is not allowed. The panel shall consider all the evidence presented to it on an objective basis and make factual findings on the basis of the evidence.
D. Sources restraining a panel’s jurisdiction
(a) A panel’s authority lapses
(b) Parallelism of the subject matter
(c) Res Judicata （一事不再理）
The parties could not bring a suit again on an event which was the subject of a previous legal cause of action that has already been finally decided between them.
(d) Mutually Agreed Solutions
(e) Agreements between parties as to the ambit of their dispute
(f) Estoppel （禁止反言）
A person is prohibited from denying or asserting anything to the contrary of that which has,
been established as the truth by his own deed, acts, or representations, either express or implied.
(g) Mandatory versus discretionary legislation
(h) Measures challenged must be in effect when the panel is established
E. The procedure:
Each side presents its case in writing to the panel
First hearing
Rebuttals/second meeting
Experts
First draft
Interim report
Review
Final report and its adoption (reverse consensus)
- the factual part reflects the claims and arguments of parties to a dispute.
- the legal findings provides the panel’s legal evaluation and conclusion of a dispute. The panel is required to set out the basic rationale (explanation) for its findings.
【Appellate review】:
A．The Appellate Body: a permanent body (rather than ad hoc) consisting of 7 members,
appointed for four-year terms with one reappointment permitted.
-The qualification of AB members: legal experts and broadly representative of membership in the WTO (geographical considerations).
The current AB (May 2008): 1 from Europe, 1 from U.S., 1 from Brazil, 1 from South Africa, 1 from Japan, 1 from Philippines, 1 from China.
-Usually, a case is heard by a division of 3 AB members, which are selected by a secret procedure that is based on randomness, unpredictability and the opportunity for all members to serve without regard to national origin.
B. Who appears before the AB:
(a) The parties to a dispute
Appellant v. appellee
Only parties to a dispute , not third parties, may appeal a panel report.
(b) Third parties
(c) Amicus curiae
C. Terms of reference of the AB: only issues of law and legal interpretation in the panel report. The AB is not entitled to review the factual part of the panel report.
D. Power: to reverse, modify or affirm panel decisions.
-Shortcoming: the AB has no power to remand a case to a panel (send a case back to the original panel and ask it to reconsider).
If the factual findings of a panel report are incomplete or flawed, the complainant will have to re-introduce its claims to a new panel and start the process all over again.
-The practice: to complete the analysis of particular issues in order to resolve cases where it has significantly modified a panel’s reasoning.
Two conditions: the factual record before the AB is sufficient; there was a logical continuum between the claims.
【Enforcement】:
A. Conclusions of the panel/AB report: rulings + recommendations+ suggestions (a) Rulings
Whether the measure at issue is consistent with WTO rules?
Art.19.1 of DSU:
Where a panel or the Appellate Body concludes that a measure is inconsistent with a covered agreement, it shall recommend that the Member concerned bring the measure into conformity with that agreement. In addition to its recommendations, the panel or Appellate Body may suggest ways in which the Member concerned could implement the recommendations.
(b) Recommendations
-Panels must issue recommendations in case an inconsistency has been established;
-They are binding on their addressees;
-They have an inflexible content: the respondent must bring its measures into conformity with WTO obligations;
Such a recommendation leaves its addressees with substantial discretion as to what needs to be done for compliance to be achieved.
The reason: AB report (§7.102) in U.S.—Section 301 Trade Act:
―The obligation on Members to bring their laws into conformity with WTO obligations is a fundamental feature of the system and, despite the fact that it affects the internal legal system of a State, has to be applied rigorously. At the same time, enforcement of this obligation must be done in the least intrusive way possible. The member concerned must be allowed the maximum autonomy in ensuring such conformity and, if there is more than one lawful way to achieve this, should have the freedom to choose the way which suits it best.‖
-They essentially amount to an obligation of result, in the sense that they allow WTO Members to choose the means (specific conduct) to reach the requested result (consistency with the WTO).
(c) Suggestions
-Panels have discretion to issue them, even if they are requested to do so;
-They are not binding on their addressees who might choose to ignore them;
-Their content is flexible and panels have discretion to shape it;
The panel report on EC-Export Subsidies on Sugar is the only case so far where a panel suggested.
XII.CONCLUSIONS
12.1 In light of our findings in Section XI.A, we conclude that it has not been proved that Resolution (ANA) No. 2235/96 is inconsistent with Argentina's obligations under Article XI:1 of the GATT 1994.
12.2In light of our findings in Section XI.B, we conclude that Resolution (ANA) No. 2235/96 is inconsistent with Argentina's obligations under Article X:3(a) of the GATT 1994.
12.3-12.6 omitted
12.7We recommend that the Dispute Settlement Body request Argentina to bring Resolution (ANA) No. 2235/96 as well as General Resolutions (DGI) No. 3431/91 and 3543/92 into conformity with its obligations under the GATT 1994.
——Argentina –Measures Affecting The Export of Bovine Hides and The Import of Finished Leather (WT/DS155/R)
B. The period of implementation
(a) Prompt compliance
(b) Reasonable period of time for implementation(within 15 months from the date when a report was adopted)
- Proposal of the responding party approved by the DSB through consensus (never happened)
- Mutual agreement between the parties ( in most cases)
- Through arbitration under Art.21.3
C. Procedure under Art.21.5 (Compliance review)
(a) Subject matter:Disagreement as to the existence or consistency with a covered agreement of measures taken to comply with the recommendations and rulings
(b) The procedure: panel process (within 90 days) →appellate review
Request to establish a compliance panel:
-citing the recommendations rulings of the DSB in the original dispute as well as any preceding Art.21.5 proceedings, which, according to the complaining party, have not yet been complied with;
-identifying the measures already taken by the respondent, as well as any omissions or deficiencies therein, or stating that no such measures have been taken by the respondent;
-providing a legal basis for its complaint, by specifying how the measure taken, or not taken, fail to remove the WTO-inconsistencies found in the previous proceedings, or whether they have brought about new WTO-inconsistencies.
(c) Time limit: no
If the winning party is still unsatisfied with the second implementation measures taken by the losing party, it could launch a second compliance review.
Examples: Brazil- Aircraft (DS46); Canada- Dairy products (DS103); EC-bananas III (DS27) (show webpage)
D. Remedies in case of non-implementation (temporary until the respondent implements the recommendations of DSB):
(a) Compensation:
-voluntary, through consultation between the parties
-in the forms of tariff concessions, increase of import quota, or broadened market access, rather than money
- applied on the basis of MFN ( available for all the other WTO Members, because all of them would be affected by the measure at issue sooner or later.)
- non-retroactive: aimed to compensate the nullification or impairment of the interest accrued to the winning party after the expiration of the reasonable period for implementation. ( Japan- alcoholic beverages II (DS8,DS10,DS11) ) The compensation doesn’t cover the nullification or impairment of the benefits accrued to the complainant caused by the offending measure.
(b) Retaliation pending full implementation:
Art.22.2:
“If the Member concerned fails to bring the measure found to be inconsistent with a covered agreement into compliance therewith or otherwise comply with the recommendations and rulings within the reasonable period of time determined pursuant to paragraph 3 of Article 21, such Member
第三章企业法律制度参考答案
第三章企业法律制度练习及其参考答案 一、单项选择题 1、企业法的调整对象是（ C ）。 A、企业内部社会经济关系 B、企业外部社会经济关系 C、企业内外部社会经济关系 D、企业与社会的经济关系 2、国有企业是（ C ）。 A、国家管理和经营的企业 B、政府管理和经营的企业 C、政府投资或者参股设立的企业 D、政府拥有所有权的企业 3、国有企业经营权的核心是（ D ）。 A、投资决策权 B、留用资金支配权 C、资产处置权 D、生产经营决策权 4、国有企业实行民主管理的基本形式是（ D ）。 A、国有企业承包责任制 B、厂长（经理）负责制 C、国有企业全员聘任制 D、职工代表大会制 5、职工代表大会是国有企业的（ D ）。 A、经营管理决策机构 B、生产指挥机构 C、厂长的咨询参谋机构 D、职工行使民主管理权的机构 6、城镇集体所有制企业的法定代表人是（ D ）。 A、国家 B、政府 C、职工大会 D、厂长（经理） 7、个人独资企业解散的，财产按顺序首先清偿（ B ）。 A、所欠银行贷款 B、所欠职工工资和社会保险费用 C、所欠税款 D、其他债务
8、在普通合伙企业中，合伙人对合伙企业的债务（ C ）。 A、承担有限责任 B、承担有限连带责任 C、承担无限连带责任 D、承担按份比例责任 9、债权人会议设主席（ D ）。 A、4人 B、3人 C、2人 D、1人 10、债务人或者管理人应当自人民法院裁定债务人重整之日起（ C），同时向人民法院和债权人会议提交重整计划草案。 A、1年内 B、2年内 C、6个月内 D、9个月内 11、在下列财产中，不属于破产财产的是（ C ）。 A、宣告破产时，破产企业机构营管理的全部财产 B、应当由破产企业行使的其他财产权利 C、已作为担保物的财产 D、破产企业在宣告破产后至破产程序终结前所取得的财产 12、破产财产优先划拨破产费用后的第一清偿顺序是（ C ）。 A、破产企业所欠税款 B、破产企业所欠银行贷款 C、破产企业所欠职工工资和劳动保险费用 D、破产债权 二、多项选择题 1、一般来说，企业具有下列特征（ BCDE ）。 A、趋利性 B、社会性和组织性 C、商品性和经济管理性 D、自主性和自律性 E、法定性
WTO法律制度 第一节．WTO法律制度概述 一．WTO 与GATT的联系和区别 1.联系 ⑴组织意义上，WTO取代了GATT；⑵规则意义上，WTO纳入了GATT 2.区别 ⑴性质不同：国际组织；非国际组织 ⑵法律依据不同：《建立世界贸易组织协定》；《关税与贸易总协定临时适用议定书》 ⑶适用的力度不同：WTO不允许成员对WTO的规则作出保留或偏离，除非符合WTO允 许的免责或例外；GATT则要求成员在不违反现有国内立法的范围内最大限度地适用GATT的第二部分 ⑷调整范围不同：WTO调整货物贸易、服务贸易和于贸易有关的知识产权；GATT只调 整货物贸易，且还不包括纺织品贸易，对农产品贸易的调整也缺乏强有力的约束 ⑸争端解决制度不同：WTO的争端解决机制统一并有较强的约束力；GATT的争端解决 机制分散且约束力弱 二．WTO法律制度框架三．WTO的组织机构图 四．中国的入世承诺 【注】中国的权利义务包括两项： ⑴合成员国都应承担的规范性义务 ⑵《中国加入世界贸易组织议定书》及其附件《中国入世工作组报告》 ㈠对外经营权 1.放开外贸经营权（2004年已完成） 2.国家专营企业 ㈡倾销与补贴中的非市场经济承诺 1.倾销的确定（市场经济导向型企业） 2.国有企业补贴 ㈢特定产品的过渡性产品保障机制（2013年底已完成） ㈣与贸易有关的保障措施及非关税措施
第二节．WTO的基本原则 一．最惠国待遇原则 ㈠最惠国待遇原则的含义 最惠国待遇原则：一成员将在货物贸易、服务贸易和知识产权领域给予任何其他国家的优惠待遇，立即和无条件地给予其他各成员方。 ㈡最惠国待遇原则的特点 普遍性（多边）、自动性（无条件）、相互性、同一性 ㈢最惠国待遇原则的例外 1.GATT协定下最惠国待遇原则的例外 ⑴边境贸易 ⑵普遍优惠待遇 ⑶以关税同盟（如欧盟）和自由贸易区（如北美自由贸易区）形式出现的区域经济安排 ⑷第20条一般例外 ⑸第21条安全例外 ⑹允许以收支平衡为理由偏离最惠国待遇 ⑺允许对造成国内产业损害的倾销进口或补贴进口征收反倾销税和反补贴税 ⑻对某一成员或某些成员最惠国义务的豁免 2.TRIPs协定下最惠国待遇原则的例外 ⑴由一般司法协助及法律实施的国际协定引申出的且并非专为保护知识产权的 ⑵《伯尔尼公约》和《罗马公约》允许的按互惠原则提供的优惠 ⑶TRIPs协定未加规定的表演者权、录音制作者权和广播组织权 ⑷在WTO建立前已生效的国际知识产权公约中规定的权利 3.GATS协定下最惠国待遇原则的例外 【注】对发展中成员实行的特殊或差别待遇 ⑴允许发达国家成员通过制定“普遍优惠制方案”，单方面给予发展中国家成员以非互惠 的、普遍的优惠关税待遇 ⑵各协议给予发展中成员以过渡期安排 ⑶某些协议给予发展中成员更优惠的市场准入条件 ⑷要求发达国家成员给予发展中国家成员，尤其是最不发达成员以技术援助和支持 二．国民待遇原则 ㈠国民待遇原则的含义 国民待遇原则：对其他成员的产品、服务或服务提供者及知识产权所有者或持有者所提供的待遇，不低于本国同类产品、服务或服务提供者及知识产权所有者或持有者享有的待遇㈡国民待遇原则的具体适用 1.GATT协定下国民待遇原则的具体适用 ⑴给予同类产品完全的国民待遇 ⑵例外 ①第20条一般例外； ②第21条安全例外； ③政府采购例外； ④只给予某种产品的国内生产者补贴； ⑤有关外国电影片放映数量的限制
第三章合同法律制度答案(同名47571)
合同法答案 【例3-1-1】答案：BC 解析：婚姻（婚姻法），收养（收养法），监护（民法通则）等有关身份关系的协议，不适用《合同法》的规定。融资租赁合同属于《合同法（分则）》列明的有名合同。中华人民共和国境内的企业，个体经济组织，民办非企业单位等组织与劳动者之间，以及国家机关，事业单位，社会团体和与其建立劳动关系的劳动者之间建立劳动关系，订立，履行，变更解除或者终止劳动合同，适用《劳动合同法》。 【例3-1-2】 解析：该合同属于双务合同、有偿合同。根据合同法的相关规定，双务合同是指合同当事人双方相互享有权利和承担义务的合同；有偿合同是指当事人一方享有合同规定的权益，必须向对方当事人偿付相应代价的合同； 【例3-2-1】 解析：该信的内容是要约，因为符合要约的构成要件，即：发出对象明确具体，内容确定，有数量和价款，所以是要约。（1）郝强
当即回复表示不要，为拒绝要约，则要约失 效。 （2）如果郝强同学在5天内未作任何表示，为未在规定的期限内做出答复，则要约失 效。 （3）张飞向郝强打电话将产生要约撤回的效 力。 （4）该合同可以成立。因为确定了承诺期限 的要约为不可撤销的要约，故该要约是不可 撤销的，郝强又在规定的期限内做出了答 复，所以该合同可以成立。 【例3-2-2】答案：C 解析本题考核合同成立的相关规定。采用合同书形式订立合同，当事人没有在合同书上签字盖章的，只要一方当事人履行了主要义务，对方接受的，合同仍然成立。 【例3-2-3】答案CD 解析】(1)乙公司的市场开发计划采取了保密措施，甲公司的行为侵犯了乙公司的商业秘密;(2)甲公司和乙公司尚在洽谈过程中，合同尚未成
秋季东财W T O法律制度在线作业二随机 集团文件版本号：（M928-T898-M248-WU2669-I2896-DQ586-M1988）
【】[东北财经大学]东财《WTO法律制度》在线作业二（随机）试卷总分:100 得分:100 第1题,WTO多边贸易框架的核心是（） A、《GATT1994》 B、《建立世界贸易组织的协定 C、《关于争端解决的规则和程序的谅解》 D、《服务贸易总协定》 第2题,世贸组织常设上诉机构人员（） A、不得连任 B、可以连任二次 C、可以连任一次 D、可以连任三次 第3题,解决争端中磋商最长的时间为（）天 A、30 B、45 C、60 D、90 第4题,（）可以向世贸组织提出申请加入 A、地区性组织 B、单独关税区 C、地方政府 D、国际组织
第5题,世贸组织对某些涉及成员权利与义务重大事项做出决策时适用（）规则 A、协商一致 B、三分之二多数 C、四分之三多数 D、二分之一多数 第6题,世贸组织成员间发生贸易争端应当首先（）解决 A、调停 B、调解 C、协商 D、诉讼 第7题,GATS允许发展中国家通过向外国服务提供者（）以换取市场准入 A、最惠国待遇 B、商品交换 C、附加条件 D、例外条款 第8题,WTO规则主要规范和约束成员的（）行为 A、政府 B、企业 C、公众 D、跨国公司 第9题,争端解决机构专家组是在磋商未果时在（）请求下成立的
A、争端解决机构 B、申诉方 C、第三方 D、被申诉方 第10题,（）又称"黄灯补贴" A、禁止性补贴 B、可申诉补贴 C、不可申诉补贴 D、允许性补贴 第11题,《纺织品与服装协定》的最大突破与发展是 A、规定了反规避条款 B、废止了市场扰乱的规定 C、明确了10年过渡期内取消《多种纤维协定》规定的数量限制 D、强化了有关规则和纪律 第12题,1994年乌拉圭回合首次明确规定了（）的概念 A、禁止性补贴 B、可申诉补贴 C、不可申诉补贴 D、允许性补贴 第13题,配额和许可证属于（） A、数量限制 B、关税限制
第三章旅游合同法律制度 【学习目的和要求】 旅游合同是旅游法律关系当事人之间为实现旅行游览的目的，签订的明确相互权利和义务的协议。在市场经济体制中，旅游合同对保护当事人合法权益，维护旅游市场秩序正常运行具有积极地促进作用。旅游合同的订立和履行有利于旅游企业规范自身的业务行为, 也有利于国家对旅游企业进行宏观调控。本章主要学习和掌握：旅游合同的订立和履行；旅游合同变更、解除、转让和终止；违反旅游合同的责任。 【考核要求】 （一）旅游合同的概念 1?识记：（1）旅游合同的概念；（2）旅游合同的种类。 2?领会:旅游合同的特征。 （二）旅游合同的订立和履行 1?识记：（1）旅游合同的订立程序；（2）旅游合同的订立原则； （3）旅游合同履行的原则；（4）旅游合同的担保。 2?领会:（1）旅游合同的内容；（2）旅游合同的生效要件； （3）旅游合同被确认无效和被撤销后的法律责任。 3?应用：旅游合同欠缺生效要件的法律后果。 （三）旅游合同变更、解除、转让和终止 1?识记：（1）旅游合同变更和解除的概念； （2）旅游合同变更和解除的法律责任。 2?领会:（1）旅游合同转让和终止的概念； （2）旅游合同转让的相关法律规定。 （四）违反旅游合同的责任 1?识记：（1）违约责任的概念和特征；（2）严格责任原则。 2?领会:（1）违约责任的免除；（2）违约责任的承担方式。 【教学内容】 第一节旅游合同概述 一、旅游合同的概念、特征和作用 （一）旅游合同的概念与特征 旅游合同是指旅游法律关系当事人之间为实现旅行游览的目的，签订的明确相互权利和义务的协议。
其法律特征： 1?旅游合同关系的主体是具有平等资格的当事人。 2.旅游合同的内容是在旅行游览业务活动中双方当事人约定的旅游权利和旅游义务。 3?旅游合同关系的客体是主体为实现一定旅游活动而约定的旅游权利和旅游义务所指向的事物，即旅游消费构成的食、住、行游、购、娱所指向的事物。 （二）旅游合同的作用 1.旅游合同是保护当事人合法权益的法律依据 2.旅游合同是维护社会旅游秩序的行为规范 3.旅游合同是保障提高旅游经济效益的法律措施 4.旅游合同是保障社会主义市场经济正常运行的法律手段 二、旅游合同的种类 （一）提供劳务的旅游合同 （二）财产转移的旅游合同 （三）完成工作的旅游合同 第二节旅游合同的订立和履行 一、旅游合同的订立 （一）订立旅游合同的原则 （二）订立旅游合同的程序 （三）旅游合同的内容 1.当事人名称或者姓名和住所 2 .标的 3.数量和质量 4.价款和酬金 5.履行的期限、地点和方式 6 .违约责任 7 .解决争议的方法 （四）格式条款 格式条款，是指当事人为了重复使用而预先拟定并在订立合同时未与对方协商的条1?格式条款的利弊
第三章公司法律制度 第二节有限责任公司——设立 【组织教学】（2分钟） 【复习导入】（3分钟） 问：什么是公司？我国《公司法》将公司分为哪两种类型？ 答：公司是依法设立的、以营利为目的的企业法人。我国《公司法》将公司分为有限责任公司和股份有限公司两种类型。 （根据学生的回答，教师自然地导入到本次课内容的学习。） 那么，什么是有限责任公司？开办有限责任公司有什么条件？如何才能管理好这个公司？今天这节课我们就进入有限责任公司相关内容的学习。 【讲授新课】（45分钟） （通过讨论的方式，让学生列举出：“所知道的有限责任公司有哪些？”————了解学生对有限责任公司的初步认识，激发学生进一步学习这部分知识的兴趣。） 一、有限责任公司的概念 有限责任公司：指又称有限公司，是指股东以其认缴的出资额为限对公司承担责任，公司以其全部资产对公司的债务承担责任的公司。 从以下两个方面分析： 1、承担的责任（有限责任） （1）股东——以其出资额为限对公司承担责任； （2）公司——以其全部资产为限对公司的债务承担责任。 （针对这部分，教师让学生结合前面所学的“个人独资企业”和“合伙企业”的有关知识，讨论“有限责任与无限责任相比较有什么好处”。从而让学生体会实现公司制度在我国经济发展中的重要作用。） 2、性质：企业法人。 （对于“法人与非法人”的认识和理解，教师可以让学生结合“承担的责任”的相关内容。告诉学生：一般情况，无限责任——非法人；有限责任——法人。然后让学生辨析：个人独资企业、合伙企业、有限责任公司、股份有限公司哪些是法人哪些是非法人？） 二、公司的设立条件 1、股东人数：50人以下 《公司法》规定：设立有限公司的股东人数应是50人以下。 （有限责任公司的股东可以是一人） 特例：一人有限责任公司———一个自然人或一个法人设立 国有独资公司的股东只有一个————国家。 （教师引导学生回顾——合伙企业与个人独资企业对人员的要求） 2、出资 (l)法定资本的最低限额：人民币为3万元；法律、行政法规有较高规定的，从其规定。 （教师引导学生回顾：合伙企业与个人独资企业对最低资本有没有规定？） (2)首次出资：不低于注册资本的20%，也不低于人民币3万元。 (3)出资期限：其余部分2年内缴足。 (4)货币出资：不低于注册资本的30%； (5)出资方式：货币、实物、知识产权、土地使用权等；
目录 考点一物的概念和种类 考点二物权法的基本原则 考点三物权变动 考点四拾得遗失物的处理规则 考点五国家所有权、集体所有权、私人所有权 考点六共有制度 考点七用益物权 考点八担保权概述 考点九抵押权 考点十质押权 考点十一留置权 考点一物的概念和种类 一、物的概念 物是物权的客体。物权法上的物指的是有体物，是除人的身体之外，凡能为人力所支配，独立满足人的社会生活需要之物。 【单选题】（2019年）根据物权法律制度的规定，下列各项中，属于物权法上的物的是（）。 A.太阳 B.星星 C.月亮 D.海域 『正确答案』D 『答案解析』本题考核物权法上的物。物权法上的物具有如下特点：有体性；可支配性；在人的身体之外。选项ABC因不能为人力所支配而不属于物权法上的物。 【多选题】（2013年）根据物权法律制度的规定，下列各项中，能够成为所有权客体的有（）。 A.土地 B.月球表面 C.药品 D.存有计算机程序的光盘 『正确答案』ACD 『答案解析』本题考核物权的客体。物权法上的物，具有以下特点：有体性、可支配性、在人的身体之外。月球表面，不具有可支配性，不能成为物权客体。 二、物的种类
（一）流通物、限制流通物与禁止流通物 （1）大多数动产以及不动产中的房屋，均属于流通物。 （2）文物、黄金、药品等属于限制流通物。 （3）法律禁止流通之物，属于禁止流通物。 （二）动产与不动产 （1）不动产须登记，包括土地、海域以及房屋、林木等地上定着物。 （2）动产是不动产以外的物，以交付为原则。 （三）主物与从物 （1）主物和从物在物理实体上都独立存在，从物不是主物的组成部分。 （2）在无法律特别规定或当事人特别约定时，从物的权利归属与主物一致。 【提示】旅馆设置的家具、房间的钥匙、书的封套、汽车后备箱中的备用胎、机器的维修工具等，均属于主物与从物的关系。 （四）可替代物（种类物）与不可替代物（特定物） 该分类仅限于动产。 （1）可替代物。交易上依数量、容量或重量而确定的物，如书、粮食等。 （2）不可替代物。具有唯一性、不可被他物替代，如梵高的画作等。不可替代物一旦发生损害，只能转化为金钱赔偿。 （五）消费（耗）物与非消费（耗）物 该分类仅限于动产。 （1）消费物。依其性质只能“一次性”使用或让与之物，如粮食、货币、汽油等。 （2）非消费物。依其性质可以“多次”使用或让与之物，如汽车、手机、冰箱、电视机等。 【提示】消费物的使用行为=处分行为。 （六）原物与孳息 根据两物之间存在的原有物产生新物的关系，分为原物与孳息物。 （1）孳息必须与原物分离，为独立物。 （2）天然孳息。由自然规律形成。由原物的所有权人取得；既有所有权人又有用益物权人的，由用益物权人取得。当事人另有约定的，按其约定。 （3）法定孳息。依托法律关系产生。当事人有约定的，按照约定取得；没有约定或者约定不明确的，按照交易习惯取得。 【单选题】（2018年）根据物权法律制度的规定，下列各项中，属于动产的是（）。 A.房屋 B.林木 C.海域 D.船舶 『正确答案』D 『答案解析』本题考核物的种类。选项ABC属于不动产。 三、物权的特征与种类 【提示1】由物的概念所引申出的物权，是指特定主体对“特定的物”享有直接“支配”和“排他”的权利，具有支配性、排他性和绝对性的特点。 （1）支配性强调一种对物的支配力，即无须第三人的积极行为协助，权利人即可行使自己的财产权，可简单概括为“人与物”； （2）排他性强调一物之上只能设立一个所有权，即“一物一权”，权利人可排除他人以同样方式支配物的权利，可简单概括为“人与人”；
东财09春学期《WTO法律制度》在线作业一 一、单选题（共15 道试题，共60 分。） 1. 中国在（）年提出恢复正式关贸总协定缔约方地位的申请 A. 1986 B. 1987 C. 1988 D. 1995 满分：4 分 2. ____可以向世贸组织提出申请加入 A. 地区性组织 B. 单独关税区 C. 地方政府 D. 国际组织 满分：4 分 3. WTO规则主要规范和约束成员的（）行为 A. 政府 B. 企业 C. 公众 D. 跨国公司 满分：4 分 4. WTO____在日内瓦成立 B. 1995.1.1 D. 1990.7.9 满分：4 分 5. 1990年初____首先提出建立世界贸易组织的倡议 A. 美国 B. 加拿大 C. 意大利 D. 中国 满分：4 分 6. 成员方退出世贸组织，从递交退出通知被____接受6个月后生效 A. 总干事 B. 争端解决委员会 C. 总理事会 D. 秘书长 满分：4 分 7. WTO的最高决策机构是 A. 部长级会议 B. 总理事会 C. 理事会 D. 总干事 满分：4 分 8. 是WTO部长级会议和总理事会的主要决策方式 A. 简单多数 B. 加权表决 C. 协商一致
9. 豁免某成员WTO义务需经___多数票通过 A. 1／2 B. 2／3 C. 3／4 D. 一致通过 满分：4 分 10. 世贸组织协议要求各国代表草签后必须经过本国____批准才能生效 A. 政府 B. 元首 C. 立法机构 D. 人民 满分：4 分 11. WTO多边贸易框架的核心是（） A. 《GATT1994》 B. 《建立世界贸易组织的协定 C. 《关于争端解决的规则和程序的谅解》 D. 《服务贸易总协定》 满分：4 分 12. 乌拉圭回合开始于 A. 1994年9月 B. 1990年9月 C. 1988年9月 D. 1986年9月 满分：4 分 13. ______阶段的谈判被称为“破冰谈判” A. 1986年7月—1989年6月 B. 1989年6月—1992年2月 C. 1992年2月—1994 D. 1995年—2001年 满分：4 分 14. 附件1B是 A. 货物贸易方面的法律制度 B. 服务贸易法律制度 C. 关于争端解决的规则和程序的谅解 D. 贸易政策评审机制 满分：4 分 15. 世贸组织对某些涉及成员权利与义务重大事项做出决策时适用（）规则 A. 协商一致 B. 三分之二多数 C. 四分之三多数 D. 二分之一多数 二、多选题（共10 道试题，共40 分。） V 1. 世贸组织总干事在解决争端中起什么作用？ A. 协商 B. 拥有专家组成员的任命权
第三章合同法律制度测试题 班级_ ___ 姓名_ ___ 得分 一、单项选择题（本大题共25个小题，每题1分，共计25分） 1．根据合同的订立是否要依照法律、法规规定的形式可以将合同划分为( )。 A．要式合同和非要式合同 B．主合同和从合同 C．有偿合同和无偿合同 D．双务合同和单务合同 2．在下列合同中，适用我国《合同法》的有( )。 A．有关婚姻关系的合同 B．有关租赁关系的合同 C．有关收养关系的合同 D．有关监护关系的合同 3．在下列各项中，不属于我国合同的标的的是( )。 A．合同当事人的权利和义务 B．货物 C．运输劳务 D．建筑工程 4．甲公司于3月5日向乙企业发出签定合同要约的信函。3月8日乙企业收到甲公司声明该要约作废的传真。3月10日乙企业收到该要约的信函。根据《合同法》规定，甲公司发出传真声明要约作废的行为属于( )。 A．要约撤回 B．要约撤销 C．要约生效 D．要约失效 5．青青公司在9月7日向理明公司发出“希望能与贵公司洽谈大豆生意”的函件，理明公司在9月11日收悉该函件，便于9月16日向青青公司发出一份回函，该回函具备了合同的主要条款，并表明只要青青公司同意，理明公司马上履行。青青公司于9月20日收到了该回函。本案中涉及要约生效的时间是( )。 A．9月7日 B．9月11日 C．9月16日 D．9月20日 6．-般来说，合同成立的时间是( )。 A．要约生效的时间 B．发出承诺通知的时间 C．承诺生效的时间 D．公证的时间 7．甲公司与乙公司签定了购买10辆汽车的合同，就在乙公司将汽车交付甲公司时，被工商行政管理部门查出该汽车是走私物而予以查封。根据我国《合同法》关于合同效力的规定，该买卖汽车的合同属于( )。 A．有效合同 B．无效合同 C．可撤销合同 D．效力待定合同 8．甲、乙二人于2月1日订立一份买卖枪支的合同，合同规定履行日期为3月2日，3月9日A发现合同违反法律的禁止性规定，4月7日该合同被当地法院宣告无效，该合同从( )开始不受法律保护。
WTO法律制度 1、WTO服务贸易总协定的内容。 一、WTO《服务贸易总协定》定义 《服务贸易总协定》（General Agreement on Trade in Service，GATS）是世界贸易组织管辖的一项多边贸易协议。服务贸易是指：“从一成员境内向任何其他成员境内提供服务；在一成员境内向任何其他成员的服务消费者提供服务；一成员的服务提供者在任何其他成员境内以商业存在提供服务；一成员的服务提供者在任何其他成员境内以自然人的存在提供服务。” 二、WTO《服务贸易总协定》的宗旨 《服务贸易总协定》的宗旨是在透明度和逐步自由化的条件下，扩大全球服务贸易，并促进各成员的经济增长和发展中国家成员服务业的发展。协定考虑到各成员服务贸易发展的不平衡，允许各成员对服务贸易进行必要的管理，鼓励发展中国家成员通过提高其国内服务能力、效率和竞争力，更多地参与世界服务贸易。 三、WTO《服务贸易总协定》的内容结构 （一）WTO《服务贸易总协定》的框架结构 《服务贸易总协定》由三大部分组成：一是协定条款本身，又称为框架协定，二是部门协议，三是各成员的市场准入承诺单。《服务贸易总协定》本身条款由序言和六个部分29条组成。前28条为框架协议，规定了服务贸易自由化的原则和规则，第29条为附件（共有8个附件）。主要内容包括：范围和定义、一般义务和纪律、具体承诺、逐步自由化、机构条款、最后条款等，其核心是最惠国待遇、国民待遇、市场准入、透明度及支付的款项和转拨的资金的自由流动。《服务贸易总协定》适用于各成员采取的影响服务贸易的各项政策措施，包括中央政府、地区或地方政府和当局及其授权行使权力的非政府机构所采取的政策措施。 （二）WTO《服务贸易总协定》规定的四种贸易方式 （1）跨境交付（Cross-border Supply），是指一成员服务提供者在其境内向在任何其他成员境内服务消费者提供服务,以获取报酬。； （2）境外消费（Consumption Abroad），指一成员的服务提供者在其境内向来自任何其他成员的服务消费者提供服务,以获取报酬； （3）商业存在（Commercial Presence），是指一成员的服务提供者在任何其他成员境内建立商业机构(附属企业或分支机构),为所在国和其他成员的服务消费者提供服务,以获取报酬； （4）自然人流动（Movement of Natural Persons），是指一成员的自然人(服务提供者)到任何其他成员境内提供服务,以获取报酬。
第三章民商事合同法 一、合同概述 1、关于标题 课本这一章的标题是“涉外经济合同法律制度”，内容中也刻意强调涉外经济合同。我国曾于1981年制定《经济合同法》（1993年修订），1985年制定《涉外经济合同法》，1987年制定《技术合同法》。1999年，全国人大制定《合同法》，实现了民商事合同的三法合并。在此之后，除非法律有特别的规定，无需，也不应再强调国内合同与涉外合同的区别。所以，将本章及标题改为民商事合同法，内容中除却有必要，也对涉外合同作淡化处理。 2、合同的概念与特征 合同(Contract)，又称契约、合约，指“平等主体的自然人、法人、其他组织之间设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系的协议（agreement）”（《合同法》第2条第1款）。 《合同法》规定的合同特指“民商事合同”。四类协议不属此列：一是身份关系协议：婚姻、收养、监护等有关身份关系的协议，适用其他法律的规定（《合同法》第2条第2款）。二是劳动关系协议：用人单位与劳动者建立劳动关系而订立的合同，适用《劳动合同法》。三是农村土地承包经营合同。四是行政合同，但是土地出让合同纠纷按民事纠纷处理。 合同的法律特征： （1）当事人为两个以上（含）。区别于单方法律行为（如遗嘱），合同须经当事人合意合同方可成立，除非另有规定，也须经过当事人合意方可变更、终止。 （2）以设立、变更、终止民事权利义务关系为基本内容。即导致约定的法律后果，区别于日常生活中的一般商量约定，“依法成立的合同，受法律保护”（《合同法》第8条）。 （3）平等自愿基础上达成的意思表示一致。不存在强迫、欺诈和重大误解等影响真实意思自由表达的情形。 （4）具有确定性和可履行性。确定性强调合同约定内容必须明确，既为履行合同提供依据，又为解释意思确定标准；可履行性除与确定性有关（可操作性）外，还以约定合法为前提，否则会导致合同无效或被撤销。 3、合同法的基本原则 （1）意思自治原则 《合同法》第4条规定：“当事人依法享有自愿订立合同的权利，任何单位和个人不得非法干预”；第8条：“依法成立的合同，对当事人具有法律约束力”。 意思自治意味着在法律不加禁止的范围内，当事人享有完全的合同自由，国家鼓励交易的实现。包括：缔结合同的自由，不受对方及第三人的强迫和干预；选择合同相对人的自由；决定合同内容的自由，经合宜可以排除适用非强制性法律规范；经协商一致或者依法单方面变更和解除合同的自由；选择合同方式的自由；选择合同争议解决方式的自由。 （2）平等公平原则 《合同法》第3条：“合同当事人的法律地位平等，一方不得将自己的意志强加给另一方”；第5条：“当事人应当遵循公平原则确定各方的权利和义务”。 平等原则强调“从身份到契约的转变”，肯定合同当事人地位平等，给予各方主体平等保护，不承认特权等级和身份依附关系，任何一方都不得滥用其优势地位，将自己的意志强加于另一方（所谓店大欺客、客大欺店），只有平等，才能实现真正的意思自治。公平原则指在合同订立和履行过程中，应本着公正衡平合理的理念妥善调整各方关系，正当行使权利、切实履行义务、兼顾他人利益，具体体现在合同法的许多方面（如对格式条款的限制），对于显失公平的合同或条款，当事人可以请求法院或仲裁机构变更或撤销。
2019秋东财《WTO法律制度》在线作业三-10（100分） 【奥鹏】-[东北财经大学]东财《WTO法律制度》在线作业三 试卷总分:100 得分:100 第1题,以出口实绩为条件提供的补贴是（） A、可起诉的补贴 B、不可起诉的补贴 C、被禁止的补贴 D、正常的补贴 正确答案: 第2题,解决争端中磋商最长的时间为（）天 A、30 B、45 C、60 D、90 正确答案: 第3题,发达国家在实施反倾销时，针对发展中国家的产品，如果倾销幅度低于（）或损害是微不足道的，以及原产于一个发展中国家成员的倾销产品数量不足进口国同类产品总量的3%，则终止倾销调查 A、2% B、3%
C、4% D、5% 正确答案: 第4题,（）是GATS的核心原则 A、经济一体化 B、透明度 C、最惠国待遇 D、自由化 正确答案: 第5题,WTO争端解决机制的核心程序是 A、磋商程序 B、专家组程序 C、上诉程序 D、裁决的执行程序 正确答案: 第6题,配额和许可证属于（）
A、数量限制 B、关税限制 C、价格限制 D、无限制 正确答案: 第7题,在马拉喀什会议上由( )个国家和地区签署了服务贸易总协定 A、132 B、124 C、111 D、108 正确答案: 第8题,（）负责起草贸易政策审议结果报告 A、专家小组 B、世贸组织秘书处 C、第三国 D、总干事 正确答案:
第9题,（）可以向世贸组织提出申请加入 A、地区性组织 B、单独关税区 C、地方政府 D、国际组织 正确答案: 第10题,世界上第一个以国内法形式建立起一套系统的反倾销制度的国家是 A、英国 B、美国 C、法国 D、加拿大 正确答案: 第11题,贸易政策审议机构审议贸易量占世界贸易总量排名20位以后的成员（）年一次 A、2 B、4 C、6
本文由wqlybah贡献 ppt文档可能在WAP端浏览体验不佳。建议您优先选择TXT，或下载源文件到本机查看。 第三章秦代法律制度 而今天下一统周。而今天下一统周。礼乐文章八百秋，串去中直传天下。八百秋，串去中直传天下。却是春禾换日头，却是春禾换日头，天下由来不固久。二十年间不能守。不固久。二十年间不能守。卯坐金头带直刀。卯坐金头带直刀。 第一节秦代的法律概况 一、立法指导思想为主，（一）以“法”为主，“法”、“术”、“势”综合为治的原则“法出于一”、“事皆决于法”法出于一”事皆决于法”秦法繁于秋荼，而网密于凝脂”“秦法繁于秋荼，而网密于凝脂”法不阿贵，刑过不避大夫，“法不阿贵，刑过不避大夫，赏善不遗匹夫。”刑赏兼备，（二）刑赏兼备，重刑轻罪 二、秦朝的法律形式 （一）律（二）令、制、诏（三）式（四）法律答问（五）廷行事 （一）律 云梦秦简秦律十八种：主要有《田律》、《厩苑律》、《仓律》、《金布律》、《关市律》、《工律》、《工人程》、《均工律》、《徭律》、《司空律》、《效律》 上页 （二）令、制、诏 令是秦以国家或君王名义发布的各种命令后来，秦始皇改皇帝的命令为制诏，也具有最高的法律效力 （三）式 一般泛指公文程式 --《封诊式》 （四）法律答问 是一种以答问方式表现出来的，秦官方对法律所做的正式解释，与法律具有同等效力。 （五）廷行事 它是司法机关判案的成例。在司法实践中也可以作为判案的依据。是秦律的补充形式。 第二节行政法律的主要内容 一、维护中央集权的君主专制二、维护封建官僚体制三、注重官吏任免、考核与奖惩方面的规定 二、维护封建官僚体制 1、秦中央政府 2、秦地方政府 1、秦中央政府 宰相 奉常典客 皇帝御史大夫 郎中令宗正 太尉 卫尉太仆廷尉治粟内史少府 2、秦地方政府 郡——郡守——郡尉县——县令——县丞 三、注重官吏任免、考核与奖惩方面的规定 “因能而授官，循名而责实”因能而授官，循名而责实”因能而授官审民能，以任吏”“审民能，以任吏” 第三节刑事法律
第四章外商投资企业法律制度 第一节外商投资企业法律制度概述 【例题1】根据《指导外商投资方向规定》的规定，下列选项中，属于限制类外商投资项目的有( )。 A、能源、重要原材料工业项目 B、不利于节约资源和改善生态环境的项目 C、从事国家规定实行保护性开采的特种矿种勘探的项目 D、运用我国特有工艺生产产品的项目 【答案】BC 【例题2】根据《指导外商投资方向规定》的规定，下列各项中，属于国家限制类外商投资项目的有（）。 A、运用我国特有工艺生产产品的项目 B、不利于节约资源的项目 C、技术水平落后的项目 D、不利于改善生态环境的项目 【答案】BCD 【例题3】某外国投资者协议购买境内公司股东的股权，将境内公司变更为外商投资企业，该外商投资企业的注册资本为700万美元。根据外国投资者并购境内企业的有关规定，该外商投资企业的投资总额的上限是( )。 A、1000万美元 B、1400万美元 C、1750万美元 D、2100万美元 【答案】C 【例题4】根据中外合资经营企业法律制度规定，下列各项中，注册资本与投资总额符合规定的有（）。 A．注册资本150万美元，投资总额200万美元 B．注册资本300万美元，投资总额620万美元 C．注册资本700万美元，投资总额1500万美元 D．注册资本1500万美元，投资总额3900万美元 【答案】ACD 【例题5】某外商投资企业由外国投资者并购境内企业设立，注册资本600万美元，其中外国投资者以现金出资120万美元。下列有关该外国投资者出资期限的表述中，符合外国投资者并购境内企业有关规定的是( )。 A、外国投资者应自外商投资企业营业执照颁发之日起3个月内缴清出资 B、外国投资者应自外商投资企业营业执照颁发之日起6个月内缴清出资 C、外国投资者应自外商投资企业营业执照颁发之日起9个月内缴清出资 D、外国投资者应自外商投资企业营业执照颁发之日起1年内缴清出资 【答案】A 【例题6】根据有关规定，中外合资经营企业的外国投资者出资比例低于注册资本25％的，下列表述中，正确的是（）。 A、外国投资者应当自营业执照签发之日起3个月内一次缴清出资 B、该企业的设立不需要经过外商投资企业审批机关审批 C、该企业不能享受合营企业的优惠待遇 D、该企业不能取得法人资格 【答案】C 【例题7】根据外国投资者并购境内企业的有关规定，外国投资者并购境内企业，发生下列情形时，应当向商务部和国家工商行政管理总局报告的有( )。 A、1年内并购国内关联行业的企业达到8个 B、并购导致并购一方当事人在中国的市场占有率达到25％ C、并购一方当事人当年在中国市场营业额超过15亿人民币
东财《WTO法律制度》在线作业二（随机）-0004 试卷总分:100 得分:0 一、单选题(共15 道试题,共60 分) 1.《保障措施协定》规定了实施临时保障措施的期限不得超过（）天，并且这段时间要计入最后实施的保障措施的期限 A.100 B.150 C.200 D.250 正确答案:C 2.在乌拉圭回合货物贸易谈判中，发达国家（主要是美欧之间）之间谈判的焦点和难点问题是（） A.农产品问题 B.纺织品与服装问题 C.技术贸易壁垒问题 D.反倾销问题 正确答案:A 3.服务贸易中稳定服务贸易发展原则是通过具体（）实现的 A.承诺义务 B.关税减让 C.自我约束 D.数量限制 正确答案:A 4.WTO多边贸易框架的核心是（） A.《GATT1994》 B.《建立世界贸易组织的协定 C.《关于争端解决的规则和程序的谅解》 D.《服务贸易总协定》 正确答案:B 5.世贸组织协议要求各国代表草签后必须经过本国（）批准才能生效 A.政府 B.元首 C.立法机构 D.人民 正确答案:C
6.世贸组织成员间发生贸易争端应当首先（）解决 A.调停 B.调解 C.协商 D.诉讼 正确答案:C 7.对禁止性补贴，双方应进行磋商，磋商应在（）天内完成，如不能达成协议，则可将争议提交WTO争端解决机构，要求成立专家组，专家组应在（）天内提出最终报告 A.30,90 B.30,60 C.60,60 D.60,90 正确答案:A 8.发达国家在实施反倾销时，针对发展中国家的产品，如果倾销幅度低于（）或损害是微不足道的，以及原产于一个发展中国家成员的倾销产品数量不足进口国同类产品总量的3%，则终止倾销调查 A.2% B.3% C.4% D.5% 正确答案:A 9.成员方退出世贸组织，从递交退出通知被（）接受6个月后生效 A.总干事 B.争端解决委员会 C.总理事会 D.秘书长 正确答案:A 10.（）负责起草贸易政策审议结果报告 A.专家小组 B.世贸组织秘书处 C.第三国 D.总干事 正确答案:B
独资企 JUNE 2021业的优 缺点 整理人尼克 知识改变命运
第三章企业法律制度 1．个人独资企业的特征 个人独资企业的特征主要包括： （1）个人独资企业是由一个自然人投资兴办的企业。 （2）个人独资企业的全部财产都属于投资人个人，投资人直接控制企业。 （3）个人独资企业的债务由投资人个人承担，投资人对个人独资企业的债务承担无限责任，其不仅要以投入企业的财产清偿债务，而且要以其其他财产清偿债务。 （4）个人独资企业是自然人以民事主体身份参加生产经营等民事活动的特殊形式，在这种企业中，直接享受民事权利、承担民事义务的是投资人个人。 个人独资企业不具有法人资格。 2．合伙企业的特征 合伙企业的特征主要表现为： （1）合伙企业因合伙协议产生。合伙是合伙人之间自主的联合行为，因此合伙企业存在的前提就是合伙协议。合伙协议应当由全体合伙人协商制定，合伙人依照合伙协议享有权利、承担责任。 （2）合伙企业是由两个或两个以上合伙人组成的企业。 （3）合伙企业具有很强的人合色彩。普通合伙企业是典型的人合企业，其基于合伙人之间的相互信任关系而成立并维系，信用和经营状况也取决于合伙人的信用、能力等因素。有限合伙企业是人合兼资合企业，人合属性很明显。 （4）合伙企业的人格同合伙人的人格不完全分离，合伙企业的财产同合伙人的财产并不完全分离。 （5）合伙企业的普通合伙人对外承担无限连带责任。法律规定普通合伙人负无限连带责任的目的在于保护合伙企业债权人的利益，也体现了合伙企业的人合性质。 （6）合伙企业不具有法人资格。在我国，合伙企业虽然可以作为一般民事主体参加各种民事活动，但因其不能独立承担民事责任，故不具备法人资格。 3．设立普通合伙企业应当具备的条件 设立普通合伙企业，应当具备下列条件： （1）有两个以上的合伙人。（2）有书面合伙协议。（3）有合伙人认缴或者实际缴付的出资。（4）有合伙企业的名称和生产经营场所。合伙企业的名称中应当标明“普通合伙”字样。（5）法律、行政法规规定的其他条件。 4．有限合伙企业的设立条件 有限合伙企业的设立应具备以下条件： （1）有限合伙企业的合伙人。除法律另有规定的外，应由2个以上50个以下
WTO法律制度对我国法制建设的影响 我国已经加入世贸组织，世贸组织是以其法律体系为基础构建起来的全球性国际组织。我国加人该组织后，将按照我国的承诺接受WTO法律框架的约束。WTO法律框架针对金融领域的制度在其整个体系中占据了极为重要的地位。《服务贸易总协定》及《金融服务协议》等更是直接构建了WTO体系中的金融服务领域的一体化游戏规则，各国在加入世贸组织时都必须按照统一的要求做出自己的承诺。我国在谈判过程中，已经有了比较明确的承诺，这些承诺将直接或间接地影响我国现有的金融法制。本文拟结合影响我国金融法制发展的WTO法律框架来评析我国金融法制的现状。 从WTO法律框架的整体来看，直接或间接对我国金融法制产生影响的法律制度主要体现在其附属文件中。WTO协定的主文件共有16个条文，这些条文虽然未直接针对金融服务贸易做出实质性的规定，而只是就世贸组织的结构、组织的决策程序、成员资格、接受加入和生效等组织程序问题作了原则性的规定，但是它们却对我国金融法制产生着重要的影响。 一、国际服务贸易的一般责任与纪律 《服务贸易总协定》从如下几方面规定了国际服务贸易的责任与纪律：最惠国待遇、透明度、增加发展中国家经济一体化、国内规章、学历与履历承认、垄断与排他的服务供应者、紧急保障措施与收支平衡保障的限制、一般例外与安全例外、政府采购与补贴等。 最惠国待遇原则是指与服务贸易有关的任何国内立法和措施(即第一条规定的服务贸易措施)所规定的优惠和待遇，在由一成员方给予另一成员方的服务或
服务供给者时，也必须立即地、无条件地、完全地给予其他任何成员方的服务或服务提供者。该项原则的例外是：符合《关于免除第二条义务的附录》所规定的条件和程序；为发展边境贸易而采取的措施。这项原则意味着我国通过个别协定赋予特定国家的金融机构入境或优惠待遇的做法将面临冲击和挑战，除非该原则允许的例外情形。 透明度原则要求所有成员方必须及时地将可能影响其他成员方依据《服务贸易总协定》应有的权利和义务的任何国内法的修订和颁布的情况，通报给其他成员方，以使这些成员方能及时地了解有关变化。通报的内容包括了新法律、法规和行政法规的制定，也包括现有法律、法规和行政法规的修订。通报的时间必须符合时限的规定：新规X的制定，必须在其生效以前予以公布；法规的修订应立即或至少每半年通报一次。通报应提交贸易理事会。各成员方认为其他成员方所制定的政策、措施和法规将影响协议的实施的，有权向贸易理事会报告。在保障机制上，要求成员方应及时根据有关成员的要求提供资料，成员方应建立一个或更多的咨询机构，以便能及时、全面地履行通告和资料查询与提供义务。通告的内容不包括有碍法律实施和商业秘密保护的内容。 透明度原则将为我国金融法的制定、修改和废止提出更高的要求。这种要求主要体现在以下几个方面：其一，在制定、修改和废止的程序上，给有权机关提出了更高的要求。有权机关必须能及时地通告、提供查询服务，并能对其内容的选择做出合理的解释。其二，在实体内容上受到有关成员方的监督。因为成员方可针对我国金融法制构建和修改中存在违背WTO法律制度要求的内容通过适当的机制提出抗辩，我国将不得不接受相应的有约束力的修正要求。这意味着我国金融法制的创制者必须熟悉WTO法律制度的相关要求及我国所做出的具体承