分类号：密级：
学号：1076201008333 单位代码：10762
新疆师范大学
2013届硕士学位论文
乌鲁木齐市哈萨克族居民哈汉句
内语码转换的语法限制研究
A Study of Grammatical Constraints on Kazakh-Chinese Intraclausal Code-switching of Kazakh People in Urumqi
姓名：刘娅莉
专业：外国语言学及应用语言学
研究方向：跨文化交际
院系、年级：外国语学院2010级
指导教师：曹湘洪教授
新疆师范大学
2013年5月28日
新疆师范大学学位论文原创性声明
本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下，独立进行研究工作所取得的成果。除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本论文不含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的作品成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律结果由本人承担。
学位论文作者签名：日期：年月日
关于论文使用授权的说明
学位论文作者完全了解新疆师范大学有关保留和使用学位论文的规定，即：研究生在校攻读学位期间论文工作的知识产权单位属新疆师范大学。学校有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许学位论文被查阅和借阅；学校可以公布学位论文的全部或部分内容，可以允许采用影印、缩印或其它复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。（保密的学位论文在解密后遵守此规定）保密论文注释：本学位论文属于保密在年解密后适用本授权书。
非保密论文注释：本学位论文不属于保密范围，适用本授权书。
本人签名：日期：
导师签名：日期：
中文摘要
本文旨在探讨乌鲁木齐市哈萨克族居民哈汉句内语码转换中哈语对嵌入汉语的限制情况。具体从以下三个方面对其进行了分析：第一，在哈汉句内语码转换中，对嵌入在哈语中的汉语的成分限制情况进行分析。第二，分析哈语对嵌入汉语成分的形态限制情况。第三，对嵌入汉语成分在句中语序限制情况进行了分析。
根据在新疆乌鲁木齐市家庭，朋友，教育，工作以及市场五个不同领域的场所对具有不同年龄，职业，教育背景的乌鲁木齐市哈萨克族居民日常对话进行录音，得到120个小时的自然语料，并根据小句划分标准，切分出1348个小句，得到1621次语码转换，结合定性及定量的分析方法，对以上三个方面进行了分析，主要分析结果如下：
第一，在1621次语码转换中，嵌入的汉语成分分别为词，词组和句子。说明这三种成分在哈汉句内语码转换中并不受限制。其次，词转换了1318次，是转换次数最多的成分。词组转换了297次，位居第二。转换次数最少的是句子。在嵌入的单个词中，发生转换的词性为名词，动词，形容词，副词，数词以及量词。其中，名词转换次数最多，量词转换次数最少。数词和量词在哈汉句内语码转换中可以发生转换是本研究新的发现。经分析得出，当数词与量词在哈汉句内语码转换中充当名词并起名词作用的时候，它们发生转换是有可能的。参与转换的词组为名词词组，动词词组以及形容词词组。其中，名词词组最多，动词词组位居第二，形容词词组最少。所有参与转换的句子为简单句，其中主谓句居多。
第二，嵌入的汉语成分全部按照哈语的句法规则发生了形态变化。嵌入的名词以及名词词组按哈语中名词词缀规则经历了格，复数，所属物等词缀的变化。动词以及动词词组被加上了表示体，时，态，形容词化，名词化等词缀。形容词以及形容词词组，副词，数词以及量词都按照哈萨克语法名物化后缀接了相应的词缀。说明做主体语的哈语提供了哈汉语码转换的语法结构的框架。
第三，在句法层面上，由于哈语与汉语的语序不同，哈语语序对嵌入的汉语进行了限制，嵌入的汉语均按照哈语的语序嵌入在哈语句中，并且除补语外，主，谓，宾，定以及状语的位置上均可发生语码转换。说明在补语位置上，语码转换是受限制的。
根据以上结果，说明在哈汉句内语码转换中，嵌入的汉语是受哈语限制的，并且各个成分所受限制的程度不相同。在嵌入成分上，嵌入的汉语中单个词类最多，在形态限制上，所有嵌入汉语成分都受到了哈语的形态限制。在句法限制上，嵌入的汉语遵循哈语语序并除补语外，所有位置都可发生转换。
关键词：哈语汉语句内语码转换语法限制
I
Abstract
The research aims to explore what the constraints on the embedded Chinese constituents are in Kazakh-Chinese intraclausal code-switching. In detail, the three following aspects are analyzed: firstly, it explores what Chinese constituents are able to be switched in code-switching. Secondly, it explores the Kazakh morphological constraints on Chinese constituents. Thirdly, the linear order constraints on Chinese embedded constituents are analyzed.
120 hours’natural recordings are gained based on the recording of Kazakh people’s daily life in Urumqi in five domains, family, friend, education, employment and market fields, with diverse age, gender, occupation and education background of Kazakh people. The data consist of 1348 clauses with 1621 switchings according to the definition of clause. Employing the combination of qualitative method and quantitative method, the study explores the constraints on the embedded Chinese constituents in Kazakh-Chinese intraclusal code-switching from the above three aspects. The main results are the following:
Firstly, there are three kinds of constituents among 1621 switchings, that is, single words, phrases and sentences, which indicates that the three constituents are not constrained in Kazakh-Chinese intraclausal code-switching. With being the most constituents, there are 1318 switchings in single words. The switchings of phrases rank the second (297 times) and the switchings of sentences rank the last (9 times). In single words, the switched categories involve nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and qualifiers with nouns as the most ones and qualifiers with least ones. Compared with previous studies, there are some switchings in numerals and quantifiers in the present study. Based on analysis, they might be switched on condition that they function as nouns in Kazakh-Chinese intraclusal code-switching. As for phrases, noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases are switched in the whole data. Noun phrases rank the first, followed by verb phrases and adjective phrases. All the sentences involving switching are simple sentences, among which subject-predicate sentences make up the majority.
Secondly, the embedded Chinese constituents experience morphological changes to conform to Kazakh grammatical rule. Chinese single nouns and Chinese noun phrases are added case, plural form, possessee suffixes and so on, which are added after Kazakh nouns and noun phrases. V erb and V erbs phrases experience aspect, tense, voice, adjectivalized, nominalized suffixes and so on. Adjectives and adjective
phrases, adverbs, numerals and quantifier are all added certain suffixes after they experience normalization.
Thirdly, on the syntactic level, due to differences between the Kazakh linear order and Chinese one, the former sets constraints on the embedded Chinese constituents so that the embedded Chinese follow the Kazakh linear order. In addition, all the embedded Chinese constituents can be switched in subject, predication, object, adverbial and attributive positions except in complement position, which means the code-switching is constrained in complement position.
According to the above results, it can be seen that the embedded Chinese in Kazakh-Chinese intraclusal code-switching are constrained by Kazakh language, but the degrees of code-switchings are various. In the embedded Chinese constituents, single words are switched most frequently. As for morphological constraints, all the embedded Chinese constituents experience morphological changes. At the syntactic level, the embedded Chinese conform to the Kazakh linear order, and codes are switched in any syntactic position except in complement.
Key words: Kazakh language, Chinese, Intraclausal code-switching, Grammatical Constraint
Contents
List of Tables ..................................................................................................... V II Chapter One Introduction (1)
1.1 Background of the Present Study (1)
1.2 Significance of the Present Study (2)
1.2.1 Theoretical Significance of the Present Study (2)
1.2.2 Practical Significance of the Present Study (3)
1.3 Layout of the Present Study (3)
Chapter Two Literature Review (5)
2.1 Introduction (5)
2.2 Theoretical Base (5)
2.2.1 Code (5)
2.2.2 Code-switching (5)
2.2.2.1 Definition of Code-switching (6)
2.2.2.2 Types of Code-switching (7)
2.2.2.3 Functions of Code-switching (9)
2.2.3 Relevant Terms to Code-switching (10)
2.2.3.1 Borrowing (10)
2.2.3.2 Code Mixing (11)
2.2.4 The Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family and the
Altaic Family (11)
2.2.5 Agglutinating Language and Isolating Language (12)
2.2.6 VO Language and OV Language (13)
2.3 Different Approaches towards the Study of Intraclusal Kazakh-Chinese
Code-switching (17)
2.3.1 The Sociolinguistic Approach (17)
2.3.2 The Psycholinguistic Approach (18)
2.3.3 The Conversation Analysis Approach (19)
2.3.4 The Pragmatic Approach (20)
2.3.5 The Grammatical Approach (21)
2.4 Previous Studies on Syntactic Constraints on Intraclusal Code-switching in
Western Countries and in China (22)
2.4.1 Syntactic Constraint Studies in Western Countries (22)
2.4.2 Syntactic Constraint Studies in China (24)
2.5 Limitations of the Previous Studies (28)
Chapter Three Methodology (29)
3.1 Introduction (29)
3.2 The Objectives of the Present Study (29)
3.3 Research Questions (29)
3.4 Sampling Place (30)
3.5 Data (30)
3.6 Participants (31)
3.7 Data Collection (32)
3.7.1 Recording (32)
3.7.2 Transcription (33)
3.7.3 Transliteration (33)
3.7.4 Coding of Data (33)
3.8 Analytical Framework (34)
3.8.1 Identification of Chinese Constituents (34)
3.8.2 Identification of Morphology and Linear Order of the
Embedded Chinese Constituents Constrained by Kazakh Language .. 35
3.9 Method of Analysis (35)
Chapter Four Results and Discussion (36)
4.1 Introduction (36)
4.2 The Embedded Chinese Constituents in Kazakh Sentence (36)
4.2.1 Embedded Chinese Single Words (37)
4.2.2 Embedded Chinese Phrase (43)
4.2.3 Embedded Chinese sentences (45)
4.3 The Morphological Constraints on the EmbeddedChinese Constituents (46)
4.3.1 Morphological Constraints on Embedded Chinese Single Words (47)
4.3.1.1 Morphological Constraints on Embedded Chinese Nouns (48)
4.3.1.2 Morphological Constraints on Embedded Chinese V erbs (54)
4.3.1.3 Morphological Constraints on Embedded Chinese Adjectives56
4.3.2 Morphological Constraints on Embedded Chinese Phrases and
Sentences (57)
4.4 Constraints on Linear Order of Embedded Chinese Constituents (60)
4.4.1 Linear Order and Constituent Structure of Kazakh Language (60)
4.4.2 Constraints on Linear Order of Embedded Chinese Constituents
by Kazakh Language (61)
4.4.2.1 Constraints on Embedded Chinese Constituents in
Object Position (61)
4.4.2.2 Constraints on the Embedded Chinese Constituents in
Predicate Position (62)
4.4.2.3 Constraints on the Embedded Chinese Constituents in
Subject Position (64)
4.4.2.4 Constraints on the Embedded Chinese Constituents
in Adverbial and Attributive Position (65)
Chapter Five Conclusion (67)
5.1 Main Findings of the present study (67)
5.2 Implications (68)
5.2.1 Theoretical Implication (68)
5.2.2 Practical Implication (69)
5.3 Limitations of the study (70)
5.4 Suggestions for future research (71)
Appendix (72)
References (77)
Acknowledgements (83)
List of Tables
Table 1 Background of Participants Involving Data (31)
Table 2 Occurrence Rates of Chinese and Kazakh Morphemes (34)
Table 3 Occurrence Rates of Embedded Chinese Constituents (36)
Table 4 Occurrence Rates of Embedded Chinese Single Words (38)
Table 5 Types of Embedded Chinese Nouns (39)
Table 6 Occurrence Rates of V erbs Involving Code-switching (40)
Table 7 Occurrence Rates of Adjectives Involving Code-switching (41)
Table 8 Occurrence Rates of Embedded Chinese Phrase (43)
Table 9 Types of Embedded Chinese Sentences... .. (46)
Table 10 Constraints on Morphology of Embedded Chinese Constituents (47)
Table 11 Constraints on Morphology of Embedded Chinese Nouns (49)
Table 12 Constraints on Morphology of Embedded Chinese V erbs (55)
Table 13 Constraints on Morphology of Embedded Chinese Adjectives (57)
Table 14 Constraints on Morphology of Embedded Chinese Phrases (59)
Table 15 Distributions of Embedded Chinese constituents (61)
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One Introduction
1.1Background of the Present Study
It is not an uncommon phenomenon that people usually use two or more language varieties in the same conversation, which is called code-switching. It is an intended outcome of the direct contact between different languages or language varieties. Although code-switching has been a universal phenomenon for a long time since it emerged into real life, it commanded scant attention by researchers until the 1970s.Since then, foreign scholars conducted a large number of researches in different fields from sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, conversation analysis, pragmatic and grammatical perspectives. The relationship between language choice and social factors is explored from the sociolinguistic perspective (Gumperz,1982; Myers-Scotton,1993;Auer, 1998). The researchers study the mental process of speakers when they engage in code-switching from the psycholinguistic perspective (Clyne, 1972; Giles, 1979). From the conversation analysis perspective, it explores code-switching by analyzing the sequence of conversation (David Li, 1996; Auer, 1998). The studies from the pragmatic perspective can be regarded as relative comprehensive and dynamic ones to explore code-switching process (V erschueren, 1999; Y u, 2001). However, the researches from above four perspectives study the code-switching on the external factors, without taking the linguistic structure into consideration, which is solved by the studies from the grammatical perspective. It explores the linguistic features of the languages involving code-switching. It mainly focuses on syntactic constraints on intraclusal code-switching (Poplack, 1980; Di Sicullo et al., 1986; Myers-Scotton, 1993, 2000; Bhatt, 1997). Although some far-reaching theories have been formulated, the majority of them are established on the languages in Indo-European family with a lack of the ones in the Sino-Tibetan and Altaic families. In China, the researches are either concerned about the reviews of achievements in foreign countries or study the code-switching between English and Chinese. In addition, few of the previous studies are empirical ones which are based on the natural data between Chinese and ethnic languages.
Xinjiang is regarded as a famous northwestern province where a variety of minorities gathered and settled hundreds of years ago. Urumqi, the capital of Xinjiang,
Chapter One Introduction
is a modern city where many ethnic minorities live with Han nationality together. Apart from Han nationality, making up72.5% of the population in total, more than 12 kinds of ethnic minorities make up the rest of the population in Urumqi. As the third largest population of all the minorities, Kazakh people have had close contacted with Han nationality for a long time, with integration and interaction in numerous fields. Among them, Kazakh language has already been influenced considerably because of the long duration and high frequency of language contact with mandarin, which makes most of Kazakh people use both Chinese and Kazakh language freely. Being a consequence of language contact, the switching between Chinese and Kazakh language in a conversational continuum is not an uncommon phenomenon in Kazakh’s daily talk. Therefore, based on the natural data, it is worthy doing a n empirical study into grammatical constrains on Kazakh-Chinese intraclausal code-switching in Urumqi.
1.2Significance of the Present Study
As mentioned above, Xinjiang is a place where a variety of minorities gather. Language, as a bridge of communication, plays a major role in interaction among different ethnic groups. Therefore, to study about constrains on intraclusal code-switching between Chinese and Kazakh has major significance, which lies in theoretical aspect and practical aspect.
1.2.1Theoretical Significance of the Present Study
Firstly, the present study enriches the cases of researches on code-switching between Chinese and minority languages. Although many researches have been done, most of them are either established on languages in Indo-European family or study the code-switching between Mandarin and dialects. The present study provides an empirical case between ethnic language and Chinese.
Secondly, the present study supplies some hypothesis with theoretical support on code-switching between Chinese and Kazakh language. It contributes to the development of theory about language contact, which benefits the study on code-switching between Chinese and minority languages in the future.
Thirdly, there are few researches to study into code-switching between Chinese and
Chapter One Introduction
minority languages empirically. The present study enhances the development of empirical studies in China. Compared with previous studies, the present study is done with a combination of qualitative and quantities methods. All the data in the present study are from natural recording. In addition, the data is collected in various fields to the largest extent.
1.2.2Practical Significance of the Present Study
Firstly, the present study can be particularly informative to both teachers and Kazakh language learners. The differences between Kazakh language and Chinese are sought to be presented clearly, which contributes to improving understanding of the two languages’characters. It benefits the prediction of errors both for teachers and learners in the Kazakh language teaching and learning.
Secondly, the available information in the present study casts light on the readers’understanding of code-switching. Not only does the present study help them know about the code-switching, but also it can help them realize now how code-switching influences their daily life, which is for their benefit to use code-switching properly. Thirdly, the present study benefits the under standing of each other’s language, which contributes to better communication between Chinese and Kazakh people. In addition, better communication paves the way to the fusion with one another’s culture, which leads to the development of two nationalities in many fields.
1.3Layout of the Thesis
The present study consists of 5 chapters. Chapter 1 presents the introduction of the present study, and then introduces the theoretical and practical significance of the study. Chapter two concentrates on the literature review. It reviews the main concepts and achievements in western countries and China. The following chapter introduces the methodology applied in the present study, which includes the objectives, research questions of the study and the information about the sampling place, data, participants and data collection. The last two parts in this chapter are analytical framework and method of analysis. In Chapter 4, it discusses the results of the present study, which includes the Chinese constituents embedded in Kazakh sentences, the morphological constraints on the embedded Chinese constituents and the linear order constraints on
Chapter One Introduction
the embedded Chinese constituents and the last chapter draws the conclusion and provides the theoretical and practical implication, in addition, the limitations of the present study and some suggestions will be presented.
Chapter Two Literature Review
Chapter Two Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the reviews of terms and previous studies on code-switching. In the first part, the definitions of code and code-switching are shown, followed by the reviews of types and functions of code-switching. Besides, some relevant terms to code-switching and terms about Kazakh languages and Chinese are presented. It is known that many scholars have studies on code-switching. In the second part and the last part, it reviews the previous studies about code-switching from different approaches and it introduces some theories and previous studies on syntactic constraint on intraclusal code-switching in western countries and China.
2.2 Theoretical Base
2.2.1 Code
It is a necessity to understand what code is before we come to the definition of code-switching.
Wardhaugh (2000) thinks terms like dialect, language, style, standard language, pidgin and creole are inclined to arise some kinds of emotions. In contrast, the ―neutral‖ term code can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for communication. Therefore, a code can also be a language, specifically, a variety of a language, which avoids causing any emotion. V erschueren (1999) defines code as any distinguishable variant of a language, involving systematic sets of choices, whether linked to a specific geographical area, a social class, an assignment of functions, or a specific contest of use. From above two definitions, I regard code as a variety of a language without any relation with external factors to express one’s own opinion or exchange information.
2.2.2 Code-switching
The view is widely accepted that people who control two or more languages may
Chapter Two Literature Review
mix two or more codes in one conversation, which is called code-switching. Bilinguals often switch between their two languages in the middle of a conversation (Spolsky, 2000).
The terminology ―code –switching‖ can be traced back to an article written by V ogt in 1954(Cited in Auer, 1998).However, it wasn’t been paid assiduous attention as a natural product of bilingualism and multilingualism until the 1970s. Since then, it has attracted many scholars from different disciplines to do researches. In terms of the research methods, it is studied with sociolinguistic approach, psychological approach, conversation analysis approach, pragmatic approach and grammatical approach.
2.2.2.1 Definition of Code-switching
Although it has been a long time since code–switching was seen as a topic by many scholars, it is still far from being an identical definition. Researchers from different fields define code-switching differently according to their research interests (Y u, 2001).
Sociolinguists pay much attention to the social factors behind the phenomenon of code-switching and the relationship between them. Gal (1988) defines code-switching as a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations. That is to say, code-switching is used as a tool to set up and maintain even improve the social relationship between people. In addition, Auer has a same view on code-switching. Auer (1995) suggests that code-switching does not simply reflect social situations, but that it is a means to create social situations.
From pragmatic approach, it considers how and why code-switching happens, which concentrates more on the effects of code-switching. V erschueren (1999) holds that any language contact can lead to patterns of language convergence, divergence, maintenance, interference, language shift, language spread and the like. V erschueren thinks code-switching is a result of language contact to achieve some goals. From pragmatic point of view, scholars hold code–switching is not a pure linguistic phenomenon but has much to do with its users.
Structuralists focus on the linguistic nature of code-switching. Gumperz (1982) defines code-switching as the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems.
Chapter Two Literature Review
Code-switching is regarded as an exchange between different linguistic structures of varieties of languages. Scotton and Ury (1977) define code-switching as the use of two or more linguistic varieties in the same conversation or interaction. The linguistic varieties here may be different languages, or dialects, or styles of the same language. The present study explores Scotton and Ury’s definition because they define it from the linguistic structure of language which is identical with the focus of the study.
2.2.2.2 Types of Code-switching
Like the definition of code-switching, a variety of scholars classify code-switching from their points of views and interests.
Considering social factors and language users’ motivation s, Gumperz (1972) puts forward two types of code-switching: situational and metaphorical code-switching. The notion of situation switching assumes a direct relationship between language and the social situation. Gumperz (1972) thinks the linguistic forms employed are critical features of the event in the sense that any violation of selection rules changes members’ perception of the event. It refers to the change of code is determined by the change of situation (Gumperz, 1972). People usually use one code in a situation and change another in a different one to match the context in which the language are used. The change of situation can be the change of participants, social environment, setting and so on. Metaphorical code –switching relates to particular kinds of topics or subject matter rather than change in social situation (Gumperz, 1972). It occurs when the topics are changed. People usually change a code to indicate the onset of another topic.
From conversation analysis point of view, taking the speakers and hearers into consideration, Auer (1998) classifies code-switching into two types, discourse-related code–switching and participant–related code-switching. Discourse-related code-switching is speaker-oriented, and works as a resource for accomplishing different communicative acts at specific points within an interactional sequence. Participant-related code-switching is hearer-oriented and considers the hearer’s lingui stic preferences and competences (Cited in He and Y u, 2001). In Auer’s classification, the language proficiency of speakers’and hearers’is the determined factor to categorize code-switching.
There are classifications from some scholars about code-switching based on the
Chapter Two Literature Review
structural and functional perspectives. Poplack, Myers-Scotton and Muysken are the famous ones from whom categories of code-switching are far-reaching.
Poplack (1980) divides code-switching into three types, that is, inter-sentential, intra-sentential and tag switching.Inter-sentential code-switching occurs at a clause or sentence boundary where one clause or sentence is in one language and the other in another language (Poplack, 1980). If a switch occurs beyond the extent of a sentence or a clause, it can be called inter-sentential code-switching. It requires speakers’ relative high language proficiency, because the switching code shall obey the grammatical rule of the switching language. Intra-sentential switching includes a switch within the clause or sentence boundary (Poplack, 1980). Compared with inter-sentential switching, a switch only takes place in a clause or sentence. Tag code-switching involves the insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance that is entirely in another language (Poplack, 1980). This kind of code-switching often occurs in real life. L anguage users’ low proficiency can realize such a code-switching, because ―it can be produced in the second language with only minimal knowledge of the grammar of that language‖ (Poplack, 1980).
Poplack’s categor ies are definitely based on the grammatical structure of the language. Several years later, Poplack develops the classification and puts forward the two new types, that is, ―smooth switching‖ and ―flagged switching‖. The former indicates that the transition from the first language to the second language is smooth without hesitation or high frequency false. The latter is featured with unsmooth or trace of native language (Poplack 1987). The developed classification takes account of language users’ proficiency rather than structure of language.
Myers-Scotton (1993) also introduces two types of code-switching: inter-sentential and intra-sentential code-switching. Distinguishing Poplack’s division, Myer-Scotton integrates tag switch into inter-switching and intra-switching. Intersentential code-switching involves switches from one language to the other between sentences. Intrasentential switches occur within the same sentence or sentence fragment (Myers-Scotton, 1993).
Like Myers-Scotton, Huang and Milroy (1993) classify code-switching into two types: intraclausal code-switching and interclausal code-switching. The former refers to the code-switching occurs within the boundary of clause, while the latter takes place between clauses.
The last one the present study reviews is from Muysken. Muysken (1995) propose
there are three types of code-switching: alternation, insertion and congruent lexicalization. Alternation is usually seen as code-switching, because it involves the change of lexical level and grammatical level. Insertion means one linguistic element embeds into another linguistic structure of any other language. Congruent lexicalization occurs when a same grammatical structure is shared by two languages with different lexicons.
According to the purposes of the present study, Hunag and Milroy’s classification is adopted because they classify code-switching from the grammatical structure point of view.
2.2.2.3 Functions of Code-switching
People switch the codes in the process of the conversation to accomplish certain purposes. Many scholars have done the researches on functions of code-switching based on their data.
Gumperz (1982) puts forward six functions from micro-aspect of conversation, that is, quotations, address specification, interjections, reiteration, message qualification and personalization versus objectivizations.
Appel and Muysken (1987) proposes functions of code-switching from a macro point of view, that is, the referential function, the directive and integrative, the expressive, the phatic, the meta-linguistic and the poetic function.
Above scholars introduce what the functions of code-switching are. In addition, there are others put forward the theories which can explain how code-switching works.
Bloom and Gumperz (1972) put forwards two types of code-switching, situational code-switching and metaphorical code-switching. The former occurs when the situation changes. That is, the speakers may use one code in a situation but switch another as the situation changes. The latter appears when the speakers want to achieve certain communicative purpose without the variable situations.
Myers-Scotton (1993) proposed the Markedness Model to reveal how code-switching is used by speakers to fulfill their communicative purpose. In the model, code-switching can be divided into unmarked code-switching and marked code-switching. Unmarked code-switching is used in-group members to show the close relationship between speakers and hears, while marked code-switching is used
when speakers want to adjust relationship between the two sides of the conversation.
2.2.3 Relevant Terms to Code-switching
2.2.
3.1 Borrowing
There is a widespread phenomenon that people confuse code-switching with borrowing. Borrowing often occurs whenever languages come into contact and it is a form of language alternation which is a language strategy employed by both bilingual and monolingual speakers (MacSwan, 1999). It is absolutely a result of direct language contact. Scholars hold two opposite views on the relationship between code-switching and borrowing.
Some scholars hold that it doesn’t appear reasonable to cut the two terms clearly. Myers-Scotton (1993) concludes that there is little reason to differentiate these two forms and there are more similarities than differences. She (1993) holds that both of them are about the interaction of lexicon between two languages firstly. The only difference of them is the frequency of occurrence. Borrowing is with high-frequency, while code-switching is low–frequency forms. Y u (2001) also thinks there is no clear-cut boundary between code-switching and borrowing since they are in the same continuum.
On the contrary, the others think it is important to differentiate code-switching from borrowing. Poplack considers code-switching and borrowing are two different grammatical structures. Poplack and Sankoff (1984) conclude that code-switching is the juxtaposition of sentence or sentence fragments, each of which is internally consistent with the morphological and syntactic rules of the language of its provenance. However, borrowing is the adoption of lexical material to the morphological and syntactic patterns of the recipient language. Hudson (1996) holds that whereas code-switching and code-mixing involve mixing languages in speech, borrowing involves mixing the systems themselves, because an item is ―borrowed‖ from one language to become part of the other languages.
The present study adopts the view of the latter. Based on Poplack and Sankoff’s understanding, borrowing lexicons in the present research are the ones which become the part of the mental lexicon and the integration into the language. Practically, they are mainly identified in terms of two dictionaries called Kazakh-Chinese Dictionary
and Chinese-Kazakh Dictionary. Both of them have been regarded as the most famous and authoritative dictionaries so far. Therefore, the borrowing words are excluded in the present study.
2.2.
3.2 Code Mixing
Whether there is the essential differences between code-mixing and code-switching is the formidable barrier to define code-mixing. Therefore, scholars’ opinions vary on the relationship between code-switching and code-mixing varies in scholars. According to He and Y u (2001), the present definitions of code-mixing can be divided into three categories: Category One maintains the difference between code-switching and code-mixing; Category Two abolishes the distinction between code-switching and code-mixing and Category Three holds a neutral view.
Scholars from the first group think it is necessary to distinguish them because they are two independent entities. Bokamba (1989) holds that the distinction is not merely convenient but necessary because the two phenomena make different linguistic and psycholinguistic claims.
The second group holds the view that it will be complex if code-switching and code-mixing are distinguished. Myers-Scotton (1993) holds her ground that she does not distinguish code-switching from code-mixing because much confusion surrounds the term code mixing and its addition to the literature seems unnecessary. In addition, Grosjean (1995) states most of the researchers use code-switching as the cover term, and a few of them resort to code-mixing as the umbrella term.
The scholars from third group do not take a stance as to the distinction between code-switching and code-mixing (Tay, 1989). They think there is no clear boundary between code-switching and code-mixing and it should leave the issue alone.
In the present study, the view from the second group is adopted, that is, code-switching is regarded as a cover term in order to simplify the terms.
2.2.4 The Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family and the Altaic Family
Historical linguists make great efforts to succeed in classifying more than 6000 languages in the world (Hu, 2002). The Indo-European family, the Sino-Tibetan family and the Altaic family are mentioned in the present study, so they are introduced
第一课 （1）辅音字母的发音 与英语单词相比，葡萄牙语单词的发音是比较简单的，除了辅音字母x的发音比较复杂之外，其它辅音、元音字母都有固定的发音，只要我们掌握每个辅音、元音字母的发音，今后看到一个单词，就可以直接拼读出来，一般情况下不需要国际音标。 b - 发[b]音，例如bala。 c - 在a/o/u之前发[k]音，例如casa，在e/i之前发[s]音，例如cedo。 ? - 发[s]音，例如mo?a。 ch - 发[]音，例如cheque。 d - 发[d]音，例如data。 f - 发[f]音，例如faca。 g - 在a/o/u之前发[g]音，例如gato，在e/i之前发[]音，例如gelo。 gu - 在a/o之前发[gw]音，例如guarda，在e/i之前发[g]音，例如guerra。 gü - 发[gw]音，例如lingüista。 h - 不发音，例如hotel。 j - 发[]音，例如jornal。 k - 葡萄牙语中没有这个字母，仅出现在外来语单词中，发[k]音。 l - 在a/e/i/o/u之前发[l]音，例如laranja，在a/e/i/o/u之后发[w]音，例如Brasil。 lh - 发[lj]音，例如trabalho。 m - 发[m]音，例如mapa。 n - 发[n]音，例如nada。
nh - 发[nj]音，例如banho。 p - 发[p]音，例如pato。 qu - 在a/o之前发[kw]音，例如quase，在e/i之前发[k]音，例如aqui。 qü - 发[gw]音，例如cinqüenta。 r - 发[r]音（这是一个短颤音，不会发这个音的读者，也可以发[h]音），例如recibo。rr - 发[r]音（这是一个长颤音，不会发这个音的读者，也可以发[h]音），例如carro。s - 在两个元音字母之间发[z]音，例如casa，在单词其它位置发[s]音，例如sopa。ss - 发[s]音，例如passo。 t - 发[t]音，例如tomate。 v - 发[v]音，例如vaga。 w - 葡萄牙语中没有这个字母，仅出现在外来语单词中，发[w]音。 x - 在单词最前面发[]音，例如xarope，在单词其它位置可能发[ks]、[s]、[]、[z]音，一般需要查词典。 y - 葡萄牙语中没有这个字母，仅出现在外来语单词中，发[j]音。 z - 在单词最后面发[s]音，例如feliz，在单词其它位置发[z]音，例如zero。 另外补充两点。第一，在英语中，p/b、t/d、k/g这三对辅音字母，发音的区别是非常明显的，一听就能听出来，例如beat和peak。但在葡萄牙语中，发音的区别非常不明显，p听起来是b，t听起来是d，k听起来是g，例如pata这个单词，实际听起来，好象就是bada，这一点，对以前学英语的读者，可能很不适应。为此，笔者建议读者将p、t、k这三个辅音字母，直接读成b、d、g。 第二，“葡葡”和“巴葡”在辅音字母的发音方面，主要有三个区别。①单词的最后一个字母如果是s，例如batatas，在“巴葡”中一般读做[s]，但在“葡葡”中一般读做[]。②字母d，在“巴葡”中经常读做[]，例如cidade。③字母t，在“巴葡”中经常读做[]，例如noite。
网络流行语中汉英语码转换的语用探析 摘要：自上世纪90年代以来，国内对汉英语码转换的研究取得长足的进步，但主要集中于对双语社区（香港）、英语课堂以及各类传媒语言的汉英语码转换研究，对网络流行语中汉英语码转换研究尚未形成系统的论述。本文将以语码转换的理论作为支撑，从语用的角度对此类网络流行语的进行初步探析。 关键词：流行语；语码转换；语用 随着网络技术的不断更新与发展，大众网络语言展现出百花齐放的发展趋势，大量的网络流行语涌现并更迭。日益分化的大众话语环境使得网络流行语在结构形式、语义、句法上呈现出不同的特点。而近两年来，随着“hold住”、“out”等流行语的迅速蹿红，汉英语码转换类流行语成为后起之秀，“get”、“美cry了”跻身于年度热门网络流行语之列。这类流行语作为新构式词语，在结构形式、语义上呈现出其独特性，也映射出网民使用语言背后的心理动机。从语用学的角度来看，语码转换是交际者对语言的选择与顺应，从顺应性理论的角度对此类流行语进行研究是可行且必要的。 一、网络流行语中英汉语码转换现象的概述 （一）汉英语码转换 对于“语码转换”这一术语的定义，很多研究者采用“语码混用”这一术语代替它。而Myers—Scotton(1995：36)认为句间语码转换和句内语码混用具有相似的社会功能且属于统同一框架，没必要区分语码转换和语码混用，因为语码混用这个术语本身会引起迷惑，而且没有必要再引入一个新的术语。他将“语码转换”定义为“在同一次对话或交谈中使用两种甚至更多的语言变体。转换不拘数量,可以仅仅是一个词或几分钟的谈话；转换的语码,可以是没有谱系关系的另一种语言或同一种语言的两种变体。” [1]从语码转换的发生位置上看，Poplack将语码转换分为句间语码转换、句内语码转换和附加语码转换。[2]汉英语码转换现象是指说话者在汉语的交际会话中夹杂着使用英语词汇或者语句的现象。 （二）网络流行语的汉英语码转换研究 随着国外语码转换研究理论的成熟，国内对汉英语码转换的研究也取得丰硕成果，不仅相关学术论文数量惊人，而且研究的理论视角极为广阔，主要从语言学、心理学、社会认知学、新闻传播学等角度进行研究。研究的对象不仅包括英语课堂教学，还具体到电影、电视节目、小说、论坛、报刊、广告等各类传播媒介的汉英语码转换研究。而汉英语码转换的网络流行语因近几年才呈现出繁荣发展的趋势，相关研究相对较少，有从社交网站的角度对“hold住”、“X客”的语义、句法功能及流行原因的研究。而这两年来网络中盛行的诸如“low”、“high”、“cry”、“get”等流行语属于典型的汉英语码转换现象。 二、网络流行语中汉英语码转换的结构类型与基本特征 （一）网络流行语中汉英语码转换的结构类型 依照Poplack对语码转换的分类，网络流行语的汉英语码转换的构成主要表现为句内语码转换，即在汉语语句中夹杂使用某个英语词或者短语。网络流行语的汉英语码转换主要的形式有:1、汉语与英语缩略词转换。报纸、电视、广播及微信、微博等媒体平台中都大量使用英语缩略词。如“DIY”是英语“Do it yourself”的缩写，为“自己动手做”的意思；“CP”是英语中couple的缩写，是“一对夫妻、配偶”的意思；2、“英语词+汉语词”式固定短语，如“hold住”，称之为固定短语，是因为二者不可更换为其他的词来搭配；3、单个英语词，如“cry”、“get”、“out”、“low”等，这类英语词结构与词义均简单且易于理解记忆。作为单个英语词夹杂在汉语语句中，虽然搭配比较自由，但在语法规则与语义上更多
哈萨克语常用会话手册 您好撒列灭色泽别 你好撒列灭特别 您叫什么名字? 阿腾恩子克木 我叫多斯江灭恩阿特木多斯江 你叫什么名字? 阿腾克木 我叫波拉提灭恩阿特木波拉提 你家在那儿？育英哈医大 在北塔山育英木恰五也写克贴 家里都好吗？位额行，铁个斯，啊曼吧？ 都好铁格斯，阿曼。 身体怎么样？电扫了恒，汗待？ 身体很好电扫了恒，加克斯。 你上学吗？斯叶嗯，喔嘿僧吧？ 不，我上班级喔克，灭恩，和自灭特，额斯铁依们。 工作忙吗？和孜灭特嗯，哈尔吧拉斯怕？ 不忙哈尔吧拉斯，也灭斯。 你去那儿斯叶嗯，还打吧尔啊僧？ 我去县城灭嗯，阿无单哈，把尔阿门。 再见扫波了 再见扫波了 您好吗? 撒列灭特斯孜别？ 你好撒列灭特斯嗯 你叫什么名字？散能，阿腾，克木？ 我叫阿尔曼。灭能，阿特么，阿尔曼你妈妈叫什么名字？么能，阿腾，克木？ 妈妈叫玛依拉，他是医生。么能阿特，马依拉，哦了，多和的尔你爸爸叫什么名字？阿克英能，阿腾，克木？ 爸爸叫阿德力，他是干部。阿克英能，阿特，阿德里，哦了，卡的尔
你妻子叫什么名字？散能阿依叶了嗯能，阿特，克木？ 妻子叫努尔古丽，他是老师。阿叶了木，努尔古丽，哦了，木哈了木。 你呢? 斯叶嗯吃？ 我在乡里工作灭嗯阿无额了大，和兹灭特，额斯铁依们。 副乡长握仁吧撒尔，阿无了，吧斯特饿 日啊和灭特。 再见扫波了 你叫什么名字? 散能，阿腾，克木？ 我叫木拉提。灭能，阿特么，木拉提。 你多大了? 斯叶嗯，喊啥，加斯哈，克叶了等？ 35岁了。窝特孜别死克叶克了的木 我俩同岁。胡尔达斯，叶肯么子你送哪里来的？散哈依单克叶了等？ 我从托里来的灭嗯拖了单可也了的木 你从哪儿工作？嗨大和兹灭特额斯铁依斯鞥？ 我在乡政府工作灭嗯阿无了得和无可灭特爹额斯铁依们。 你成家了吗？图尔么斯胡日阿等吧？ 是的，成家了依呀，图尔么斯胡尔阿德么 你家有几口人？与鞥爹喊差佳恩吧尔？ 我家有三口人与爹无是佳恩吧尔。 妻子，孩子和我。据吧依么吧拉么加捏无子么。 你妻子在哪里工作？据吧依额么哈依大和兹灭特斯铁依的额？ 妻子在学校工作据吧依么握和图是 你的孩子多大了？巴拉鞥额孜喊差加斯哈可也了的？ 孩子八岁了巴拉么斯叶个子加斯哈看叶了的 男孩还是女孩? 无了巴拉吗？和兹巴拉吗？ 女孩（男孩）无了巴拉 上几年级? 捏什尺这了的和他我黑的？ 上三年级无是嗯尺这了的和他我黑的。 你去哪儿? 斯叶嗯嗨大吧日啊僧？
葡萄牙语常见书籍 大家都想学好葡萄牙语吧，我对葡萄牙语不是很懂，但特地今天去外文书店和书城时留意了一下，大家可以参考一下： 教材类：基本上没有正式出版过。有也是复印版 根据我认识的中国传媒大学（北广）南京分校葡萄牙语专业的MM 的情况，基本上是，开始学得时候用的教材是临时印的，一次性印好几课，教完再印。所以教材都是很散，成色不怎么好。版本好像是澳门出版的。但他们据说也复印了上下两册很厚的葡语教材，不知道哪得。我还没见到过，等我复印了有机会给大家看看。 辅助类：《葡萄牙语300句》，有磁带，北大出的 〈葡萄牙语语音〉，有磁带，上外出的，老得很，我用的是85年的 〈旅游葡萄牙语〉，有磁带，北大出的，没买，没啥大用。 〈葡萄牙语100句〉，有磁带，上外出的，为了迎接世博会出的，简单至极 〈中英西葡对照会话〉，没磁带，a4开本的，没翻开来看，在上海外文书店有，名字可能记错了。 〈葡萄牙语语法〉，上外出的，国内目前最详细的，应该算老大了。 〈简明葡萄牙语语法〉，商务印书馆出的，编得很简单，很容易看懂，关键是编这本书的人，经历让人感动，大家如果有机会可以看看这本书的前言。
〈葡萄牙语应用文〉，上外出的，不出教材出这个，TNND，无语…… 总结：以上就是我知道的目前国内葡萄牙语方面的出版状况了，建议初学者可以先买个〈葡萄牙语语音〉，待这个学完后去网上找一个“自学葡萄牙语”的网站，上面大概有１０课左右的很不错的入门教材，有条件的把它全部打印下来装订成册不失为一本很好的初级教材。学完这个以后吗，买本葡语的语法，能看多少算多少，辅以网络上的葡语简单新闻，再加上一本葡语辞典，基本上就可以自自学下去了
浅谈语码转换 当今社会，不同国家，不同民族的交往日趋频繁，这样，使用双语甚至多语的人数越来越多，而这种掌握双语或多语的人被称为双语人或多语人。他们在沟通过程中，通常都面临着选择何种语码最为得体的问题，因而语码转换的出现不可避免。他们会根据不同的交际环境选择适当的语言，必要时还进行转换，甚至混合使用两种语码。因此语码转换是一种普遍的社会现象，也是社会语言学的重要研究课题。 一、语码及语码转换的定义 语码（Code）是社会语言学家用来指语言或者语言的任何一种变体。语码是一个中性术语，不像方言，语言，洋泾滨语，克里奥尔语，标准语等术语多少都带有某种感情色彩。 对语码转换的定义，不同的语言学家各有侧重。Fraomkin的定义是将一个单词或词组插入正在使用的一句话中，或在两种语言变体或语码间来回变换使用的现象。Scotton认为语码转换是在同一次谈话中使用两种或两种以上的语言变体。McKa Hornberger认为当言语社团中存在两种或更多的语言时，讲话人经常从一种转换到另一种语言的现象是语码转换。Poplack描述的语码转换是在连续的话语中出现不同语言的句子或句子片段的现象。她认为新插入成分的内部结构必须符合原有语言的句法和词法规则。我们不妨认为，语码转换（Code Switching）是指说话者在对话或交谈中，从使用一种语言或方言转换到使用另一种语言或方言。 总的说来，对语码转换的定义有三方面的内容：第一，操双语或多语者在同一次会话中从一种语言转向使用另一种语言的现象。第二，在主要使用一种语言的过程中穿插使用另一种语言组块(词、词组、句子或更大的语言单位)，对于这种现象，有的社会语言学家认为是语码转换，有的则认为它仅是一种语码混合。第三，指某一语言系统内各种语言变体之间的转换。 二、语码转换的类型 甘柏兹（Gumperz）和布鲁姆（Blom）最早区别了语码转换的两种类型：一种是情景语码转换，一种是喻意型语码转换。情景语码转换是指，根据交际情景的变化而采用不同的语码，即在一种情景下采用一种语码，而在另一种情景下采用另一种语码，话题不变，说话者根据情景的变化采用不同的语码。语码转换和情景有着直接的联系。例如，那些与仪式或宗教活动有关的场合所使用的语言变体。喻意型语码转换指因谈论的话题发生改变儿相应地要求转换语码。这是说话者为了改变预期、侧重点或者角色关系而采取的语码转换。喻意型语码涉及到说话者希望达到的交际效果，打破了情景与语言选择之间的规约关系，因而交际对象就需要付出更多力气来对语码转换的用意进行推理。甘柏兹（Gumperz）和布鲁姆（Blom）举了一个例子说明: Hermesberget(挪威北部的一个小城镇)的居民在邮局时发生的事情。他们在相互交谈时，对家庭成员的问候和询问一般用当地方言，而关于毛利商业部分则用标准挪威语进行。但在后期。甘柏兹（Gumperz）为了说明语码转换的多功能性，对语码转换的分类排除了二分法。 Poplack区分了三种类型的语码转换：句间语码转换（inter-sentential switching）、句内语码转换(intra-sentential和附加语码转换(tag switching)。句间语码转换发生在两个句子或分句的分界处，而且每个句子或分句都分别属于一种语言。句内语码转换涉及到句子或分句内部的转换。附加语码转换指的是在单一语言表达的句子或分句中插入另一种语言表述的附加成分（tag），附加语码转换不一定出现在小句末尾，它可以出现在句子的任何位置。另外，
语码转换作为语言接触的一种常见的现象语言学家们关注的焦点是会话语码转换,研究的路向主要有社会语言学、结构语言学、心理语言学、语用学等。 社会语言学主要研究语码转换与社会因素之间的内在关系及其社会意义与社会动机,早期的研究可以追溯到J. Fishman从宏观社会语言学的角度进行的关联性研究(correlational study)和JGumperz从微观社会语言学的角度进行的相互作用研究(interational study)。 系统功能语言学中的语域理论 在Halliday的功能语法模式中,文化语境、情景语境和上下文语境与三大纯理功能与语域这三者之间的对应关系有了明确的勾画。在Halliday的理论框架中,语域三要素,即语场、语旨和语式,分别是由三大纯理功能的经验功能、人际功能和语篇功能来体现的。相应地,三大纯理功能又是分别通过词汇语法层的及物性、语气和主位等模式分别加以体现的。(见Halliday&Hasan, 1989:25-26; Eggins,1994: 78)在系统功能语言学中,各学者对于语域与语篇体裁的关系的看法不尽相同, J.R. Martin (1999)的模式,将语篇体裁看作是阶段性的、有目的的社会过程(staged purposeful social processes),是属于位于情景语境(语域)之上的更宽泛、更抽象的文化语境的内容。 语码转换在新闻报纸各语篇体裁的出现是遵循一定规律的,这个规律就是在较为正式的语篇体裁中,语码转换比较少见;而在语体风格没有那么严肃的语篇中,语码转换出现的机率就相对大得多。从这里可以看出语码转换的出现是与语言的正式程度有关的,语码转换现象一般出现在非正式的语境。 从语场的角度来说,国际和国内新闻一般报道的是与时事有关的话题,也就是一些为人们所广泛关注的或是与大众生活息息相关的新闻。由于此类话题涉及的多是有关政治、文化和社会生活等方面比较严肃的内容,因此语言方面也相应要求比较严谨和正式语码转换在一般情况下不会出现在正式程度最高的政治新闻中,即使出现也大多只是在社会文化方面的新闻中,如代表一些国际性机构及其重要负责人的名称。而相比之下,娱乐新闻和科技新闻所涉及的话题相对没有那么严肃,所以语言的形式也比较随意,因此娱乐新闻中出现了很多与外国歌星、影星、影片、歌曲、流行杂志等的名称有关的语码转换现象,而科技新闻则主要以科技专业术语的转换为主。 从语旨的角度来看,由于国际和国内新闻所涉及的多为社会政治文化方面的话题,因此它们的受众范围非常广泛读者群体的数量也很庞大,来自不同社会阶层拥有不同学历的不同年龄群体都可能成为这些时事新闻的目标受众,所以这些版面的语言必须符合不同文化层次和社会地位的读者的阅读水平,显得既庄重简练又明白易懂,如果不时地出现个别中英夹杂的句子,就会给部分读者造成阅读困难。即使英文转换部分标注了中文,也难免会造成一种心理上的隔阂。再者,如果在政治性很强的报道中插入英文词项,可能会给读者造成一种不够严肃庄重的印象,认为不单有损中文的官方语言地位,而且会破坏中文的语言纯洁性,由此形成一种抵触的情绪。当然,在政治报道中维护官方语言的尊严和纯洁也涉及到国家语言政策中有关语言规范化、标准化的问题。而对于娱乐新闻来说,它主要针对的是对影视娱乐感兴趣的年轻人。这些人一般喜欢追时尚赶潮流,英文在他们看来是一种有品位合时尚的象征,所以他们不会抗拒中英语码转换,而且还可能很欣赏这种有点新潮和异国情调的语言风格。关于科技新闻,它的目标受众主要是一些高新科技方面的行内人士和业余爱好者,此类读者一般都能够通晓I行业通行的一些“技术行话”(technical jargon)。很多时候,I界的一些专业术语都是直接从外国引
《围城》中语码转换的语用分析 摘要: 社会语言学家们对于口语交际过程中的语码转换现象之研究较为深入,而较少关注书面语中的语码转换现象。本文以《围城》中涉及到中外文转换的语言片段为语料,深入研究分析了书面语语码转换的类型,语言特点及语用功能。 关键词: 语码转换;类型; 特点;语用功能 社会语言学家将任何一种语言及其变体都视作是一种语码(code) ,语码的选择和转换构成了社会语言学研究的一项重要内容。近三十年来,国内外关于语码转换(code - - switching) 方面的研究论著频频问世,然而,其中绝大多数是围绕口语交际过程中的会话性语码转换(conversation code - - switching) 进行的, 论及书面语语码转换(written code - -switching ) 的文献寥寥无几。本文以钱钟书先生的名作《围城》中涉及到中外文转换的语言片段为语料,对书面语中语码转换现象进行初步的探讨。《围城》中有68 个语言片段出现了中外文转换现象,我们将其中的汉语称为“原码”,将外文(包括英语和法语) 称为“他码”。本文所说的语码转换指的是汉语和外语,即汉语和英语(有时是法语) 之间的转换。 一、书面语语码转换的类型及特点 《围城》有68 个语言片段出现了语码转换现象。除5 例涉及到汉语与法语间的转换外,其余的都是汉语和英语之间的转换。这些他码长短不一,大多数以单词和短语的形式出现,也有的以句子或句群的形式出现。他码的语言单位不同,其语言特点也呈现出明显的差异。 当他码是单词或短语时,一般情况下,包含语码转换的句子既符合原码(汉语) 的语法结构,又符合他码(英语或法语) 的语法结构。因为这种语码转换的位置几乎都出现在原码与他码具有相同句法结构的地方。这种语码转换可称为“句内语码转换”。 如:(1) (辛楣说)“我宁可娶一个老实‘简单的乡下姑娘,不必受高深的教育,只要身体健康,脾气服从,让我舒舒服服做她的Lord and Master ??”(P140) (2) 鸿渐道:“??想买副纸牌来打bridge , ,找遍了镇上都没有,结果买了一副象棋, ??”(P251) (3) 柔嘉不耐烦道:“没有结! 要穿,你自己去买。我没见过像你这样nasty 的人!”(P338) (4) 当时张先生跟鸿渐拉手,问他是不是天天“go downtown”。(P42) (5) (鸿渐) 只自言自语道:“School for scandal ,全是School and scandal , 家庭罢, 学校罢, 彼此彼此。”(P333) 值得注意的是,如果他码以单词的形式出现,那么该词一般是实词。如,例(1) 的Lord and Master 和例(2) 的bridge 是名词, 例(3) 的nasty 是形容词。如果他码以短语的形式出现,则该短语中的词的时态、人称和数等往往并不随着前面原码主语的变化而变化。如例(4) 的“go ”不因前面的“他”而变为“goes”。由此可见,由于中文语篇是按照中文的语法进行的,所以当他码是小于句子的语言单位—句中嵌入成分的形式出现时,他自然要受到中文语法结构的制约,而不再按照英文语法的要求进行变化。 当语码转换发生在两个句子或两个分句的交界处,而且每个句子或分句都分属于一种不同的语码时,这种转换可称为“句际语码转换”。这种情况下,包含语码转换的句子使用他码的语法结构,不包含语码转换的句子仍使用原码的语法结构。 例如:(6)“那么,你太weak ,”辛楣自以为这个英文嵌得巧妙,不愧为外交辞令:假使鸿渐跟孙小姐并无关系,这个字就说他拿不定主意,结婚与否,全听她摆布;假使他们俩不出自己所料,but the flesh is weak ,这个字不用说含蓄浑成,最好没有了。(P290) (7) 他撇着英国腔向曹元朗说道:“Dash it ! Thatgirl is forget - me - not and touch - me - not in one , ared rose which has somehow turned into the blue flower. ”曹元朗赞他妙语天下, ??(P111) 从以上例子中我们可看出,与口语中的会话性语码转换一样,书面语语码转换同样是在每一个例子里,都有一个关键部分,传达语信的主要内容的部分。这一部分一般使用一种语码(多为他码) ,而其他一些内容用另一种语码(多为原码) 表达。 二、书面语语码转换的语用功能 从社会语言学的角度看,不论规模大小,所有的语码转换现象都具有一定的社会及语用功能。
葡萄牙语语法大全(一) （1）辅音字母的发音 与英语单词相比，葡萄牙语单词的发音是比较简单的，除了辅音字母x的发音稍微复杂一些之外，其它辅音、元音字母都有固定的发音，只要我们掌握每个辅音、元音字母的发音，今后看到一个单词，就可以直接拼读出来，而不需要像英语那样，必须查阅《英汉词典》，才能知道一个单词的正确发音。下面是葡萄牙语中辅音字母的发音。 字母发音（国际音标）发音（汉语拼音）例词 b [b] b bala c 在a/o/u之前发[k]音 k casa 在e/i之前发[s]音 s cedo ? [s] s mo?a ch [] sh cheque d [d] d data f [f] f faca g 在a/o/u之前发[g]音 g gato 在e/i之前发[]音 r gelo gu 在a/o之前发[gw]音 gu guarda 在e/i之前发[g]音 g guerra gü [gw] gu lingüista h 不发音 hotel j [] r jornal k 葡萄牙语没有这个字母，仅出现在外来语单词中，发[k]音。 l 在a/e/i/o/u之前发[l]音 l laranja 在a/e/i/o/u之后发[w]音 u Brasil lh [lj] li trabalho m [m] m mapa n [n] n nada nh [nj] ni banho p [p] p pato qu 在a/o之前发[gw]音 gu quase 在e/i之前发[g]音 g aqui qü [gw] gu cinqüenta r [r]（短颤音） recibo rr [r]（长颤音） carro s 在两个元音字母之间发[z]音 z casa
浅析现代哈萨克语名词数范畴 发表时间：2018-07-30T14:28:23.413Z 来源：《语言文字学》2018年第7月作者：马合巴丽·沙吾列别克 [导读] 哈萨克语数范畴中有单数、复数两种具体语法意义。 中央民族大学 100081 摘要：哈萨克语数范畴中有单数、复数两种具体语法意义。在意义上，复数一般可以通过三种手段来表示，即词法手段，指名词后加-LAr；句法手段。指通过与数词组成词组或与双部词连用构成复数，词汇手段。指词汇意义本社就表示复数概念，主要是不可数名词。 关键词：名词；现代哈萨克语；数范畴 传统的语法认为：哈萨克语名词的单复数在形式上按是否加构形附加成分-LAr来区分，不加-LAr的是单数，加了-LAr的是复数。在意义上，复数一般可以通过三种手段来表示，即词法手段，指名词后加-LAr；句法手段，指通过与数词组成词组或与双部词连用构成复数；词汇手，指词汇意义本社就表示复数概念，主要是不可数名词。从而名词数范畴有形式和意义的两个部分，该如何区分，下面主要从三个方面浅析。 1名词复数该如何确定？ 名词的复数是指某人或某事物的数量在一个以上。表达形式是在名词后缀接-lar/-ler/ -dar/-der/-tar/-ter。名词从不同的角度可以区分出不同的类型。结合名词数范畴，名词分为专有名词和普通名词；具体名词和抽象名词的两类，其中具体名词又分为可数名词和不可数名词。 1.1专有名词和普通名词 专有名词是表示某一特有事物名称的词。它包括人名、地名、国家名、报刊书籍名、山川河流名、天体名等。如：ten??n（天山）、altay（阿勒泰）、?u?go（中国）。这类词所表示的人或事物仅此一个，是独一无二的，所以它的词汇意义本身就包含了单数意义。在不改变词义的前提下，专有名词只有单数形式和单数意义，没有复数形式和复数意义，但是在一定的语境中，专有名词又有复数形式，如：例句1 urim?i-ler-ge bard?m. ‘我去过乌鲁木齐等地。’ aynur-lar kitapxana?a ketip barad?. ‘阿依努尔等人正在去往图书馆。’ 这里的复数形式不再表示该词本身的复数意义，而是表示与它有共同点的或有关的人或事物。上例中的urim?i-ler表示乌鲁木齐等地，aynur-lar表示包括aynur的一群人。可见，这些附加成分扩大了原词的意义范围，应该属于复数附加成分的一种使用方法。所以说专有名词只有单数形式。 普通名词是表示同类事物概括名称的词，如：adam（人）、parta（课桌）、suw（水）等。其中一部分是可以缀接复数附加成分的，像adam→adam-dar、parta→partalar等，具有复数意义和复数形式。而还有一部分一般不加复数形式，也不具有复数意义，如suw （水）。在普通名词又可以具体分为具体名词和抽象名词。 1.2具体名词和抽象名词 具体名词是表示具体事物名称的词，如：???、qol、qalam等。它包括可数和不可数名词。可数名词大部分具有复数形式和复数意义。注意的是表示水果或者干果名称时，一般要用单数形式，如果当这类水果或者干果名称缀接了复数附加成分时，多指它们的品种，而不表示其复数意义，如： 例句2 men almadan eki kelo alam?n. ‘我要买两公斤苹果。’（指同一种类） men almalardan eki kelo alam?n. ‘这几种苹果我各买两公斤。’（指不同的种类） 不可数名词，如：???、suw、may、tuz等，表示事物的集合体，属于集合概念，所以在意义上没有单复数之分，一般以单数形式存在。如果后面附加复数词尾，则指名词所指事物的种类或总括。如：“suwlar”可能表示井水、河水、海水等。所以不可数名词不具有复数意义。 抽象名词是表示事物抽象概念名称的词。如：dost?q、tilek、umit等。这种概念表示的内容是抽象的，从而也是无法计数的，它们有种类的区别，没有数量的不同，一般以单数形式存在。 2“数词/重叠双部词+名词单数”结构是否表示复数？ “数词/重叠双部词+名词单数/不可数名词”模式，如：bes adam（五个人）、on qalam（十只笔）、qora-qora qoj（一圈圈羊）、qalta-qalta un（一袋袋面粉）等，像上述例子adam、qalam、qoj都是可数名词，前面有数量词修饰，可是名词后却不缀接复数附加成分，在我们常规思维里，一表示单个，它得采用单数形式，一以上表示多数，它得采用复数形式，但是在哈萨克语中，在受到数词或重叠双部词修饰时名词采用单数形式，这是为什么？我们知道语言是表义的符号系统，其本质功能是表义。 3名词单复数形式的使用特点 在这里主要说明可数名词的单复数形式使用特点。可数名词所表示的事物的数量可大致分为普遍、部分和个别三种。 3.1 表示事物的普遍或个别概念的时候，通常用单数形式，表示事物的部分概念时，如果数量明确，就使用单数形式，如果数量不明确，使用复数形式。 3.2在哈萨克语中复数表示的并不是事物的普遍概念，而是指普遍中的特殊，既不是指事物种类的全体，而是所指事物中的一部分，这一部分的数量往往都是含糊概括的，所以复数的使用是有条件的，在用复数时在之前常常用barl?q、birtalaj等表示某一范围的词来修饰。例
媒体中英语码转换的“翻译”2 (1) 中国人DIY的飞机昨试飞。 (2) 只要稍花心思,将两个系列来个Mix &Match ,轻而易举就能尽显男士个人风采。 (3) 先走IRP 后ERP 之路。 例(1)DIY是英语Do it yourself (你自己做) 的缩略语。例(2)Mix &Match 分别有英语单词“混合”和“相配”的意思;而&是英语and(和) 的符号表达。例(3) 由于全文对IRP 和ERP 没有一个明确的说法, 其所指难以确定。实则他们分别是:中文“信息资源管理”英语Information Re2source Planning 的缩略语, 中文“企业资源规划”英语Enterprise Resource Planning 的缩略写。这样的句子可能出于英汉翻译者之手, 也可能是其他作者为了让读者从中获得一点特殊意义,或是为了达到某种效果,或是信手拈来一些英文,移用到汉语句子里。但是作者忘记了一条原则,即在信息传播的有效性上,不可忽视最基本的要求———信息共享。文字翻译通顺、连贯、清晰是译者的基本准则。发送者对于信息的选择理解并不等于接受者的企盼和理解,双方所处的环境、地位、文化层次、专业的各异等都可以不同程度地改变信息在传播和接受过程中的形式和内容、取向和理解。不注重信息传播的有效性就是语用失误,因为隐喻性的表述会给读者在含意和目的的推导上增加一道障碍,而语码转换更是增加了又一道障碍,且又是较难逾越的语言障碍。他难以确定喻体与本体标书翻译的同位关系,难以产生意象图式,因为最重要的语义结构是意象图式结构( Image Schemas) ,而“意象图式是一个在我们感觉经验中反复出现的框架模式。我们就是运用这些意象图式来建构我们的经验,来识别物体和事件的”。理解和推理是凭借意象图式进行的,意象图式规定并制约了人类的理解和推理。语码解读中断谈不上语义理解,更谈不上发音,交际由于语码转换不成功而中断。
H语言文字 --H 语言、文字H0 语言学 H0-0 语言理论与方法论 H0-05 语言与其他学科的关系 H0-06 语言学派、学说及其研究 H0-09 语言发展史与语言学史 H002 语言规划 H003 语言的分类 H004 语言的分布 H01 语音学 H012 音素分析（音位学） H013 音节结构 H014 字调、语调 H016 音标 H017 实验语音学（仪器语音学） H018 语音生理学 H018.1 发音法 [H018.3] 歌咏舞台发音 H018.4 语音医学 H019 朗诵法、演讲术 H02 文字学 H021 文字和语言 H022 文字类型 H022.4 字母表 H023 正字法 H024 文字的创制、整理和改革 H026 特种文字 H026.1 速记 H026.2 盲文 H026.3 形态语言 H028 古文字考释（古文字辨认学） H03 语义学、语用学、词汇学、词义学H030 语义学、语用学 H031 基本词汇 H032 同义词、多义词、反义词 H033 熟语 H034 俗语 H035 外来语 H039 词源学
H087 数理语言学 H09 语文教学 H1 汉语 H1-0 汉语理论与方法论 H1-01 方针政策及其阐述 H1-09 汉语发展史与汉语语言学史 H102 汉语的规范化、标准化、推广普通话 H109.2 古代汉语 H109.3 近代汉语 H109.4 现代汉语 H11 语音H111 上古语音（周秦两汉语音）H113 中古语音（魏晋南北朝—宋语音） H113.1 《切韵》 H113.2 《唐韵》 H113.3 《广韵》 H113.4 《集韵》 H113.6 其他韵书 H113.9 等韵学 H114 近代语音（元、明、清语音） H114.1 《古今韵会举要》 H114.2 《中原音韵》、《中州音韵》 H087 数理语言学 H09 语文教学 H1 汉语 H1-0 汉语理论与方法论 H1-01 方针政策及其阐述 H1-09 汉语发展史与汉语语言学史 H102 汉语的规范化、标准化、推广普通话 H109.2 古代汉语 H109.3 近代汉语 H109.4 现代汉语 H11 语音 H111 上古语音（周秦两汉语音） H113 中古语音（魏晋南北朝—宋语音） H113.1 《切韵》 H113.2 《唐韵》 H113.3 《广韵》 H113.4 《集韵》 H113.6 其他韵书 H113.9 等韵学 H114 近代语音（元、明、清语音） H114.1 《古今韵会举要》 H114.2 《中原音韵》、《中州音韵》 H114.3 《洪武正韵》
葡萄牙语语法考试指导资料整理 （1）辅音字母的发音 与英语单词相比，葡萄牙语单词的发音是比较简单的，除了辅音字母x的发音稍微复杂一些之外，其它辅音、元音字母都有固定的发音，只要我们掌握每个辅音、元音字母的发音，今后看到一个单词，就可以直接拼读出来，而不需要像英语那样，必须查阅《英汉词典》，才能知道一个单词的正确发音。下面是葡萄牙语中辅音字母的发音。 字母发音（国际音标）发音（汉语拼音）例词 b [b] b bala c 在a/o/u之前发[k]音 k casa 在e/i之前发[s]音 s cedo ? [s] s mo?a ch [] sh cheque d [d] d data f [f] f faca g 在a/o/u之前发[g]音 g gato 在e/i之前发[]音 r gelo gu 在a/o之前发[gw]音 gu guarda 在e/i之前发[g]音 g guerra gü [gw] gu lingüista h 不发音 hotel j [] r jornal k 葡萄牙语没有这个字母，仅出现在外来语单词中，发[k]音。 l 在a/e/i/o/u之前发[l]音 l laranja 在a/e/i/o/u之后发[w]音 u Brasil
lh [lj] li trabalho m [m] m mapa n [n] n nada nh [nj] ni banho p [p] p pato qu 在a/o之前发[gw]音 gu quase 在e/i之前发[g]音 g aqui qü [gw] gu cinqüenta r [r]（短颤音） recibo rr [r]（长颤音） carro s 在两个元音字母之间发[z]音 z casa 在其它位置发[s]音 s sopa ss [s] s passo t [t] t tomate v [v] w vaga w 葡萄牙语没有这个字母，仅出现在外来语单词中，发[w]音。 x 在单词最前面发[]音 sh xarope 在其它位置可能发[ks]、[s]、[]、[z]音，需要查词典。 y 葡萄牙语没有这个字母，仅出现在外来语单词中，发[j]音。 z 在单词最后面发[]音 sh feliz 在其它位置发[z]音 z zero 另外补充两点。第一，在英语中，p/b、t/d、k/g这三对辅音字母，发音的区别非常明显，一听就能听出来，例如beat和peak。但在葡萄牙语中，发音的区别非常不明显，p听起来是b，t听起来是d，k听起来是g，例如pata这个单词，实际听起来，好象就是bada，
葡萄牙数字 0 = zero 1 = um, uma 2 = dois, duas 3 = três 4 = quatro 5 = cinco 6 = seis 7 = sete 8 = oito 9 = nove 10 = dez 11 = onze 12 = doze 13 = treze 14 = catorze 15 = quinze 16 = dezasseis 17 = dezassete 18 = dezoito 19 = dezanove 20 = vinte
21 = vinte e um 30 = trinta 40 = quarenta 50 = cinquenta 60 = sessenta 70 = setenta 80 = oitenta 90 = noventa 100 = cem 1000 = mil 一百万= um milh?o 葡萄牙语-方向 左= à esquerda 右= à direita 一直= A direito 上= Para cima; Acima 下= Para baixo; Abaixo 远= Longe 近= Perto 长= Longo (m), Longa (f) 短= Curto (m), Curta (f)
地图= Mapa 游问讯处 = Informa??es de Turismo 葡萄牙语英语发音对照表 A a ???e ?e ?o ?o 英语mar(伤害)中的a [a:] a,鼻音 a,鼻音 N n 英语中的n B b 英语中的b NH nh 英语minion(奴才)中的ni C c 在a、o或u之前读英语 car(小汽车)中的c；在e 和i之前读英语mason(泥 瓦工)中的s O o 英语more(力量)中的or ??英语中的s ?E ?e 法语中的on CH ch 英语中的sh P p 英语中的p
中图分类号查询——H 语言、文字 --H 语言、文字 H0 语言学 H0-0 语言理论与方法论 H0-05 语言与其他学科的关系 H0-06 语言学派、学说及其研究 H0-09 语言发展史与语言学史 H002 语言规划 H003 语言的分类 H004 语言的分布 H01 语音学 H012 音素分析（音位学） H013 音节结构 H014 字调、语调 H016 音标 H017 实验语音学（仪器语音学） H018 语音生理学 H018.1 发音法 [H018.3] 歌咏舞台发音 H018.4 语音医学 H019 朗诵法、演讲术
H02 文字学 H021 文字和语言 H022 文字类型 H022.4 字母表 H023 正字法 H024 文字的创制、整理和改革 H026 特种文字 H026.1 速记 H026.2 盲文 H026.3 形态语言 H028 古文字考释（古文字辨认学） H03 语义学、语用学、词汇学、词义学 H030 语义学、语用学 H031 基本词汇 H032 同义词、多义词、反义词 H033 熟语 H034 俗语 H035 外来语 H039 词源学 H087 数理语言学 H09 语文教学 H1 汉语
H1-0 汉语理论与方法论 H1-01 方针政策及其阐述 H1-09 汉语发展史与汉语语言学史 H102 汉语的规范化、标准化、推广普通话 H109.2 古代汉语 H109.3 近代汉语 H109.4 现代汉语 H11 语音 H111 上古语音（周秦两汉语音） H113 中古语音（魏晋南北朝—宋语音） H113.1 《切韵》 H113.2 《唐韵》 H113.3 《广韵》 H113.4 《集韵》 H113.6 其他韵书 H113.9 等韵学 H114 近代语音（元、明、清语音） H114.1 《古今韵会举要》 H114.2 《中原音韵》、《中州音韵》 H087 数理语言学 H09 语文教学 H1 汉语 H1-0 汉语理论与方法论
哈萨克语专业零起点学生“哈汉翻译教材” 特点分析与编写维度 尉伟 新疆大学预科学院 摘要：翻译教材在翻译教学中具有举足轻重的地位,直接影响到翻译人才的培养。随着社会的发展,作为国内少数民族语言—— —哈萨克语与汉语翻译教材的编写，也已提出新的要求，就已有哈汉翻 译教材的编写，本文对其特点、问题做简单的评价，在此基础上，提出哈汉翻译教材编写时，应从书名 确立、翻译理论基本模式、理论与实践的关系、编写理念的构想等角度注意，以满足日益增长的社会需求,进而提高其实效性。 关键词：汉哈翻译；教材；翻译理论 一、引言 一部教材只能适应一定的历史时期，历史的车轮不断需要新的驱动力才能稳步前行。对翻译教材的历史进行回眸，目的是吸取历史的经验，并在此基础上不断提高教材的质量。 翻译教材是指以培养和提高翻译技能为主旨、有较为清晰的以教学为导向的编撰线索。在翻译教学中，翻译课程的教学内容是以教材的编写与实施为体现的，所以，教材是体现教学内容的知识载体，是教学之本，也是教学改革的重中之重。 零起点哈萨克语言教学中翻译教学是以翻译人才储备和人才深造为目标的教学，这在客观上要求在哈萨克语翻译教材建设面临着新的挑战和考验，现有的汉语哈萨克语翻译教材不能满足学生顺应现有社会经济发展、信息密集的时代，所以，面对社会需求情况的变化,教材要与时代相互呼应，对其做出积极的回应。 但是，由于汉语哈萨克语教材的编写大多数是各高校“各自为政”，教材编写原则和编写体系也是“百花齐放”，所以，在翻译教材的编写中，至今还存在着一些不容忽视的问题，因而，只有不断地剖析教材之不足,不断地提升教材的编写理念，不断地凝练教材的编写特色，不断地实施教材的编写模式、推陈出新,翻译教材事业才能日渐繁荣，教材的质量才能获得全面提高。本文以编写年限、内容和使用程度为界限，特此选定典型的3册“汉语哈萨克语翻译教材”为研究蓝本。 二、现有“汉语哈萨克语翻译教材”对比分析 本文对哈萨克语专业零起点学生目前或已经使用的三本教材（《汉哈翻译教程》《汉哈翻译理论》《汉哈翻译译论与技巧》）进行对比分析，如图所示： 表二（见下一页）： 本文通过对哈萨克语零起点专业的学生目前使用的三本教材进行分析（包含已使用的和正在使用的），发现以下几点问题： 1.就教材的主体语言问题，目前的三本教材编写的初衷是为学习汉语专业的哈萨克族学生编写的，出于学生的理解和表达的准确性，所以以其本民族语作为教材的主体语言，对于零起点的哈萨克语言专业的学生来说，在本科期间阅读学术性较强的教材有一定的困难。 2.三本教材表现最为突出的理论与实践的关系，这也是一个辩证的哲学问题在教材中的应用，三本 2018年第3期双语学习No.32018 17 ··