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FatNemo Building a resilient multi-source multicast fat-tree

FatNemo Building a resilient multi-source multicast fat-tree
FatNemo Building a resilient multi-source multicast fat-tree

FatNemo:Building a Resilient Multi-Source Multicast

Fat-Tree

Stefan Birrer,Dong Lu,Fabi′a n E.Bustamante,Yi Qiao,and Peter Dinda

Northwestern University,Evanston IL60201,USA,

{sbirrer,donglu,fabianb,yqiao,pdinda}@https://www.doczj.com/doc/a717680244.html,

Abstract.This paper proposes the idea of emulating fat-trees in overlays for

multi-source multicast applications.Fat-trees are like real trees in that their

branches become thicker the closer one gets to the root,thus overcoming the

“root bottleneck”of regular trees.We introduce FatNemo,a novel overlay multi-

source multicast protocol based on this idea.FatNemo organizes its members into

a tree of clusters with cluster sizes increasing closer to the root.It uses bandwidth

capacity to decide the highest layer in which a peer can participate,and relies

on co-leaders to share the forwarding responsibility and to increase the tree’s

resilience to path and node failures.

We present the design of FatNemo and show simulation-based experimental re-

sults comparing its performance with that of three alternative protocols(Narada,

Nice and Nice-PRM).These initial results show that FatNemo not only mini-

mizes the average and standard deviation of response time,but also handles end

host failures gracefully with minimum performance penalty.

1Introduction

High bandwidth multi-source multicast among widely distributed nodes is a critical capability for a wide range of important applications including audio and video confer-encing,multi-party games and content distribution.Throughout the last decade,a num-ber of research projects have explored the use of multicast as an ef?cient and scalable mechanism to support such group communication applications.Multicast decouples the size of the receiver set from the amount of state kept at any single node and potentially avoids redundant communication in the network.

The limited deployment of IP Multicast[16,17],a best effort network layer mul-ticast protocol,has led to considerable interest in alternate approaches that are imple-mented at the application layer,using only end-systems[14,24,19,32,11,2,10,33,39, 31,35].In an end-system multicast approach participating peers organize themselves into an overlay topology for data delivery.Each edge in this topology corresponds to a unicast path between two end-systems or peers in the underlying Internet.All multicast-related functionality is implemented at the peers instead of at routers,and the goal of the multicast protocol is to construct and maintain an ef?cient overlay for data trans-mission.

Among the end-system multicast protocols proposed,tree-based systems have proven to be highly scalable and ef?cient in terms of physical link stress,state and control overhead,and end-to-end latency.However,normal tree structures have two inherent problems:

Resilience:They are highly dependent on the reliability of non-leaf nodes.Resilience is particularly relevant to the application-layer approach,as trees here are com-posed of autonomous,unpredictable end systems.The high degree of transiency of the hosts1has been pointed out as one of the main challenges for these architec-tures[4].

Bandwidth limitations:They are likely to be bandwidth constrained2as bandwidth availability monotonically decreases as one descends into the tree.The bandwidth limitations of normal tree structures is particularly problematic for multi-source, bandwidth intensive applications.For a set of randomly placed sources in a tree, higher level paths(those closer to the root)will become the bottleneck and tend to dominate response times.Once these links become heavily loaded or overloaded, packets will start to be buffered or dropped.

We have addressed the resilience issue of tree-based systems in previous work[5] through the introduction of co-leaders and the reliance on triggered negative acknowl-edgements(NACKs).In this paper,we address the bandwidth limitations of normal tree overlays.

Our approach capitalizes on Leiserson’s seminal work on fat-trees[27].Paraphras-ing Leiserson,a fat-tree is like a real tree in that its branches become thicker the closer we get to the root,thus overcoming the“root bottleneck”of a regular tree.Figure1 shows a schematic example of a binary fat-tree.We propose to organize participant end-systems in a tree that closely resembles a Leiserson fat-tree by dynamically plac-ing higher degree nodes(nodes with higher bandwidth capacity)close to the root and increasing the cluster sizes as one ascends the tree.

This paper makes three main contributions.First,we introduce the use of Leiserson fat-trees for application-layer multi-source multicast,overcoming the inherent band-width limitations of normal tree-based overlay structures(Section2).Second,after re-viewing some background material in Section3,we describe the design and implemen-tation of FatNemo,a new application-layer multicast protocol that builds on this idea (Section4).Lastly,we evaluate the FatNemo design in simulation,illustrating the bene-?ts of a fat tree approach compared to currently popular approaches to application-layer multicast(Sections5and6).We review some related work in Section7and present our conclusion and directions of future work in Section8.

2Fat-Trees and the Overlay

The communication network of a parallel machine must support global collective com-munication operations in which all processors participate[26].These operations have a wide range,including reduction and broadcast trees,and neighbor exchange.All-to-all personalized communication[21],in which each processor sends a unique message to every other processor,is key to many algorithms.To support such operations well,the

Cap. 25 Kbps

Cap. 5 Kbps Cap. 5 Kbps Cap. 5 Kbps

(a)Normal

tree.

Cap. 5 Kbps

Cap. 5 Kbps Cap. 5 Kbps

Cap. 10 Kbps

(b)Fat-tree.

Fig.1.Two binary trees with nodes A and B as sources,publishing at5Kbps each.On the left, a normal binary tree where node E becomes the bottleneck,resulting on a reduced(dash line) outgoing stream quality.Node E has to forward the stream A to node B and node G,as well as stream B to node A and node G,thus it needs an outgoing bandwidth capacity of20Kbps. However,it has only10Kbps available,making it a bottleneck in the tree.On the right,a fat-tree with higher capacity nodes placed higher in the tree.

network should have(1)minimal and scalable diameter,and(2)maximal and scalable bisection bandwidth.These goals are very similar to those of a multisource multicast overlay,which can be thought of as providing many-to-many personalized communica-tion,a subset of all-to-all personalized communication.We expect a multisource multi-cast overlay to have a latency between end-systems that grows only slowly or not at all as the number of end-systems grows.Similarly,we expect the aggregate throughput of the overlay to grow linearly as end-systems are added.

In his seminal work on fat-trees[27],Leiserson introduced a universal routing net-work for interconnecting the processors of a parallel supercomputer,where communi-cation can be scaled independently of the number of processors.Based on a complete binary tree,a fat-tree consists of a set of processors,located at the leaves,and intercon-nected by a number of switching nodes(internal to the tree)and edges.Each edge in the tree corresponds to two unidirectional channels connecting a parent with each of its children.Channel consist of a bundle of wires,and the number of wires in a channel is called its capacity.The capacity of the channels of a fat-tree grows as one goes up the tree from the leaves,thus allowing it to overcome the“root bottleneck”of a regular tree. Since their introduction,fat-trees have been successfully applied in massively parallel systems[28,22]as well as in high performance cluster computing[23].

In this paper we propose to organize the end-systems participant in a multicast group,in an overlay tree that closely resembles a Leiserson fat-tree.In common with Leiserson,our goal is to minimize the mean and standard deviation of inter-node com-munication performance with multiple potential sources.

Emulating fat-trees in an overlay entails a number of challenges such as handling the high level of transiency of end-system populations and addressing their degree of heterogeneity.A straightforward way of approximating a fat-tree is placing those nodes

with higher bandwidth capacity3closer to the root.Since interior nodes are involved in most inter-node communication paths they strongly in?uence the overall end-to-end delay and can soon become bottlenecks as one increases the number of sources.Figure1 shows a schematic example of both a regular binary tree with two5Kbps sources(A and B)and a bottleneck node(E)unable to keep up with the publishing rate of the nodes downstream.

Available bandwidth can differ signi?cantly from bandwidth capacity over time, due typically to competing traf?c,and any algorithm that attempts to emulate fat-trees in an overlay needs to take account of such dynamism.Also,per-path characteristics must be taken into consideration.Since end-to-end latency is an important factor in the performance of interactive applications,the latency of each link in the overlay,the pro-cessing time at each node,and the number of intermediate nodes should be considered carefully.When selecting among possible parents,a closer node may be a better candi-date,if it is able to support the load,than an alternative node offering higher available bandwidth.Finally,the mean time to failure of end-systems is signi?cantly lower than for routers,possibly resulting in long interruptions to the data stream as the failure is discovered and the distribution tree repaired.

Although overlay fat-trees can be built above most tree-based multicast systems, in this paper we consider their implementation using Nemo,a high-resilience,latency-optimized overlay multicast protocol[5].The following section provides some back-ground material on overlay multicast in general and on the operational details of Nemo, before describing the FatNemo design in Section4.

3Background

All peer-to-peer or application-layer multicast protocols organize the participating peers into(1)a control topology for group membership related tasks,and(2)a delivery tree for data forwarding.Available protocols can be classi?ed according to the sequence adopted for their construction[1,13].In a tree-?rst approach[19,24,32],peers directly construct the data delivery tree by selecting their parents from among known peers. Additional links are later added to de?ne,in combination with the data delivery tree, the control topology.With a mesh-?rst approach[13,11],peers build a more densely connected graph(mesh)over which(reverse)shortest path spanning trees,rooted at any peer,can be constructed.Protocols adopting an implicit approach[2,10,33,39,35] create only a control topology among the participant peers.Their data delivery topology is implicitly determined by the de?ned set of packet-forwarding rules.

FatNemo builds on Nemo to emulate a fat-tree;thus,it inherits the latter’s high scal-ability and resilience.In the following paragraphs,we provide a summarized description of Nemo;for more complete details we direct the reader to our previous work[5].

Leader

Fig.2.Nemo’s logical organization.The shape illustrates only the role of a peer within a cluster: a leader of a cluster at a given layer can act as leader,co-leader,or an ordinary member at the next higher layer.

Nemo

Nemo follows the implicit approach to building an overlay for multicasting.The set of communication peers are organized into clusters based on network proximity,where every peer is a member of a cluster at the lowest layer.Clusters vary in size between d and3d?1,where d is a constant known as the degree.Each of these clusters selects a leader that becomes a member of the immediately superior layer.In part to avoid the dependency on a single node,every cluster leader recruits a number of co-leaders to form a supporting crew.The process is repeated at each new layer,with all peers in a layer being grouped into clusters,crew members selected,and leaders promoted to participate in the next higher layer.Hence peers can lead more than one cluster in successive layers of this logical hierarchy.Figure2illustrates the logical organization of Nemo.

A new peer joins the multicast group by querying a well-known special end-system, the rendezvous point,for the identi?er of the root node.Starting there and in an iterative manner,the incoming peer continues:(i)requesting the list of members at the current layer from the cluster’s leader,(ii)selecting from among them who to contact next based on the result from a given cost function,and(iii)moving into the next layer. When the new peer?nds the leader with minimal cost at the bottom layer,it joins the associated cluster.

Member peers can leave Nemo in a graceful manner(https://www.doczj.com/doc/a717680244.html,er disconnects)or in an ungraceful manner(unannounced,e.g.when the end-system crashes).For graceful departures,since a common member has no responsibilities towards other peers,it can simply leave the group after informing its cluster’s leader.On the other hand,a leader must?rst elect replacement leaders for all clusters it owns before it leaves the session.

To detect unannounced departures,Nemo relies on heartbeats exchanged among the cluster’s peers.Unreported members are given a?xed time interval before being considered dead,at which point a repair algorithm is initiated.If the failed peer happens to be a leader,the tree itself must be?xed,the members of the victim’s cluster must elect the replacement leader from among themselves.

To deal with dynamic changes in the underlying network,every peer periodically checks the leaders of the next higher layers and switches clusters if another leader has

Fig.3.FatNemo’s Topology.The?gure illustrates how the tree gets fatter when moving toward the root.This tree has a cluster degree of2.

a lower cost(i.e.lower latency)than the current one.Additionally,in a continuous process of re?nement,every leader checks its highest owned cluster for better suited leaders and transfers leadership if such a peer exists.

Nemo addresses the resilience issue of tree-based systems through the introduc-tion of co-leaders.Co-leaders improve the resilience of the multicast group by avoiding dependencies on single nodes and providing alternative paths for data forwarding.In addition,crew members share the load from message forwarding,thus improving scal-ability.

4FatNemo Design

To build an overlay fat-tree,FatNemo relies on three heuristics:(1)higher bandwidth degree nodes should be placed higher up in the tree,(2)all peers must serve as crew members in order to maximize load balancing,and(3)the size of clusters should in-crease exponentially as one ascends the tree.The following paragraphs provide the motivations behind each of these heuristics.

The per-node bandwidth constraint is critical for bandwidth-demanding applica-tions and can be stated as the number of full-rate streams a peer is able to support, i.e.its out-degree.By organizing peers based on their out-degrees[36,13],we intend to reduce the bandwidth constraints of links higher up the tree.Since the process of estimating available bandwidth is time consuming,peers initially join the tree based on proximity.Once in the tree,every leader checks its highest owned cluster for better suited leaders in terms of bandwidth availability,and transfers leadership if such a peer exists.This process assures that high out-degree peers will gradually ascend to higher layers,thus transforming the tree into a bandwidth optimized fat-tree.

In traditional fat-trees the number of wires increases as one ascends the tree.Con-sidering an overlay unicast connection as a“wire”,the number of wires in FatNemo increases together with the crew size as one moves toward the root–the maximum possible number of wires is thus achieved by setting the crew size equal to the cluster

Table1.Cluster and Crew Size as a function of the cluster degree d,for a20,000peer population. The variable x is a place holder for the cluster index starting at0for the lowest layer.

Protocol Crew Size c(x)

d...3d?11

Nemo d=3:3 (8)

d x+1...2d x+1+2k(x)

size.The size of a cluster at layer i in FatNemo varies between d i and2d i+2,and

grows exponentially(d i=d i+1

0)as we move up the layers.The0-th layer contains the

leaf nodes and has a degree d0of3(same as Nice and Nemo).The increased number of wires helps avoid higher level links from becoming the bottleneck of the system,as alternate paths share the load and reduce the forward responsibility of each peer.

Beyond increasing the number of wires,large crew sizes also help reduce the depth of a tree(when compared with its constant cluster-sizes equivalent).A smaller depths means a lower total number of end-system hops,and should translate in a reduction on the end-to-end delay.

Figure3illustrates how FatNemo constructs a fat-tree.In this simple example d0= 2,so clusters scale up by a factor of2as we ascend the tree.Notice that these links/wires are indeed(d i+1...2d i+1+2)to(d i...2d i+2)relations,as every crew member of the next higher layer will talk to the crew members of the immediately lower layer.For clarity in the graph,this set of links is represented in the graph by d i lines.

To better understand the positive effect of FatNemo’s heuristics,we show an instan-tiation of them with a population of20,000peers from a popular on-line game.4 To begin,let’s generalize the concept of out-degree.The out-degree of a peer,d out, is equivalent to the total forwarding responsibility of a node,and it can be stated as a function of the number of layers L in which the node participates,the cluster size k(x) and the crew size c(x)at layer x(Equation(1)).Table1illustrates the parameter values for FatNemo and two alternative protocols.

d out=L?1

x=0

k(x)?1

4The number corresponds to the active populations of players in https://www.doczj.com/doc/a717680244.html,,an online soccer game.

5The average number of peers in a cluster is equal to the mean cluster size,which can be computed as the mean of the low and high cluster boundary.

Based on the expected depth of the different trees for this example population,we can now calculate the out-degree requirements on their root nodes.According to the generalized out-degree equation introduced in the previous paragraph(Equation(1)), Nice requires a root out-degree of31.5,or almost three times more than what is needed from a Nemo’s root(10.5)with a crew size of3.In other words,the root of a traditional tree for a20,000peer population must support31.5times the source rate to ful?ll its forwarding responsibility!By emulating a fat-tree in the overlay,FatNemo avoids this “root bottleneck”requiring only a root with an out-degree of3.7.

5Evaluation

We analyze the performance of FatNemo through simulation and compare it to that of three other protocols–Narada[14],Nice[2]and Nice-PRM[3].We evaluate the effectiveness of the alternative protocols in terms of performance improvements to the application and protocol’s overhead,as captured by the following metrics: Response Time:End-to-end delay(including retransmission time)from the source to the receivers,as seen by the application.This includes path latencies along the overlay hops,as well as queueing delay and processing overhead at peers along the path.A lower mean response time indicates a higher system responsiveness,and a smaller standard deviation implies better synchronization among the receivers. Delivered Packets:Number of packets successfully delivered to all subscribers within a ?xed time window.It indirectly measures the protocol’s ability to avoid bottlenecks in the delivery tree.

Delivery Ratio:Ratio of subscribers that have received a packet within a?xed time window.Disabled receivers are not accounted for.

Duplicate Packets:Number of duplicate packets per sequence number,for all enabled receivers,re?ecting an unnecessary burden on the network.Packets arrived outside of the delivery window are accounted for as duplicates,since the receiver already assumed them as lost.

Control-Related Traf?c:Total control traf?c in the system,in mega bits per second (Mbps);part of the system’s overhead.We measure the total traf?c during the observation interval by accounting packets at the router level.A network packet traversing four routers(including the source and destination node)will account as three sent packets,one for every router which has to forward it.

The remainder of this section brie?y discusses implementation details of the com-pared protocols and describes our evaluation setup.Section6presents our evaluation results.

5.1Details on Protocol Implementations

For each of the three alternative protocols,the values for the available parameters were obtained from the corresponding literature[13,2,3].

For Narada[13],we employ the bandwidth-only scheme for constructing the over-lay,as this will result in maximum throughput.For Nice[2]and Nice-PRM[3],the

cluster degree,k,is set to3.We use Nice-PRM(3,0.02)with three random peers chosen by each node,and with two percent forwarding probability.

For FatNemo,the cluster degree at the lowest layer is set to three.Cluster degree grows exponentially with every layer,being nine in the second lowest layer,27in the third,and so on.

Our implementations of the alternative protocols closely follow the descriptions from the literature,and have been validated by contrasting our results with the pub-lished values.However,there are a number of improvements to the common algorithms, such as the use of periodic probabilistic maintenance operations,that while part of Fat-Nemo,were made available to all protocols in our evaluations.The bene?ts from these algorithms help explain the performance improvements of the different protocols with respect to their original publications[13,2,3].

5.2Experimental Setup

We performed our evaluations through detailed simulation using SPANS,a locally writ-ten,packet-level,event-based simulator.Simulations were run using GridG[29,30] topologies with5510,6312and8115nodes,and a multicast group of256members. GridG leverages Tiers[18,8]to generate a three-tier hierarchical network structure, before it applies a power law enforcing algorithm that retains the hierarchical structure.

Members were randomly associated with end systems,and a random delay of be-tween0.1and80ms was assigned to every link.The links use drop-tail queues with a buffer capacity of0.5sec.We con?gured GridG to use different bandwidth distributions for different link types[25].We assume that the core of the Internet has higher band-width capacities than the edge,as shown in Fig.4.In all three scenarios,the bandwidth has a uniform distribution with ranges shown in Fig.4.

Fig.4.Three simulation scenarios:Low-,Medium-and High-Bandwidth.Bandwidth is expressed in Kbps.

Scenario End systems Client-Stub Transit-Stub

Low-B/W5000400-60004000-10000

312127304000-1000015000-30000 High-B/W75001000-1500010000-50000

# Publishers D e l i v e r e d P a c k e t s Fig.5.Delivered packets (256end hosts,Low-Bandwidth scenario).

mean time to repair (MTTR)equal to 10min.).The two means were chosen asymmet-rically to allow,on average,6/7of all members to be up during this phase.The failure event sequence was generated a priori based on the above distribution and used for all protocols and all runs.

In all experiments,we model multi-source multicast streams to a group.Each source sends constant bit rate (CBR)traf?c of 1000Byte payload at a rate of 10packets per second.The buffer size was set to 16packets,which corresponds to the usage of a

1.6-second buffer,a realistic scenario for applications such as video conferencing.6Experimental Results

This section presents early evaluation results of FatNemo and compares them with those of three alternative protocols.The reported results are from ?ve runs per protocol ob-tained with the different GridG topologies and the Low-Bandwidth scenario.Similar results were obtained with the Mid-and High-Bandwidth scenarios.

Figure 5shows the average number of delivered packets of all runs with no host failures.As we increase the number of publishers,the protocol’s data delivery topology collapses.This happens ?rst for Narada,which is unable to handle the full publishing rate from one publisher.Nice and Nice PRM handle an increasing number of publishers better;however,they deliver substantially fewer packets when compared with FatNemo.FatNemo is best at avoiding bottlenecks in the delivery tree,delivering the most packets when the network is overloaded (as seen with 8publishers).

The performance of a multi-source multicast system can be measured in terms of mean and standard deviation of the response time.Table 2shows these two metrics for the evaluated protocols with one publisher.FatNemo outperforms Nice,Nice PRM and Narada in terms of mean and standard deviation of response time.With an increased number of publishers the relative number of delivered packets for Nice,Nice PRM and Narada decreases compared to FatNemo,which makes it impossible to fairly compare

Table2.Response Time(1Publisher,256end hosts,Low-Bandwidth scenario).

Protocol Std

0.158

0.183

0.195

0.770

No Failures

FatNemo0.966

Nice0.956

Nice-PRM(3,0.02)0.970

Narada0.648

Table4.Overhead(1Publisher,256end hosts,Low-Bandwidth scenario).

Protocol Control Traf?c[Mbps]

0.367

0.000

5.168

0.006

improve the resilience of the overlay and adopts a periodic probabilistic approach to reduce/avoid the cost of membership operations.

A new set of projects have started to address the resilience of overlay multicast protocols[3,9,35,5,31,38].ZigZag[35],a single-source protocol,explores the idea of splitting the control and data delivery task between two peers in each level,making both responsible for repairs under failures.With PRM[3]Banerjee et al.propose the use of probabilistic forwarding and NACK-based retransmission to improve resilience. In order to reduce the time-to-repair,Yang and Fei[38]argue for proactively,ahead of failures,selecting parent replacements.CoopNet[31]improves resilience by building several disjoint trees on a centralized organization protocol and employing Multiple De-scription Coding(MDC)for data redundancy.Nemo[5]and FatNemo build redundancy into the overlay through co-leaders;different from the previously described protocols, they make all crew members share forwarding responsibilities while all cluster mem-bers are in charge of repair operations.These simple measures enable an uninterrupted service to downstream peers especially during recovery intervals.We are currently ex-ploring the use of data redundancy using forward error correction(FEC)encoding[6].

Aiming at bulk data distribution,protocols such as Splitstream[9],Bittorrent[15] and Bullet[25]have proposed simultaneous data streaming over different paths to better share the forwarding load and increased downloading capacity.The methods differ in how they locate alternate streaming peers.In comparison,FatNemo exploits alternate paths for resilience and load balancing.

8Conclusions and Further Work

In this paper we introduced the parallel architecture concept of fat trees to overlay mul-ticast protocols.We have described FatNemo,a novel scalable peer-to-peer multicast protocol that incorporates this idea to build data delivery topologies with minimized mean and standard deviation of the response time.Simulation results show that Fat-Nemo can achieve signi?cantly higher delivery ratios than alternative protocols(an in-crease of up to360%under high load),while reducing the mean(by up to80%)and standard deviation(by up to84%)of the response time in the non-overloaded case. Under a heavy load and a realistic host failure rate,the resulting protocol is able to at-tain high delivery ratios with negligible cost in terms of control-related traf?c.We are currently validating our?ndings through wide-area experimentation. Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Janine M.Casler,Kevin Livingston and Ananth Sundararaj for their helpful comments on early drafts of this paper.

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4.pw32dasmgold反汇编。 5.串式参考中找到错误提示信息或可能是正确的提示信息双击鼠标左键。 6.pw32dasmgold主窗口中分析相应汇编,找出关键跳转和关键call。 7.绿色光条停在关键跳转,在pw32dasmgold主窗口底部找到关键跳转的偏移地址(实际修改地址)。 8.用ultraedit找到偏移地址(实际修改地址)修改机器码,保存。 壳的概念:版权信息需要保护起来,不想让别人随便改动,exe可执行文件压缩,最常见的加壳软件ASPACK ,UPX,PEcompact。 脱壳:拿到一个软件,侦测它的壳,然后我们要把它的壳脱去,还原它的本来面目.若它没有加壳,就省事不用脱壳了.脱壳软件 unaspack,caspr,upx,unpecompact,procdump。 实际修改地址(偏移地址)和行地址(虚拟地址)pw32dasmgold反汇编出来的代码由三列组成: 第一列行地址(虚拟地址) 第二列机器码(最终修改时用ultraedit修改) 第三列汇编指令 第一列第二列第三列 :0041BE38 2B45F0 sub eax, dword ptr [ebp-10] :0041BE3B 6A42 push 00000042 :0041BE3D 50 push eax :0041BE3E FF75F4 push [ebp-0C] :0041BE41 FF75F0 push [ebp-10] :0041BE44 FF35A8AB4400 push dword ptr [0044ABA8] 两种不同情况的不同修改方法: 1.修改为jmp: je(jne,jz,jnz) =>jmp相应的机器码EB (出错信息向上找到的第一个跳转)jmp的作用是绝对跳,无条件跳,从而跳过下面的出错信息。 2.修改为nop: je(jne,jz,jnz) =>nop相应的机器码90 (正确信息向上找到的第一个跳转)nop的作用是抹掉这个跳转,使这个跳转无效,失去作用,从而使程序顺利来到紧跟其后的正确信息处。 以上为必备知识。下面开始我们的破解之旅…… 软件破解:

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板式换热器选型计算 1、选型公式 a 、热负荷计算公式:Q=cm Δt 其中:Q=热负荷(kcal/h )、c —介质比热(Kcal/ Kg.℃)、m —介质质量流量(Kg/h )、Δt —介质进出口温差(℃)(注:m 、Δt 、c 为同侧参数) ※水的比热为1.0 Kcal/ Kg.℃ b 、换热面积计算公式:A=Q/K.Δt m 其中:A —换热面积(m 2)、K —传热系数(Kcal/ m 2.℃) Δt m —对数平均温差 注:K值按经验取值(流速越大,K值越大。水侧板间流速一般在0.2~0.8m/s 时可按上表取值,汽侧板 间流速一般在15m/s 以内时可按上表取值) Δt max -Δ t min T1 Δt max Δt min Δt max 为(T1-T2’)和(T1’-T2)之较大值Δt min 为(T1-T2’)和(T1’-T2)之较小值 T2’ T1’ c 、板间流速计算公式: T2 其中V —板间流速(m/s )、q----体积流量(注意单位转换,m 3 /h – m 3 /s )、 A S —单通道截面积(具体见下表)、n —流道数 2、板式换热器整机技术参数表: 计压力1.0Mpa 、垫片材质EPDM 、总换热面积为9 m 2 板式换热器。 注:以上选型计算方法适用于本公司生产的板式换热器。 选型实例一(卫生热水用:水-水) Ln Δt m =

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