*CHAPTER 5 (Core Chapter)
FACTOR ENDOWMENTS AND THE HECKSCHER-OHLIN THEORY OUTLINE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Assumptions of the Theory
5.2a The Assumptions
5.2b Meaning of the Assumptions
5.3 Factor Intensity, Factor Abundance, and the Shape of the Production Frontier
5.3a Factor Intensity
5.3b Factor Abundance
5.3c Factor Abundance and the Shape of the Production Frontier
Case Study 5-1: Relative Resource Endowments of Various Countries and Regions
Case Study 5-2: Capital-Labor Ratios of Selected Countries
5.4 Factor Endowments and the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory
5.4a The Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem
5.4b General Equilibrium Framework of the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory
5.4c Illustration of the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory
Case Study 5-3: Patterns of Comparative Advantage of Various Countries and Regions
Case Study 5-3: Factor Intensities and Industries of U.S. Comparative Advantage 5.5 Factor-Price Equalization and Income Distribution
5.5a The Factor-Price Equalization Theorem
5.5b Relative and Absolute Factor-Price Equalization
5.5c Effect of Trade on the Distribution of Income
5.5d The Specific-Factors Model
Case Study 5-5: Has International Trade Increased U.S. Wage Inequalities?
5.5e Empirical Relevance
Case Study 5-6: Convergence of Real Wages Among Industrial Countries
5.6 Empirical Tests of the Heckscher-Ohlin Model
5.6a Empirical Results - The Leontief Paradox
5.6b Explanations of the Leontief Paradox
5.6c Factor-Intensity Reversal and Other Empirical Tests of the H-O Model
Case Study 5-7: Capital and Labor Requirements in U.S. Trade
Case Study 5-8: The H-O Model With Skills and Land
Appendix: A5.1 The Edgeworth Box Diagram for Nation 1 and Nation 2
A5.2 Relative Factor-Price Equalization
A5.3 Absolute Factor-Price Equalization
A5.4 Effect of Trade on the Short-Run Distribution of Income:
The Specific-Factors Model
A5.5 Illustration of Factor-Intensity Reversal
A5.6 The Elasticity of Substitution and Factor Intensity Reversal
A5.7 Empirical Tests of the Factor-Intensity Reversal
Key Terms
Same technology Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) theory
Labor-intensive commodity Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) theorem
Capital-intensive commodity Factor endowments
Labor-capital ratio (L/K) Factor-proportions or factor-endowment theory Capital-labor ratio (K/L) Factor-price equalization (H-O-S) theorem Constant returns to scale Specific-factors model
Perfect competition Input-output table
Internal factor mobility Import substitutes
International factor mobility Leontief paradox
Factor abundance Human capital
Relative factor prices Factor-intensity reversal
Derived demand Elasticity of substitution
Lecture Guide
1.This is one of the most important chapters in the book. It is also a long chapter and
requires
about four lectures to adequately cover.
2. In the first lecture, I would cover Sections 1-
3.
3.In the second lecture, I would cover Section
4. This, of course, is one of the most
important
sections in the book. I would proceed slowly and carefully here and I would also assign
problems 1-8 and grade problems 1-3, 5, 6 to make sure that students clearly understand the
meaning of the theory (the answer to problems 4 and 7 appears at the end of the book).
4.In the third lecture, I would cover section 5 on the factor-price equalization theorem
and
income distribution. This is a difficult section. Case Studies 5-3 and 5-4 add a note of realism to the discussion. I would also assign problems 9 and 10.
5.In the fourth lecture, I would cover section 6 on empirical tests of the Heckscher-
Ohlin
Model and assign problems 13, and 15.
Answer to Problems
1. a) See Figure 1.
b)The slope of the lines measuring K/L of each commodity in Nation 2 fall if w/r
rises in
Nation 2 as a result of international trade.
c)The slope of the lines measuring K/L of each commodity in Nation 1 rise if w/r
falls in
Nation 1 as a result of international trade.
d)Given the results in parts (a) and (b), international trade reduces the difference in
the K/L in the production of each commodity in the two nations as compared
with the pretrade situation.
2. a) See Figure 2.
b)The comparative advantage of each nation is determined by differences in
production
conditions only since tastes are identical.
c)The two nations consume different amounts of the two commodities in the
absence of
trade but the same amounts with trade because internal prices differ without trade but are
identical with trade.
3. See Figure 3.
4. See Figure 4 on page 46.
5. See Figure 5.
6.a) Besides a difference in factor endowments, the production frontier of two nations
could
differ also because of a difference in technology.
b) A difference in the production frontier of two nations due to a difference in the
technology is prevented by assumption by the H-O model.
c)Another possible cause (besides a difference in production frontiers) of a
difference in
relative commodity prices between two nations in the absence of trade is a difference in
tastes.
7. See Figure 6.
8.People in developing countries consume very different goods and services than U.S.
consumers not because tastes are very different from the tastes of U.S. consumers but
because incomes are so different (much lower) than in the United States.
9.a) If tastes change in favor of commodity Y (the commodity of its comparative
disadvantage) in Figure 5-4 for Nation 1, Px/Py will be lower in Nation 1 because point
A will move up and to the left.
b) The effect of the change in tastes examined in part (a) for Nation 1 will cause r/w to rise
in Nation 1.
c) The effect of the changes examined in parts (a) and (b) will be to increase the
volume
of trade. These changes will improve the partner's terms of trade.
10.The statement was made by Gottfried Haberler in his Survey of International Trade
Theory,
Special Papers in International Economics, No.1 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
Press, International Finance Section, July 1961), p. 18.
While the statement is true, it does not detract from Samuelson's great contribution in
rigorously showing the conditions under which trade would bring about the complete
equality in the returns to homogeneous factors among nations.
11.Internatioal trade with developing economies, especially newly industrializing
economies
(NIEs), contributed in two ways to increased wage inequalities between skilled and
unskilled workers in the United States during the past two decades. Directly, by reducing
the demand for unskilled workers as a result of increased U.S. imports of labor-intensive
manufactures and, indirectly, by speeding up the introduction of labor-saving innovations,
which further reduced the U.S. demand for unskilled workers. International trade, however,
was only a small cause of increased wage inequalities in the United States. The most important cause was technological change.
12.a) Leontief found that U.S. import substitutes were more K-intensive than U.S.
exports
even though the United States was the most K-rich nation. This implied factor-intensity
reversal and rejection of the H-O trade model.
b)Kravis found that wages in U.S. export industries were higher than in U.S.
import-
competing industries, reflecting the greater productivity of labor in U.S. exports than in U.S. import substitutes. This was confirmed by Keesing who found that U.S.
exports
were more skill intensive than the exports of 9 other industrial nations. By adding human to physical capital, Kenen succeed in eliminating the paradox. Baldwin found that including human capital and excluding natural-resource industries eliminated the paradox.
c)The paradox was seemingly resolved by Leamer, Stern and Maskus, and
Salvatore and
Barazesh by comparing the K/L ratio in U.S. production vs. U.S. consumption, rather than in exports vs. imports when natural-resource-based industries are excluded.
d) Factor-intensity reversal seems to be rather rare in the real world.
13. a) See Figure 7.
b)Factor-intensity reversal could occur if the substitutability of K for L in the
production
of X was much greater than for Y and r/w was lower in Nation 2 than in Nation 1.
c)Minhas found factor-intensity reversal to be fairly frequent. However, by
correcting an
important source of bias in the Minhas study, Leontief showed that factor-intensity reversal was much less frequent. Ball tested another aspect of Minhas' conclusion and
confirmed Leontief's results that factor-intensity reversal was rare in the real world.
14. With factor-intensity reversal, a commodity is L-intensive in one nation and K-intensive in
the other. The H-O model would then predict that both nations would export the same
commodity. Since this is impossible, both nations must export the commodity intensive in
the same factor.
If this is the K-intensive commodity, the demand for K will increase in both nations. If it
is the L-intensive commodity, the demand for K will fall in both nations. Thus, the price
of K will either rise or fall in both nations, and international differences in the price of K
will decrease, increase or remain unchanged depending on the rate of change in the price
of K in the two nations.
15. a) By allowing for different technologies and factor prices across countries, nontraded
goods, transportation costs, and by using better and more disaggregated data.
b) Factor endowments broadly defined seem to explain comparative advantage well.
c) We retain a qualified factor-endowments H-O model of international trade.
App. 2. See Figure 8.
App. 4. The effect of the opening of trade on the real income of labor and capital in Nation 2 (the K-abundant nation) if L is mobile between the two industries in Nation 2 but K is not is to increase Py/Px and to cause more L to be used in the production of Y.
Wages then fall in terms of Y but rise in terms of X. On the other hand, the return on
capital increases in the production of Y but falls in the production of X.
App. 5. See Figure 9.
At P1 commodity Y is K-intensive (compare point C to point A).
At P2 commodity Y is still K-intensive (compare point D to point B).
App. 6. For the X isoquant e = (?K/L)/(K/L) = (3/3-2/4)/(2/4) = 1
?slope/slope (2-1)/1
For the Y isoquant e = (4/2-2.5/3)/(2.5/3) = 1.4
(2-1)/1
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. The H-O model extends the classical trade model by:
a. explaining the basis for comparative advantage
b. examining the effect of trade on factor prices
*c. both a and b
d. neither a nor b
2. Which is not an assumption of the H-O model
a. the same technology in both nations
b. constant returns to scale
*c. complete specialization
d. equal tastes in both nations
3. With equal technology nations will have equal K/L in production if: *a. factor prices are the same
b. tastes are the same
c. production functions are the same
d. all of the above
4. We say that commodity Y is K-intensive with respect to X when:
a. more K is used in the production of Y than X
b. less L is used in the production of Y than X
*c. a lower L/K ratio is used in the production of Y than X
d. a higher K/L is used in the production of X than Y
5. When w/r falls, L/K
a. falls in the production of both commodities
*b. rises in the production of both commodities
c. can rise or fall
d. is not affected
6. A nation is said to have a relative abundance of K if it has a:
a. greater absolute amount of K
b. smaller absolute amount of L
c. higher L/K ratio
*d. lower r/w
7. A difference in relative commodity prices between nations can be based on a difference in:
a. technology
b. factor endowments
c. tastes
*d. all of the above
8. In the H-O model, international trade is based mostly on a difference in:
a. technology
*b. factor endowments
c. economies of scale
d. tastes
9. According to the H-O model, trade reduces international differences in:
a. relative but not absolute factor prices
b. absolute but not relative factor prices
*c. both relative and absolute factor prices
d. neither relative nor absolute factor prices
10. According to the H-O model, international trade will:
a. reduce international differences in per capita incomes
b. increases international differences in per capita incomes
*c. may increase or reduce international differences in per capita incomes
d. lead to complete specialization
11. The H-O model is a general equilibrium model because it deals with:
a. production in both nations
b. consumption in both nations
c. trade between the two nations
*d. all of the above
12. The H-O model is a simplification of the a truly general equilibrium model
because it deals with:
a. two nations
b. two commodities
c. two factors of production
*d. all of the above
13. The Leontief paradox refers to the empirical finding that U.S.
*a. import substitutes are more K-intensive than exports
b. imports are more K-intensive than exports
c. exports are more L-intensive than imports
d. exports are more K-intensive than import substitutes
14. From empirical studies, we conclude that the H-O theory:
a. must be rejected
b. must be accepted without reservations
*c. can be accepted while awaiting further testing
d. explains all international trade
15. For factor reversal to occur, two commodities must be produced with: *a. sufficiently different elasticity of substitution of factors
b. the same K/L ratio
c. technologically-fixed factor proportions
d. equal elasticity of substitution of factors
Chapter 3 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage: The Ricardian Model Chapter Organization The Concept of Comparative Advantage A One-Factor Economy Production Possibilities Relative Prices and Supply Trade in a One-Factor World Box: Comparative Advantage in Practice: The Case of Babe Ruth Determining the Relative Price after Trade The Gains from Trade A Numerical Example Box: The Losses from Non-Trade Relative Wages Misconceptions about Comparative Advantage Productivity and Competitiveness The Pauper Labor Argument Exploitation Box: Do Wages Reflect Productivity? Comparative Advantage with Many Goods Setting Up the Model Relative Wages and Specialization Determining the Relative Wage with a Multigood Model Adding Transport Costs and Non-Traded Goods Empirical Evidence on the Ricardian Model Summary
第一章绪论 1、列举出体现当前国际经济学问题的一些重要事件，他们为什么重要？他们都是怎么影响中国与欧、美、日的经济和政治关系的？当前的国际金融危机最能体现国际经济学问题，其深刻地影响了世界各国的金融、实体经济、政治等领域，也影响了各国之间的关系因此显得尤为重要；其对中国与欧、美、日的政治和经济关系的影响为：减少中国对上述国家的出口，影响中国外汇储备，贸易摩擦加剧，经济联系加强，因而也会导致中国与上述国家在政治上的对话与合作。 2、我们如何评价一国与他国之间的相互依赖程度？我们可以通过一国的对外贸易依存度来评价该国与他国之间的相互依赖程度，也可以通过其他方式来评价比如一国政府政策的溢出效应和回震效应以及对外贸易对国民生活水平的影响。 3、国际贸易理论及国际贸易政策研究的内容是什么？为什么说他们是国际经济学的微观方面?国际贸易理论分析贸易的基础和所得，国际贸易政策考察贸易限制和新保护主义的原因和效果。国际贸易理论和政策是国际经济学的微观方面，因为他们把国家看作基本单位，并研究单个商品的（相对）价格。 4、什么是外汇交易市场及国际收支平衡表？调节国际收支平衡意味着什么？为什么说他们是国际经济学的宏观方面？什么是宏观开放经济学及国际金融？外汇交易市场描述一国货币与他国货币交换的框架，国际收支平衡表测度了一国与外部世界交易的总收入与总支出的情况。调节国际收支平衡意味着调节一国与外部世界交易出现的不均衡（赤字或盈余）；由于国际收支平衡表涉及总收入和总支出，调节政策影响国家收入水平和价格总指数，因而他们是国际经济学的宏观方面；外汇交易及国际收支平衡调节涉及总收入和总支出，调整政策影响国家收入水平和价格总指数，这些内容被称为宏观开放经济学或国际金融。 5、浏览报刊并做下列题目：（1）找出5条有关国际经济学的新闻（2）每条新闻对中国经济的重要性或影响（3）每条新闻对你个人有何影响 A (1) 国际金融危机: 影响中国整体经济,降低出口、增加失业、经济减速等 (2) 美国大选：影响中美未来经济政治关系 (3) 石油价格持续下跌：影响中国的能源价格及相关产业 (4) 可口可乐收购汇源被商务部否决：《反垄断法》的第一次实施，加强经济法治 (5) 各国政府经济刺激方案：对中国经济产生外部性效应B 以上5条新闻对个人影响为：影响个人消费水平和就业前景 第二章比较优势理论 1、重商主义者的贸易观点如何？他们的国家财富概念与现在有何不同？重商主义者主张政府应当竭尽所能孤立出口，不主张甚至限制商品（尤其是奢侈类消费品）。重商主义者认为国家富强的方法是尽量使出口大于进口，而出超的结果是金银等贵重金属流入，而一个国家拥有越多的金银，就越富有越强大。现在认为一个国家生产力即生产商品的能力越高则一国越富强 2、亚当.斯密主张的贸易基础和贸易模式分别是什么？贸易所得是如何产生的？斯密倡导什么样的国际贸易基础？他认为政府在经济生活中的适当功能是什么？亚当.斯密主张的贸易基础是绝对优势；贸易模式为两国通过专门生产自己有绝对优势的产品并用其中一部分来交换器有绝对劣势的商品。通过生产绝对优势商品并交换，资源可以被最有效的使用，而且两种商品的产出会有很大的增长，通过交换就会消费比以前更多的商品从而产生了贸易所得；斯密倡导自由贸易，主张自由放任也就是政府尽可能少干涉经济
Home's PPF 200400600800200400600800 Q apple Q banana Foreign's PPF 200400600800100080160240320400 Q*apple Q*banana Chapter 2 1a.画出本国的生产可能性边界： b. 用香蕉衡量的苹果的机会成本是， 5.1=Lb La a a c ．劳动力的自由流动使两部门的工资率相等，自由竞争使得他们生产两种产品的机会成本相同。相对价格等于相对成本，后者可以表示为(*)/(*)a a b b w a w a ，由于两部门间的工资率相等，a b w w ∴=，只有在Lb La b a /a a /P P =，两种商品才都会被生产。所以 1.5 /P P b a = 2a. b. 3 a. a b b a /P P /D D =∵当市场达到均衡时, 1b a ) (D D -**=++=b a b b a a P P Q Q Q Q ∴RD 是一条双曲线 x y 1 =
b.苹果的均衡相对价格由RD 和RS 的交点决定: RD: y x 1 = RS: 5 ]5,5.1[5.1],5.0(5.0) 5.0,0[=∈=??? ??+∞∈=∈y y y x x x ∴x=0.5, y=2 ∴2/=b P a P e e c. ∵b a b e a e b a P P P P P P ///>>**∴只有两个国家的时候，本国专门生产苹果，出口苹果并进口香蕉：外国则正好相反。 d ． 国际贸易允许本国和外国在阴影区内任何一点消费，专门生产某种产品然后和另一个国家进行贸易的间接方式，要比直接生产该商品的方式更有效率。在没有贸易时，本国要生产3单位的香蕉必须放弃2单位的苹果，外国要生产1单位的苹果要放弃5单位的香蕉。贸易允许两国以两单位香蕉交换一单位苹果。通过出让2单位苹果，本国可以获得四单位的香蕉；而外国可以用2单位向交换得1单位苹果。所以两个国家都从贸易中获利。 4. RD: y x 1 = RS: 5 ]5,5.1[5 .1] ,1(1)1,0[=∈=?? ???+∞∈=∈y y y x x x →5.13 2==y x →5.1/=b P a P e e 在这种情况下，外国将专门生产并出口香蕉，进口苹果。但本国将同时生产香蕉和苹果，并且香蕉相对于苹果的机会成本在本国是相同的。所以本国既没有得益也没有受损，但外国从贸易中获益了。 5.在这种情况下，劳动力总量加倍了而劳动生产率减半，所以有效劳动力总量仍是相同的。答案类似于第三小题，两国都从贸易中获益了。但是，相对于第四小题，外国的获益减少了。 6.实际上，相对工资率由相应的劳动生产率和对产品的相对需求决定。韩国的低工资率反映了韩国大部分行业的劳动生产率比美国低。和低劳动生产率，低工资率的国家进行贸易可以提高像美国那样高劳动生产率国家的福利和生活水平。所以这种贫民劳动论是错误的。
Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade Chapter Organization Economies of Scale and International Trade: An Overview Economies of Scale and Market Structure The Theory of Imperfect Competition Monopoly: A Brief Review Monopolistic Competition Limitations of the Monopolistic Competition Model Monopolistic Competition and Trade The Effects of Increased Market Size Gains from an Integrated Market: A Numerical Example Economies of Scale and Comparative Advantage The Significance of Intraindustry Trade Why Intraindustry Trade Matters Case Study: Intraindustry Trade in Action: The North American Auto Pact Dumping The Economics of Dumping Case Study: Anti-Dumping as Protection Reciprocal Dumping The Theory of External Economies Specialized Suppliers Labor Market Pooling Knowledge Spillovers External Economies and Increasing Returns
For personal use only in study and research; not for commercial use 第一章 1.为什么说在决定生产与消费时,相对价格比绝对价格更重要？ 答案提示:当生产处于生产边界线上,资源则得到了充分利用,这时,要想增加某一产品的生产,必须降低另一产品的生产,也就就是说,增加某一产品的生产就是有机会机本(或社会成本)的。生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率与充分就业得以实现,但究竟选择哪一点,则还要瞧两个商品的相对价格,即它们在市场上的交换比率。相对价格等于机会成本时,生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。所以,在决定生产与消费时,相对价格比绝对价格更重要 2.仿效图1—6与图1—7,试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线与国民需求曲线。 答:参见教材第一章第二节内容,将图1－6a中,以横坐标表示y商品的供给,以纵坐标表示x商品供给,得出相应生产可能性边界线,然后将图1－6b中,以横坐标表示y商品供给,以纵坐标表示y的相对价格,通过类似推导可得出国民供给曲线,国民需求曲线作类似推导可得。 3.在只有两种商品的情况下,当一个商品达到均衡时,另外一个商品就是否也同时达到均衡？ 答:两种商品同时达到均衡。一种商品均衡时,由其相对价格,机会成本,需求可知另一种商品得相对价格,机会成本与需求。 4.如果生产可能性边界就是一条直线,试确定过剩供给(或需求)曲线。 答案提示:略,参见书上 5.如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线(B国)与过剩需求曲线(A国)来确定国际均衡价格,那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果就是否一致？ 答案提示:国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。 6.说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。 答案提示:一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品,有利于此国贸易利益的获得,不过,出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加,有损于出口国的贸易利益;与此类似,出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加,但就是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。对于进
国际经济学 名词： 1、国际经济学：是经济的一般理论在国际经济范围中的延伸和应用，是以经济学的一般理论为基础来研究国际经济活动与国际经济关系的经济学分支学科，是整个经济学体系的有机组成部分。主要研究对象有国际贸易理论与政策、国际收支、外汇理论、生产要素的国际流动、跨国公司、经济发展、经济一体化、开放经济的宏观调节、经济全球化与国际经济秩序研究等。 2、绝对利益:在某一种商品上，一个经济在劳动生产率上占有绝对优势，或其生产所耗费的劳动成本绝对低于另一经济，若各个经济都从事自己占有绝对优势商品的生产，继而进行交换，那么双方都可以通过交换得到绝对的利益，从而整个世界也可以获得分工的好处。 3、比较利益:甲国在生产任何产品时成本均低于乙国，劳动生产率均高于乙国，处于绝对优势，两个国家间进行贸易的可能性依然存在，因为两国劳动生产率之间的差距，并不是在任何产品上都一样。这样，处于绝对优势的国家集中生产本国国内具有最大优势的产品，处于绝对劣势的国家停止生产在本国国内处于最大劣势的产品，通过自由交换，双方都可节约社会劳动，增加产品的消费。世界也因而增加产量，提高劳动生产率。 4、国际分工:即各国之间的劳动分工,生产的国际专业化。它是国际贸易的基础,是社会分工从国内向国外延伸的结果。各国对于分工方式的选择以及分工的变化,反映了彼此之间经济发展水平的差异及各国经济联系的程度。主要有产业间、产业内、垂直、水平以及不同要素密集度之间的分工等类型。 5、贸易乘数:在开放的条件下，对外贸易的增长可以使国民经济成倍增加，对外贸易乘数研究一国对外贸易与国民收入、就业之间的互相影响，描述了在开放经济体系内部出口促进经济增长的动态过程。公式为： dY＝[l/(dM/dY)] dX。（2003） 6、一价定律:在完全竞争的市场上，相同的交易产品或金融资产经过汇率调整后，在世界范围内其交易成本一定是相等的。这个定律在经济中是通过诸如购买力平价、利息平价、远期汇率等经济关系表现出来的。 7、贸易创造与贸易转移:关税同盟成员国产品从生产成本较高的国内生产转向成本较低的关税同盟中贸易对象国生产，本国从贸易对象国进口的一种过程和现象。的部分进口产品从过去进口自较低生产成本国(非成员国)转向从较高生产成本国(成员国)进口的过程和现象。 8、流动借贷:国际金融中决定汇率的理论——国际借贷说中的重要概念，指国际借贷中形成了借贷关系并且进入了实际支付的那种债权、债务关系，它对国际收支的平衡从而对汇率的走向有着重要的决定性影响。 9、固定借贷:国际金融中决定汇率的理论——国际借贷说中的重要概念，指国际借贷中形成了借贷关系但尚未进入实际支付的那种债权债务关系。它对国际收支从而对汇率的走向无实质决定性作用，有时甚至会产生相反的现象，即债务存在时汇率反而走高。 10、边际进口倾向：国际贸易理论中的一个重要概念，指每一单位增量国民收入中，用于进行进口的比重。通常在公式中用m来表示。边际进口倾向大,则每一单位增量国民收入中用于进口的比重大，乘数效应对于经济的刺激作用就会较小,反之则较大。 11、外汇倾销:利用本国货币对外贬值的机会,向外倾销商品和争夺市场的行为称外汇倾销。这是因为本国货币贬值后，出口商品用外国货币表示价格降低，提高了该国商品在国际市场上的竞争力，有利于扩大出口；而因本国货币贬值，进口商品的价格上涨，削弱了进口商品的竞争力，限制了进口。外汇倾销需要一定的条件，主要是本国货币对外贬值速度要快于对内贬值以及对方不进行报复等。 12、幼稚产业:具有比较利益的产业处于幼稚状态，经过保护使之发展，具有现实的比较利益。（1）穆勒标准：某种产业由于技术不足、生产率低下，成本高于国际市场，无法竞争，在保护下，能够在自由贸易下获利，自我投资发展，即为幼稚产业。（2）巴斯塔布尔标准：保护、扶植幼稚产业所需的社会成本不能超过该产业将来利润的现值总和，符合条件即为幼稚产业。（3）肯普标准：除了穆—巴标准的内容外，应考虑产业在被保护时期内的外部效应，如某种技术可为其他产业所获得，因而使得本产业利润无法增加，将来利润无法补偿投资成本，国家应该予以保护。 13、外汇：是货币行政当局以银行存款、财政部库券、长短期政府证券等形式保有的在国际收支逆差时可以用作支付使用的国际支付手段或债权。 14、汇率：是本国货币与其他货币之间的比价关系，是外汇在市场中的价格。从不同角度出发，汇率有多种表
Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy Chapter Organization Basic Tariff Analysis Supply, Demand, and Trade in a Single Industry Effects of a Tariff Measuring the Amount of Protection Costs and Benefits of a Tariff Consumer and Producer Surplus Measuring the Costs and Benefits Other Instruments of Trade Policy Export Subsidies: Theory Case Study: Europe’s Common Agricultural Policy Import Quotas: Theory Case Study: An Import Quota in Practice: U.S. Sugar Voluntary Export Restraints Case Study: A Voluntary Export Restraint in Practice: Japanese Autos Local Content Requirements Box: American Buses, Made in Hungary Other Trade Policy Instruments The Effects of Trade Policy: A Summary Summary Appendix I: Tariff Analysis in General Equilibrium A Tariff in a Small Country A Tariff in a Large Country Appendix II: Tariffs and Import Quotas in the Presence of Monopoly The Model with Free Trade The Model with a Tariff The Model with an Import Quota Comparing a Tariff with a Quota
克鲁格曼国际经济学课 后答案英语版 Company Document number：WUUT-WUUY-WBBGB-BWYTT-1982GT
C H A P T E R 2 LABOR PRODUCTIVITY AN D COMPARATIV E ADVANTAGE: THE RICARDIAN MODEL ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS 1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400 (1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2). b. The opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest bananas. c. Labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. Since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas. 2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to 160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1). b. The world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. The relative supply curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity. 3. a. The relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2). b. The equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. This is the point (1/2, 2), where the relative demand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. Thus the equilibrium relative price is 2. c. Home produces only apples, Foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some of its product for the product of the other country. d. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. Each country is better off with trade. 4. The increase in the number of workers at Home shifts out the relative supply schedule such that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). The intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). In this case, Foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home is the same whether or not there is trade, so Home neither gains nor loses from trade.
Overview of Section II: International Trade Policy Section II of the text is comprised of four chapters: Chapter 8The Instruments of Trade Policy Chapter 9The Political Economy of Trade Policy Chapter 10Trade Policy in Developing Countries Chapter 11Controversies in Trade Policy n Section II Overview Trade policy issues figure prominently in current political debates and public policy discussions. The first two chapters of this section of the text are concerned with the instruments of trade policy and the arguments for free trade and managed trade. The second two chapters consider these concepts in the context of specific sets of countries that face common problems. Throughout, the use of case studies provides the student with real world examples that clearly illustrate the theoretical arguments. Chapter 8 discusses various instruments of trade policy including tariffs, quotas, voluntary export restraints, and local content requirements. The effects of these policies on prices and trade volumes are determined in the context of a partial equilibrium framework. The chapter reviews the analytical tools of consumer and producer surplus, and uses these tools to consider the welfare effects of various protectionist measures. The specific incidents of trade restrictions presented as case studies include import quotas on sugar entering United States markets, voluntary export restraints on Japanese autos, and oil import quotas. Chapter 9 presents the set of ideas known as the political economy of trade theory. These ideas enable you to understand why certain trade restrictions exist, despite the force of general economic arguments which suggest that they reduce aggregate welfare. Possible motivations for trade restrictions are identified as those which increase national welfare, such as the optimum tariff, and those which foster either income
这是我在网上找的，大多数题目都有，朋友们可以参考一下！有一点不确定的是G—L指数，大家再上网查看看，是乘100还是乘1？希望可以给你们帮助，预祝大家顺利通过！ 第二章古典国际贸易理论 在古典贸易模型中，假设A国有120名劳动力，B国有50名劳动力，如果生产棉花的话，A国的人均产量是2吨，B国也是2吨；要是生产大米的话，A国的人均产量是10吨，B国则是16吨。画出两国的生产可能性曲线并分析两国中哪一国拥有生产大米的绝对优势？哪一国拥有生产大米的比较优势？ 思路：B国由于每人能生产16吨大米，而A国每人仅生产10吨大米，所以B国具有生产大米的绝对优势。 从两国生产可能性曲线看出A国生产大米的机会成本为0.2，而B国为0.125，所以B国生产大米的机会成本或相对成本低于A国，B国生产大米具有比较优势。 1.下表列出了加拿大和中国生产1单位计算机和1单位小麦所需的劳动时间。 假定生产计算机和小麦都只用劳动，加拿大的总劳动为600小时，中国总劳动为800小时。 （1）计算不发生贸易时各国生产计算机的机会成本。 （2）哪个国家具有生产计算机的比较优势？哪个国家具有生产小麦的比较优势？ （3）如果给定世界价格是1单位计算机交换22单位的小麦，加拿大参与贸易可以从每单位的进口中节省多少劳动时间？中国可以从每单位进口中节省多少劳动时间？如果给定世界价格是1单位计算机交换24单位的小麦，加拿大和中国分别可以从进口每单位的货物中节省多少劳动时间？ （4）在自由贸易的情况下，各国应生产什么产品，数量是多少？整个世界的福利水平是提高还是降低了？试用图分析。（以效用水平来衡量福利水平）思路： （1）中国生产计算机的机会成本为100/4=25，加拿大为60/3=20
国际经济学（第十版）多米尼克.萨尔瓦多(著) P16页练习题 6.（1）根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高（如由于税率的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？ 答：根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高，则该商品的需求量将会下降。 （2）根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高（如由于进口关税的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？ 答：根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高，则该商品的出口量将会下降。 7．（1）一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字？ 答：一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收，来消除或者减少预算赤字。（2）一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差？ 答：一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有：对进口商品增税、补贴出口，借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券，降低该国的国民收入水平。 8．（1）国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别？ 答：在国际经济关系下，国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素，不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动，此外，国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通。 而在地区经济关系下，就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素，它们经常是在同样的语言环境下，在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的，这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比。 （2）它们在哪方面相似？ 答：国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点：两者都跨越了空间距离，事实上，它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物，把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点，这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分。 1
Chapter 1 Introduction ?Chapter Organization What Is International Economics About? The Gains from Trade The Pattern of Trade How Much Trade? Balance of Payments Exchange Rate Determination International Policy Coordination The International Capital Market International Economics: Trade and Money ?Chapter Overview The intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports on television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad. The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domestic and international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexican crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. The financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 and spread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. These global linkages have been highlighted yet again with the rapid spread of the financial crisis in the United States to the rest of the world. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings and a rising wave of protectionist rhetoric have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur. ? 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Addison-Wesley
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》中文版·第九版课后习题答案 第一章练习与答案 1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？ 答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。 2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。 答案提示： 3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？ 试解释原因。 答案提示： 4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。 答案提示： 5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？ 答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。 6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。 答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。 7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？ 答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。 8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？ 答案提示：小国。 9*．为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？ 答案提示： 第二章答案 1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。