Computational Aspects of Emotion in Adaptive Behavior
Joost Broekens, Walter Kosters, Fons Verbeek
LIACS, Leiden University, The Netherlands.
Overview
?Emotion & Information Processing.?Adaptive agents:
–reactive,
–cognitive,
–emotion-modulated cognitive agents.?Experiment: Pleasure regulates information processing.
?Future work.
Emotion: communication medium,
decision heuristic and modulator.?Common emotions: fear, anger, happiness, sadness, surprise, disgust.
?Short episode triggered by an (internal/external) event composed of –subjective feelings,
–inclinations to act (action preparation, action tendency (Frijda)),
–facial expressions,
–cognitive evaluation, and
–physiological arousal (heartbeat, alertness).
?Emotion: communication medium.
–Communicate internal state (Biological & Sociological evidence: Darwin, Ekman).
?Emotion: decision-heuristic relating events to goals, needs, desires, beliefs of an agent.
–Result of evaluation of personal relevance, helps decision-making (Neurological & cognitive evidence: Damasio, appraisal theory). ?Emotion: influences information processing.
–Neurocomputational & cognitive evidence: Doya and Frijda, Manstead and Bem.
Emotion & Information Processing ?Biology→Emotion; internal drives, homeostasis, hardwired reactions ?Cognition→Emotion; cognitive emotion elicitation:
–Emotions result from the interpretation of our world in relation to our goals, needs, desires, beliefs, etc. (Appraisal Theory, Frijda, Lazarus,
Arnolds, etc.).
?Emotion→behavior; emotion influences adaptive behavior:–emotion as drive,
–emotion as source of information,
–emotion as modulator of cognitive processes.
–Relates to different types of (views on aspects of) adaptive agents:?reactive,
?cognitive,
?emotion-modulated cognitive agents.
?Reactive agents:
–have predefined behaviors,
–learn new behavior based on instrumental conditioning, and
–select behaviors based on this learned model and based on internal drives (motivations).
?Emotion influences behavior:
–can be such an internal drive, and
–can trigger typical behaviors (fight / flight).?Computational models that study emotion within this context (drive/motivation) (Avila-Garcia and C?namero, 2004; C?namero, 1997; Velasquez, 1998).
?Cognitive agents are reactive agents plus:–Internally represented knowledge used in
–planning and reasoning, and an
–Attention mechanism guiding perception and action,–etc...
?Emotion influences behavior:
–is a source of (explicit) information used in reasoning (knowledge), and
–can (implicitly) modulate information processing
(systemic influence).
?Computational models in which emotion is used as information (e.g. Botelho and Coelho).
Thinking: Internal Simulation of
Behavior
?Internal simulation of behavior
–Covertly execute and evaluate potential interaction using sensory-motor substrates (Hesslow, 2002; Damasio; Cotterill, 2001), but see also
–“interaction potentialities” (Bickhard), and
–“state anticipation” (Butz, Sigaud, Gérard, 2003).
–Existing mechanisms are basis for simulation
–Evolutionary continuity!
?Our basis for information processing
Emotion modulates information
processing
?Emotion influences thinking and behavior at multiple levels of cognitive complexity (Frijda, Manstead and Bem, 2000; Damasio, 1994; Davidson, 2000; Berridge, 2003; Rolls, 2000).
?Emotion is integrated at multiple levels of processing &
higher levels of processing?conscious, reflective reasoning?not always existed
evolutionary advantage to integration of emotion at lower levels can be expected; levels close to reward systems, and behavioral control.
–If thinking is internal simulation of behavior, these low-level integration mechanisms should also learn us about the influence of emotion on higher-level cognitive mechanisms, e.g., on attention.
?In this research we focus on the low-level influence of emotion on information processing in simulated adaptive agents.
?We use emotion as a metalearning parameter (Doya, 2000).
?Emotion: pleasure and arousal (Russell, 2003).
Experiment: Can pleasure regulate information processing such that this provides an adaptive advantage for the
agent?
Pleasure regulates information
processing Cognitive influence Reactive behavior
RL
Interaction-selection Action-selection
action
reinforcement
interaction ENVIRONMENT
Perception simulated interaction
simulated reinforcement
percept predicted interactions Emotion process
pleasure
stimulus
model
Learning
?The agent learns to interact with the environment through Reinforcement Learning (instrumental conditioning).
–Agent’s actions are rewarded or punished.
–Learns value-state predictions of potential next
states.
–Uses these predictions to determine what next
action to do.
–Basics of the model are based on (Sutton and Barto, 1998).
?Learns through continuous interaction.?Learns based on perception-action pairs.
Learning: reinforcement example
Reward: propagate back to beginning, using a mechanism that solves the temporal credit assignment problem (i.e., find actions responsible for reward).
Cognitive influence Reactive behavior
Distributed-state RL
model Interaction-selection Action-selection
action
reinforcement
interaction ENVIRONMENT
Perception simulated interaction
simulated reinforcement
percept predicted interactions Emotion process
pleasure
stimulus
?Value-state predictions are transformed into action-values.
?Action-selection is based on these action values.
–Choose an action from the set of action-value pairs stochastically (e.g. using a Boltzmann
distribution)
?Action-selection responsible for exploration vs. exploitation behavior.
Our agent’s cognitive part (based on
internal simulation of behavior)Cognitive influence Reactive behavior
Distributed-state RL
model Interaction-selection Action-selection
action
reinforcement
interaction ENVIRONMENT
Perception simulated interaction
simulated reinforcement
percept predicted interactions Emotion process
pleasure
stimulus
Simulation: action-selection bias
At every step, instead of action-selection, select a subset of predicted
interactions from reinforcement learning model feed back to RL model.
1.Interaction-selection : select a subset of predicted interactions.
2.Simulate-and-bias-predicted-benefit : feed back to model as if a real
interaction.
Cognitive influence Reactive behavior
Hierarchical-state
RL model Interaction-selection Action-selection
action
reinforcement
interaction ENVIRONMENT
Perception simulated interaction simulated reinforcement percept predicted interactions Emotion process pleasure stimulus 3. Action-selection : select the next action using the action-selection mechanism explained earlier based on the now biased action values .
Simulation: example
?Action list before simulation (!hypothetical example!):
–{up=0.2, down=-0.5, right=-1, left=-1}
?Action-selection would have selected “up”,
–With Boltzmann→high probability for “up”.
Roadblock r=-.5?Simulate all interactions.
–Propagate back the predicted values by simulating interaction with environment.
–Effect is a “value look-ahead” of 1 step.
?Action list after simulation:
–{up=0.1, down=0.5, right=-1, left=-1}
?Action-selection selects “down”.
?In this example simulating all predicted interactions helps ?.
But: Simulating Everything is not
Always Best
?Even apart from fact that simulating everything costs mental effort.?Earlier experiments (Broekens, 2005) showed that
–simulation has benefit, especially when many interactions are simulated.
This is not surprising (better heuristic). However,
–in some cases less simulation resulted in better learning.
→Dynamic relation between environment and simulation “strategy” (i.e.
simulation threshold: percentage of all predicted interactions to be
simulated).
→Emotion as metalearning to adapt amount of internal simulation?
(Doya, 2002)
–Pleasure is an indication of the current performance of the agent (Clore and Gasper, 2000). Also,
–high pleasure→top down thinking, and
low pleasure→bottom up thinking (Fiedler and Bless, 2000).
Cognitive influence Reactive behavior
Distributed-state RL
model Interaction-selection Action-selection
action
reinforcement
interaction ENVIRONMENT
Perception simulated interaction
simulated reinforcement
percept predicted interactions Emotion process
pleasure
stimulus
?Many theories of emotion.
?We use core-affect (or activation-valence)theory of emotion as basis.
–Two fundamental factors, pleasure and arousal (Russell, 2003).
–Pleasure relates to emotional valence, and
–arousal relates to action-readiness, or activity.
?In this study we model pleasure as simulation threshold.
–We use pleasure to dynamically adapt the amount of interactions that are simulated. It is thus used as a dynamic simulation
threshold.
–We study the indirect effect of emotion as a metalearning parameter affecting information processing that on its turn
influences action-selection.
人教版九年级全册英语重点语法知识点复习提纲 一. 介词by的用法（Unit-1重点语法） 1. 意为“在……旁”，“靠近”。 Some are singing and dancing under a big tree. Some are drawing by the lake. 有的在大树下唱歌跳舞。有的在湖边画画儿。 2. 意为“不迟于”，“到……时为止”。 Your son will be all right by supper time. 你的儿子在晚饭前会好的。 How many English songs had you learned by the end of last term? 到上个学期末你们已经学了多少首英语歌曲? 3. 表示方法、手段,可译作“靠”、“用”、“凭借”、“通过”、“乘坐”等。 The monkey was hanging from the tree by his tail and laughing. 猴子用尾巴吊在树上哈哈大笑。 The boy’s father was so thankful that he taught Edison how to send messages by railway telegraph. 孩子的父亲是那么的感激,于是他教爱迪生怎样通过铁路电报来传达信息。 4. 表示“逐个”，“逐批”的意思。 One by one they went past the table in the dark. 他们一个一个得在黑暗中经过这张桌子。 5. 表示“根据”，“按照”的意思。 What time is it by your watch? 你的表几点了? 6. 和take , hold等动词连用，说明接触身体的某一部分。 I took him by the hand. 我拉住了他的手。
With的用法全解 with结构是许多英语复合结构中最常用的一种。学好它对学好复合宾语结构、不定式复合结构、动名词复合结构和独立主格结构均能起很重要的作用。本文就此的构成、特点及用法等作一较全面阐述，以帮助同学们掌握这一重要的语法知识。 一、 with结构的构成 它是由介词with或without+复合结构构成，复合结构作介词with或without的复合宾语，复合宾语中第一部分宾语由名词或代词充当，第二部分补足语由形容词、副词、介词短语、动词不定式或分词充当，分词可以是现在分词，也可以是过去分词。With结构构成方式如下： 1. with或without-名词/代词+形容词； 2. with或without-名词/代词+副词； 3. with或without-名词/代词+介词短语； 4. with或without-名词/代词 +动词不定式； 5. with或without-名词/代词 +分词。 下面分别举例： 1、 She came into the room，with her nose red because of cold.（with+名词+形容词，作伴随状语）
2、 With the meal over ， we all went home.（with+名词+副词，作时间状语） 3、The master was walking up and down with the ruler under his arm。（with+名词+介词短语，作伴随状语。） The teacher entered the classroom with a book in his hand. 4、He lay in the dark empty house，with not a man ，woman or child to say he was kind to me.（with+名词+不定式，作伴随状语）He could not finish it without me to help him.（without+代词 +不定式，作条件状语） 5、She fell asleep with the light burning.（with+名词+现在分词，作伴随状语） Without anything left in the with结构是许多英 语复合结构中最常用的一种。学好它对学好复合宾语结构、不定式复合结构、动名词复合结构和独立主格结构均能起很重要的作用。本文就此的构成、特点及用法等作一较全面阐述，以帮助同学们掌握这一重要的语法知识。 二、with结构的用法 with是介词，其意义颇多，一时难掌握。为帮助大家理清头绪，以教材中的句子为例，进行分类，并配以简单的解释。在句子中with结构多数充当状语，表示行为方式，伴随情况、时间、原因或条件（详见上述例句）。 1.带着，牵着…… (表动作特征)。如： Run with the kite like this.
中考英语语法总结 一、祈使句结构 1 祈使句结构 祈使句用以表达命令，要求，请求，劝告等。 1）祈使句有两种类型，一种是以动词原形开头，在动词原形之前加do (但只限于省略第二人称主语的句子)。 Take this seat. Do be careful. 否定结构： Don't move. Don't be late. 2）第二种祈使句以let开头。 Let 的反意疑问句 a. Let's 包括说话者 Let's have another try，shall we / shan't we = Shall we have another try b. Let us 不包括说话者 Let us have another try，will you / won't you = Will you please let us have another try
否定结构： Let's not talk of that matter. Let us not talk of that matter. 二、感叹句结构 感叹句结构 感叹句通常有what, how引导，表示赞美、惊叹、喜悦、等感情。 what修饰名词，how 修饰形容词，副词或动词，感叹句结构主要有以下几种： 掌握它的搭配，即掌握了感叹句的重点。 How +形容词+ a +名词+ 陈述语序 How+形容词或副词+ 陈述语序 What +名词+ 陈述语序 What+a+形容词+名词+ 陈述语序 What+ 形容词+复数名词+ 陈述语序 What+ 形容词+不可数名词+ 陈述语序 How clever a boy he is! How lovely the baby is! What noise they are making! What a clever boy he is!
1) leave的用法 1.“leave+地点”表示“离开某地”。例如： When did you leave Shanghai? 你什么时候离开上海的？ 2.“leave for+地点”表示“动身去某地”。例如： Next Friday, Alice is leaving for London. 下周五，爱丽斯要去伦敦了。 3.“leave+地点+for+地点”表示“离开某地去某地”。例如：Why are you leaving Shanghai for Beijing? 你为什么要离开上海去北京？ 2) 情态动词should“应该”学会使用
should作为情态动词用，常常表示意外、惊奇、不能理解等，有“竟会”的意思，例如： How should I know? 我怎么知道？ Why should you be so late today? 你今天为什么来得这么晚？ should有时表示应当做或发生的事，例如： We should help each other.我们应当互相帮助。 我们在使用时要注意以下几点： 1. 用于表示“应该”或“不应该”的概念。此时常指长辈教导或责备晚辈。例如： You should be here with clean hands. 你应该把手洗干净了再来。 2. 用于提出意见劝导别人。例如： You should go to the doctor if you feel ill. 如果你感觉不舒服，你最好去看医生。
3. 用于表示可能性。should的这一用法是考试中常常出现的考点之一。例如： We should arrive by supper time. 我们在晚饭前就能到了。 She should be here any moment. 她随时都可能来。 3) What...? 与Which...? 1. what 与which 都是疑问代词，都可以指人或事物，但是what仅用来询问职业。如： What is your father? 你父亲是干什么的？ 该句相当于： What does your father do? What is your father's job? Which 指代的是特定范围内的某一个人。如：
with的用法大全----四级专项训练with结构是许多英语复合结构中最常用的一种。学好它对学好复合宾语结构、不定式复合结构、动名词复合结构和独立主格结构均能起很重要的作用。本文就此的构成、特点及用法等作一较全面阐述，以帮助同学们掌握这一重要的语法知识。 一、 with结构的构成 它是由介词with或without+复合结构构成，复合结构作介词with或without的复合宾语，复合宾语中第一部分宾语由名词或代词充当，第二部分补足语由形容词、副词、介词短语、动词不定式或分词充当，分词可以是现在分词，也可以是过去分词。With结构构成方式如下： 1. with或without-名词/代词+形容词; 2. with或without-名词/代词+副词; 3. with或without-名词/代词+介词短语; 4. with或without-名词/代词+动词不定式; 5. with或without-名词/代词+分词。 下面分别举例：
1、 She came into the room，with her nose red because of cold.(with+名词+形容词，作伴随状语) 2、 With the meal over ， we all went home.(with+名词+副词，作时间状语) 3、The master was walking up and down with the ruler under his arm。(with+名词+介词短语，作伴随状语。) The teacher entered the classroom with a book in his hand. 4、He lay in the dark empty house，with not a man ，woman or child to say he was kind to me.(with+名词+不定式，作伴随状语) He could not finish it without me to help him.(without+代词 +不定式，作条件状语) 5、She fell asleep with the light burning.(with+名词+现在分词，作伴随状语) 6、Without anything left in the cupboard， she went out to get something to eat.(without+代词+过去分词，作为原因状语) 二、with结构的用法 在句子中with结构多数充当状语，表示行为方式，伴随情况、时间、原因或条件(详见上述例句)。
1 . (see 、hear 、notice 、find 、feel 、listen 从句感觉/对什么有信心，自信 to 、look at ( 感官动词)+（sb. ）+do sth. eg : I am/ feel confident of myspoken English. eg:I like watching monkeys jump. I feel that I can pass the test . 2 . （比较级and 比较级）表示越来越怎么样18. be + doing 表：1现在进行时2将来时 eg:the more the more 越来越多19 . be able to (+ v 原) = can (+ v 原）能够?? 3. a piece of cake =easy 小菜一碟（容易）eg : She is able to sing .= She can sing. 4 . agree with sb赞成某人20. be able to do sth. 能够干什么 5 . all kinds of 各种各样a kind of 一样e g :she is able to sing . 6 . all over the world = the whole world 整个21. be afraid to do (of sth 恐惧，害怕??世界eg : I'm afraed to go out at night . 7. along with 同??一道，伴随??I'm afraid of dog. eg : I will go along with you. 我将和你一起去22. be allowed to do 被允许做什么 The students planted trees along with their eg: I'm allowed to watch TV. 我被允许看电视teachers. 学生同老师们一起种树I should be allowed to watch TV. 我应该被允 8. as soon as 一怎么样就怎么样 许看电视 9 . as you can see 你是知道的(正如你所见)23. be angry with sb 生某人的气 10 . ask for ??求助向?要?（直接接想要的东e g : Don't be angry with me. 西）24. be angry with(at) sb for doing sth 12. ask sb to do sth询问某人某事 为什么而生某人的气 ask sb not to do 叫某人不要做某事25. be as ?原级?as 和什么一样 13 . at the age of 在??岁时eg : She is as tall as me. 她和我一样高 eg ：I amsixteen. = I am at the age of sixteen . 26. be ashamed to 14. at the beginning of ????的起初；??27. be away from远离 的开始28. be away from 从??离开 15. at the end of + 地点/+时间最后；尽头；末29. be bad for对什么有害 尾eg : Reading books in the sun is bad for your eg : At the end of the day eyes. 在太阳下看书对你的眼睛不好 16. at this time of year 在每年的这个时候30. be born 出生于 17. be /feel confident of sth /that clause + 31. be busy doing sth 忙于做什么事
with用法归纳 （1）“用……”表示使用工具，手段等。例如： ①We can walk with our legs and feet. 我们用腿脚行走。 ②He writes with a pencil. 他用铅笔写。 （2）“和……在一起”，表示伴随。例如： ①Can you go to a movie with me? 你能和我一起去看电影'>电影吗？ ②He often goes to the library with Jenny. 他常和詹妮一起去图书馆。 （3）“与……”。例如： I’d like to have a talk with you. 我很想和你说句话。 （4）“关于，对于”，表示一种关系或适应范围。例如： What’s wrong with your watch? 你的手表怎么了？ （5）“带有，具有”。例如： ①He’s a tall kid with short hair. 他是个长着一头短发的高个子小孩。 ②They have no money with them. 他们没带钱。 （6）“在……方面”。例如： Kate helps me with my English. 凯特帮我学英语。 （7）“随着，与……同时”。例如： With these words, he left the room. 说完这些话，他离开了房间。 [解题过程] with结构也称为with复合结构。是由with+复合宾语组成。常在句中做状语，表示谓语动作发生的伴随情况、时间、原因、方式等。其构成有下列几种情形： 1.with+名词(或代词)+现在分词 此时，现在分词和前面的名词或代词是逻辑上的主谓关系。 例如:1)With prices going up so fast, we can't afford luxuries. 由于物价上涨很快，我们买不起高档商品。（原因状语） 2)With the crowds cheering, they drove to the palace. 在人群的欢呼声中，他们驱车来到皇宫。（伴随情况） 2.with+名词(或代词)+过去分词 此时，过去分词和前面的名词或代词是逻辑上的动宾关系。
一. 介词by的用法 1. 意为“在……旁”，“靠近”。 Some are singing and dancing under a big tree. Some are drawing by the lake. 有的在大树下唱歌跳舞。有的在湖边画画儿。 2. 意为“不迟于”，“到……时为止”。 Your son will be all right by supper time. 你的儿子在晚饭前会好的。 How many English songs had you learned by the end of last term? 到上个学期末你们已经学了多少首英语歌曲? 3. 表示方法、手段,可译作“靠”、“用”、“凭借”、“通过”、“乘坐”等。 The monkey was hanging from the tree by his tail and laughing. 猴子用尾巴吊在树上哈哈大笑。 The boy’s father was so thankful that he taught Edison how to send messages by railway telegraph. 孩子的父亲是那么的感激,于是他教爱迪生怎样通过铁路电报来传达信息。 4. 表示“逐个”，“逐批”的意思。 One by>他们一个一个得在黑暗中经过这张桌子。 5. 表示“根据”，“按照”的意思。 What time is it by your watch? 你的表几点了? 6. 和take , hold等动词连用，说明接触身体的某一部分。 I took him by the hand. 我拉住了他的手。 7. 用于被动句中，表示行为主体,常译作“被”、“由”等。
1. by + doing 通过……方式如：by studying with a group by 还可以表示："在…旁","靠近","在…期间"、"用,""经过","乘车"等如：I live by the river. I have to go back by ten o'clock. The thief entered the room by the window. The student went to park by bus. 2. talk about 谈论，议论，讨论 如：The students often talk about movie after class. 学生们常常在课后讨论电影。talk to sb. === talk with sb. 与某人说话 3. 提建议的句子： ①What/ how about +doing sth.? 如：What/ How about going shopping? ②Why don't you + do sth.? 如：Why don't you go shopping? ③Why not + do sth. ? 如：Why not go shopping? ④Let's + do sth. 如：Let's go shopping ⑤Shall we/ I + do sth.? 如：Shall we/ I go shopping? 4. a lot 许多常用于句末如：I eat a lot. 我吃了许多。 5. too…to 太…而不能常用的句型too+adj./adv. + to do sth. 如：I'm too tired to say anything. 我太累了，什么都不想说。 6. aloud, loud与loudly的用法三个词都与"大声"或"响亮"有关。 ①aloud是副词,重点在出声能让人听见,但声音不一定很大, 常用在读书或说话上。通常放在动词之后。aloud没有比较级 形式。如: He read the story aloud to his son.他朗读那篇故事给他儿子听。 ②loud可作形容词或副词。用作副词时,常与speak, talk, laugh等动词连用,多用于比较级,须放在动词之后。如: She told us to speak a little louder. 她让我们说大声一点。 ③loudly是副词,与loud同义,有时两者可替换使用,但往往 含有令人讨厌或打扰别人的意思,可位于动词之前或之后。 如: He does not talk loudly or laugh loudly in public. 他不当众大声谈笑。 7. not …at all 一点也不根本不如： I like milk very much. I don't like coffee at all. 我非常喜欢牛奶。我一点也不喜欢咖啡。 not经常可以和助动词结合在一起，at all 则放在句尾 8. be / get excited about sth.=== be / get excited about doing sth. === be excited to do sth. 对…感兴奋如： I am / get excited about going to Beijing.=== I am excited to go to Beijing. 我对去北京感到兴奋。 9. ①end up doing sth 终止做某事，结束做某事如： The party ended up singing. 晚会以唱歌而结束。 ②end up with sth. 以…结束如： The party ended up with her singing. 晚会以她的歌唱而告终。 10. first of all 首先. to begin with 一开始later on 后来、随 11. also 也、而且（用于肯定句）常在句子的中间 either 也（用于否定句）常在句末 too 也(用于肯定句) 常在句末 12. make mistakes 犯错如：I often make mistakes. 我经常犯错。
独立主格篇 独立主格，首先它是一个“格”，而不是一个“句子”。在英语中任何一个句子都要有主谓结构，而在这个结构中，没有真正的主语和谓语动词，但又在逻辑上构成主谓或主表关系。独立主格结构主要用于描绘性文字中，其作用相当于一个状语从句，常用来表示时间、原因、条件、行为方式或伴随情况等。除名词/代词+名词、形容词、副词、非谓语动词及介词短语外，另有with或without短语可做独立主格，其中with可省略而without不可以。*注：独立主格结构一般放在句首，表示原因时还可放在句末；表伴随状况或补充说明时，相当于一个并列句，通常放于句末。 一、独立主格结构： 1. 名词/代词+形容词 He sat in the front row, his mouth half open. Close to the bank I saw deep pools, the water blue like the sky. 靠近岸时，我看见几汪深池塘，池水碧似蓝天。 2. 名词/代词+现在分词 Winter coming, it gets colder and colder. The rain having stopped, he went out for a walk.
The question having been settled, we wound up the meeting. 也可以The question settled, we wound up the meeting. 但含义稍有差异。前者强调了动作的先后。 We redoubled our efforts, each man working like two. 我们加倍努力，一个人干两个人的活。 3. 名词/代词+过去分词 The job finished, we went home. More time given, we should have done the job much better. *当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，不及物动词用现在分词，及物动词用过去分词。 He lay there, his teeth set, his hands clenched, his eyes looking straight up. 他躺在那儿，牙关紧闭，双拳紧握，两眼直视上方。 4. 名词/代词+不定式 We shall assemble at ten forty-five, the procession to start moving at precisely eleven. We divided the work, he to clean the windows and I to sweep the floor.
初中英语语法速记口诀大全 很多同学认为语法枯燥难学，其实只要用心并采用适当的学习方法，我们就可以愉快地学会英语，掌握语法规则。笔者根据有关书目和多年教学经验，搜集、组编了以下语法口诀，希望对即将参加中考的同学们有所帮助。 一、冠词基本用法 【速记口诀】 名词是秃子，常要戴帽子， 可数名词单，须用a或an， 辅音前用a，an在元音前， 若为特指时，则须用定冠， 复数不可数，泛指the不见， 碰到代词时，冠词均不现。 【妙语诠释】冠词是中考必考的语法知识之一，也是中考考查的主要对象。以上口诀包括的意思有：①名词在一般情况下不单用，常常要和冠词连用；②表示不确指的可数名词单数前要用不定冠词a或an，确指时要用定冠词the；③如复数名词表示泛指，名词前有this，these，my，some等时就不用冠词。 二、名词单数变复数规则 【速记口诀】 单数变复数，规则要记住， 一般加s，特殊有几处： 末尾字母o，大多加s， 两人有两菜，es不离口， 词尾f、fe，s前有v和e； 没有规则词，必须单独记。 【妙语诠释】①大部分单数可数名词变为复数要加s，但如果单词以/t蘩/、/蘩/、/s/发音结尾(也就是单词如果以ch，sh，s，x等结尾)，则一般加es；②以o结尾的单词除了两
人(negro，hero)两菜(tomato，potato) 加es外，其余一般加s；③以f或fe结尾的单词一般是把f，fe变为ve再加s；④英语中还有些单词没有规则，需要特殊记忆，如child—children，mouse—mice，deer—deer，sheep—sheep，Chinese—Chinese，ox—oxen，man—men，woman—women，foot—feet，tooth —teeth。 三、名词所有格用法 【速记口诀】 名词所有格，表物是“谁的”， 若为生命词，加“’s”即可行， 词尾有s，仅把逗号择； 并列名词后，各自和共有， 前者分别加，后者最后加； 若为无生命词，of所有格， 前后须倒置，此是硬规则。 【妙语诠释】①有生命的名词所有格一般加s，但如果名词以s结尾，则只加“’”；②并列名词所有格表示各自所有时，分别加“’s”，如果是共有，则只在最后名词加“’s”；③如果是无生命的名词则用of表示所有格，这里需要注意它们的顺序与汉语不同，A of B要翻译为B的A。 四、接不定式作宾语的动词 【速记口诀】 三个希望两答应，两个要求莫拒绝； 设法学会做决定，不要假装在选择。 【妙语诠释】三个希望两答应：hope，wish，want，agree，promise 两个要求莫拒绝：demand，ask，refuse 设法学会做决定：manage，learn，decide 不要假装在选择：petend，choose 五、接动名词作宾语的动词
with用法小结 一、with表拥有某物 Mary married a man with a lot of money . 马莉嫁给了一个有着很多钱的男人。 I often dream of a big house with a nice garden . 我经常梦想有一个带花园的大房子。 The old man lived with a little dog on the lonely island . 这个老人和一条小狗住在荒岛上。 二、with表用某种工具或手段 I cut the apple with a sharp knife . 我用一把锋利的刀削平果。 Tom drew the picture with a pencil . 汤母用铅笔画画。 三、with表人与人之间的协同关系 make friends with sb talk with sb quarrel with sb struggle with sb fight with sb play with sb work with sb cooperate with sb I have been friends with Tom for ten years since we worked with each other, and I have never quarreled with him . 自从我们一起工作以来，我和汤姆已经是十年的朋友了，我们从没有吵过架。 四、with 表原因或理由 John was in bed with high fever . 约翰因发烧卧床。 He jumped up with joy . 他因高兴跳起来。 Father is often excited with wine . 父亲常因白酒变的兴奋。 五、with 表“带来”，或“带有,具有”，在…身上，在…身边之意
九年级英语全册各单元知识点总结 Unit 1 How can we become good learners? 一、短语： 1.have conversation with sb. 同某人谈话 2.connect …with… 把…和…连接/联系起来 3.the secret to… ……的秘诀 4.be afraid of doing sth./to do sth. 害怕做某事 5.look up 查阅 6.repeat out loud 大声跟读 7.make mistakes in 在……方面犯错误8.get bored 感到厌烦 9.be stressed out 焦虑不安的10.pay attention to 注意；关注 11.depend on 取决于；依靠12.the ability to do sth. 做某事的能力 二、知识点： 1. by + doing：通过……方式（by是介词，后面要跟动名词，也就是动词的ing形式）； 2. a lot：许多，常用于句末； 3. aloud, loud与loudly的用法，三个词都与“大声”或“响亮”有关。 ①aloud是副词，通常放在动词之后。 ①loud可作形容词或副词。用作副词时，常与speak, talk, laugh等动词连用，多用于比较级， 须放在动词之后。 ①loudly是副词，与loud同义，有时两者可替换使用，可位于动词之前或之后。 4. not …at all：一点也不，根本不，not经常可以和助动词结合在一起，at all 则放在句尾； 5. be / get excited about sth.：对…感到兴奋； 6. end up doing sth：终止/结束做某事；end up with sth.：以…结束； 7. first of all：首先（这个短语可用在作文中，使得文章有层次）； 8. make mistakes：犯错make a mistake 犯一个错误； 9. laugh at sb.：笑话；取笑（某人）（常见短语） 10. take notes：做笔记/记录； 11. native speaker 说本国语的人； 12. make up：组成、构成； 13. deal with：处理、应付； 14. perhaps = maybe：也许； 15. go by：（时间）过去； 16.each other：彼此； 17.regard… as … ：把…看作为…； 18.change… into…：将…变为…； 19. with the help of sb. = with one's help 在某人的帮助下（注意介词of和with，容易出题） 20. compare … to …：把…比作… compare with 拿…和…作比较； 21. instead：代替，用在句末，副词； instead of sth / doing sth：代替，而不是（这个地方考的较多的就是instead of doing sth，也就是说如果of后面跟动词时，要用动名词形式，也就是动词的ing形式） 22.Shall we/ I + do sth.? 我们/我…好吗？ 23. too…to：太…而不能，常用的句型是too+形容词/副词+ to do sth.
1 .(see 、hear 、notice 、find 、feel 、listen to 、 look at (感官动词)+（sb.）+do sth. eg:I like watching monkeys jump. 2 .（比较级 and 比较级）表示越来越怎么样eg:the more the more 越来越多 3. a piece of cake =easy 小菜一碟（容易） 4 .agree with sb 赞成某人 5 .all kinds of 各种各样 a kind of 一样 6 .all over the world = the whole world 整个世界 7. along with同……一道，伴随…… eg : I will go along with you.我将和你一起去The students planted trees along with their teachers. 学生同老师们一起种树 8. as soon as 一怎么样就怎么样 9 .as you can see 你是知道的(正如你所见) 10 .ask for ……求助向…要…（直接接想要的东西） 12. ask sb to do sth 询问某人某事 ask sb not to do 叫某人不要做某事 13 .at the age of 在……岁时 eg：I am sixteen. = I am at the age of sixteen . 14.at the beginning of …… ……的起初；……的开始 15. at the end of +地点/+时间最后；尽头；末尾 eg : At the end of the day 16.at this time of year 在每年的这个时候 17. be /feel confident of sth /that clause +从句感觉/对什么有信心，自信 eg : I am / feel confident of my spoken English. I feel that I can pass the test . 18. be + doing 表：1 现在进行时 2 将来时 19 .be able to (+ v 原) = can (+ v 原）能够…… eg : She is able to sing .= She can sing. 20. be able to do sth. 能够干什么 eg :she is able to sing . 21. be afraid to do (of sth 恐惧，害怕…… eg : I'm afraed to go out at night . I'm afraid of dog. 22. be allowed to do 被允许做什么 eg: I'm allowed to watch TV. 我被允许看电视 I should be allowed to watch TV. 我应该被允许看电视 23. be angry with sb 生某人的气 eg : Don't be angry with me. 24. be angry with(at) sb for doing sth 为什么而生某人的气 25.be as…原级…as 和什么一样 eg : She is as tall as me. 她和我一样高 26.be ashamed to 27.be away from 远离 28. be away from 从……离开 29. be bad for 对什么有害 eg : Reading books in the sun is bad for your eyes. 在太阳下看书对你的眼睛不好 30. be born 出生于 31.be busy doing sth 忙于做什么事
with[wIT] prep.1.与…(在)一起，带着：Come with me. 跟我一起来吧。/ I went on holiday with my friend. 我跟我朋友一起去度假。/ Do you want to walk home with me? 你愿意和我一道走回家吗 2.(表带有或拥有)有…的，持有，随身带着：I have no money with me. 我没有带钱。/ He is a man with a hot temper. 他是一个脾气暴躁的人。/ We bought a house with a garden. 我们买了一座带花园的房子。/ China is a very large country with a long history. 中国是一个具有历史悠久的大国。3.(表方式、手段或工具)以，用：He caught the ball with his left hand. 他用左手接球。/ She wrote the letter with a pencil. 她用铅笔写那封信。4.(表材料或内容)以，用：Fill the glass with wine. 把杯子装满酒。/ The road is paved with stones. 这条路用石头铺砌。5.(表状态)在…的情况下，…地：He can read French with ease. 他能轻易地读法文。/ I finished my homework though with difficulty. 虽然有困难，我还是做完了功课。6.(表让步)尽管，虽然：With all his money, he is unhappy. 尽管他有钱，他并不快乐。/ With all his efforts, he lost the match. 虽然尽了全力，他还是输了那场比赛。7.(表条件)若是，如果：With your permission, I’ll go. 如蒙你同意我就去。8.(表原因或理由)因为，由于：He is tired with work. 他工作做累了。/ At the news we all jumped with joy. 听到这消息我们都高兴得跳了起来。9.(表时间)当…的时候，在…之后：With that remark, he left. 他说了那话就离开了。/ With daylight I hurried there to see what had happened. 天一亮我就去那儿看发生了什么事。10. (表同时或随同)与…一起，随着：The girl seemed to be growing prettier with each day. 那女孩好像长得一天比一天漂亮。11.(表伴随或附带情况)同时：I slept with the window open. 我开着窗户睡觉。/ Don’t speak with your mouth full. 不要满嘴巴食物说话。12.赞成，同意：I am with you there. 在那点上我同你意见一致。13.由…照看，交…管理，把…放在某处：I left a message for you with your secretary. 我给你留了个信儿交给你的秘书了。/ The keys are with reception. 钥匙放在接待处。14 (表连同或包含)连用，包含：The meal with wine came to ￡8 each. 那顿饭连酒每人8英镑。/ With preparation and marking a teacher works 12 hours a day. 一位老师连备课带批改作业每天工作12小时。15. (表对象或关系)对，关于，就…而言，对…来说：He is pleased with his new house. 他对他的新房子很满意。/ The teacher was very angry with him. 老师对他很生气。/ It’s the same with us students. 我们学生也是这样。16.(表对立或敌对)跟，以…为对手：The dog was fighting with the cat. 狗在同猫打架。/ He’s always arguing with his brother. 他老是跟他弟弟争论。17.(在祈使句中与副词连用)：Away with him! 带他走！/ Off with your clothes! 脱掉衣服！/ Down with your money! 交出钱来！ 【用法】1.表示方式、手段或工具等时(=以，用)，注意不要受汉语意思的影响而用错搭配，如“用英语”习惯上用in English，而不是with English。2.与某些抽象名词连用时，其作用相当于一个副词：with care=carefully 认真地/ with kindness=kindly 亲切地/ with joy=joyfully 高兴地/ with anger=angrily 生气地/ with sorrow=sorrowfully 悲伤地/ with ease=easily 容易地/ with delight=delightedly 高兴地/ with great fluency =very fluently 很流利地3.表示条件时，根据情况可与虚拟语气连用：With more money I would be able to buy it. 要是钱多一点，我就买得起了。/ With better equipment, we could have finished the job even sooner. 要是设备好些，我们完成这项工作还要快些。4.比较with 和as：两者均可表示“随着”，但前者是介词，后者是连词：He will improve as he grows older. 随着年龄的增长，他会进步的。/ People’s ideas change with the change of the times. 时代变了，人们的观念也会变化。5.介词with和to 均可表示“对”，但各自的搭配不同，注意不要受汉语意思的影响而用错，如在kind, polite, rude, good, married等形容词后通常不接介词with而接to。6.复合结构“with+宾语+宾语补足语”是一个很有用的结构，它在句中主要用作状语，表示伴随、原因、时间、条件、方式等；其中的宾语补足语可以是名词、形容词、副词、现在分词、过去分词、不定式、介词短语等：I went out with the windows open. 我外出时没有关窗户。/ He stood before his teacher with his head down. 他低着头站在老师面前。/ He was lying on the bed with all his clothes on. 他和衣躺在床上。/ He died with his daughter yet a schoolgirl. 他去世时，女儿还是个小学生。/ The old man sat there with a basket beside her. 老人坐在那儿，身边放着一个篮子。/ He fell asleep with the lamp burning. 他没熄灯就睡着了。/ He sat there with his eyes closed. 他闭目坐在那儿。/ I can’t go out with all these clothes to wash. 要洗这些衣服，我无法出去了。这类结构也常用于名词后作定语：The boy with nothing on is her son. 没穿衣服的这个男孩子是她儿子。 （摘自《英语常用词多用途词典》金盾出版社） - 1 -