?Chapter 12
Theories of Linguistics
?Functionalism
?Formalism
? 1. The functional perspective
?The Prague School
?The London School
? 1.1 The Prague School
?Prague Linguistic Circle:
?Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R.
Jacobson (1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas
(1921-2000).
?The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in
structural linguistics and semiotics in the 1930's.
?Three important points:
?Stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from
diachronic studies.
?L is systemic in that no element of L can be satisfactorily analysed or
evaluated in isolation and assessment can only be made if its
relationship is established with the coexisting elements in the same
language system.
?L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential
functions or tasks for the community using it.
?Prague School Phonology
?N. Trubetzkoy: Principle of Phonology (1939).
?Phonetics & phonology: different for parole & langue.
?Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound system.
?Distinctive features: phonological oppositions.
?Trubetzkoy’s contributions
?Showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate
definition of the phoneme.
?Defined the sphere of phonological studies.
?Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between
phonemes.
?Put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.
?Analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.
?The role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to
the whole.
? A sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point
of departure, called the theme, is the ground on which the speaker and the hearer meet.
?The goal of discourse, called the rheme, presents the very information that
is to be imparted to the hearer.
?Movement from theme to rheme reveals the movement of the mind
itself.
?Therefore, the functional sentence perspective (FSP) aims to describe how
information is distributed in sentences.
?It deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known (given) info
and new info in discourse.
?New info: to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.
?Sally stands on the table.
Theme Rheme
?On the table stands Sally.
Theme Rheme
?Three levels of a sentence
?Grammatical Sentence Pattern (GSP)
?Semantic Sentence Pattern (SSP)
?Communicative Sentence Pattern (CSP)
?John has written a novel.
Subject Verb Object (GSP)
Agent Action Goal (SSP)
Theme Transition Rheme (CSP)
?Communicative dynamism (CD)
?J. Firbas
?Linguistic communication is dynamic, not static.
?CD measures the amount of info an element carries in a sentence.
The degree of CD is the effect contributed by a linguistic element.
For example,
?He was cross.
?CD: The lowest degree of CD is carried by he, and the highest degree
of CD is carried by cross, with the degree carried by was ranking
between them.
?Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and/or the
object and/or adverbial provided either the verb or the object and/or adverbial are contextually independent.
?This is because a known or unknown agent expressed by the subject
appears to be communicatively less important than an unknown
action expressed by the finite verb and/or an unknown goal (object
or adverbial of place) at or towards which the action is directed.
?For example,
? A man broke into the house and stole all the money.
?The ultimate purpose of the communication is to state the action and/or its
goal, not the agent.
?However, if the subject is followed by a verb expressing “existence or
appearance on the scene” and is contextually independent, then it will carry the highest degree of CD, because an unknown person or thing appearing on the scene is communicatively more important than the act of appearing and the scene itself, e.g.
?An old man appeared in the waiting room at five o’clock.
?If the subject is contextually dependent, a contextually independent
adverbial of time or place becomes an important local and temporal specification, carrying greater degree of CD than both the subject and the finite verb, as in
?The old man was sitting in the waiting room.
? 1.2 The London School
? B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).
?J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).
?M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of Firth.
?All three stressed the importance of context of situation and the
system aspect of L.
?Malinowski’s theories
?Language “is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a
counterpart of thought”.
?The meaning of an utterance comes from its relation to the situational
context in which it occurs.
?Three types of situational context:
?situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity;
?narrative situations;
?situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum—phatic
communion.
?Firth’s theories
?Regarded L as a social process, a means of social life.
?In order to live, human beings have to learn and learning L is a
means of participation in social activities.
?L is a means of doing things and of making others do things, a means
of acting and living.
?L is both inborn and acquired.
?The object of linguistic study is L in use.
?The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse meaningful elements of L in order
to establish corresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.
?The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of L,
explain their relations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between these elements and human activities in the environment of language use.
?Firth attempted to integrate linguistic studies with sociological studies:
?because human beings are inseparable from cultural values, and L is
an important part of cultural values, linguistics can help reveal the
social nature of human beings.
?Meaning is use, thus defining meaning as the relationship between an
element at any level and its context on that level.
?Therefore the meaning of any sentence consists of five parts:
?the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context;
?the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;
?the morphological relations of each word;
?the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;
?the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation.
?In analysing typical context of situation, one has to carry out the analysis on
four levels:
?Internal relations of the text:
?syntagmatic relations in structure
?paradigmatic relations in system
?Internal relations of the context of situation:
?relations between text and non-linguistic elements
?analytical relations between elements of the text and elements
within the situation
? A model covering both the situational context and the linguistic context of a
text:
?The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities
?verbal action of participants
?non-verbal action of participants
?The relevant topics, inc. objects, events, and non-linguistic, non-human
events.
?The effects of the verbal action.
?Prosodic analysis: prosodic phonology
?Since any human utterance is continuous speech flow made up of at
least one syllable, it cannot be cut into independent units. Mere
phonetic and phonological descriptions are insufficient.
?It is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but
Phonematic Units, the features of which are fewer than those of
phonemes and are called prosodic units.
?He did not define prosodic units, but his discussion indicates that they
include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, and aspiration.
?In any case, these features cannot be found in one phonematic unit alone.?Systemic-functional grammar
?M A K Halliday (1925- ).
?Two components and inseparable parts:
?systemic grammar: internal relations in L as a system network,
meaning potential.
?functional grammar: L as a means of social interaction, uses or
functions of language form.
?Systemic grammar
finite…
clause
nonfinite…
nominal-group…
group a djectival-adverbial-group…
prep-phrase…
word …
?Functional grammar
?Ideational function (experiential & logical): to convey new info,
communicate a content unknown to the hearer
?Interpersonal function: to express social and personal relations
?Textual function: to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a
coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.
? 2. Generative Grammar
?NOAM CHOMSKY (1928- ), institute professor at MIT. Linguist, philosopher,
and political activist.
?The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955/1975)
?Syntactic Structures (1957)
?Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)
?Cartesian Linguistics (1966)
?The Sound Pattern of English (1968)
?Language and Mind (1968/1972/2006)
?Reflections on Language (1975)
?Rules and Representations (1980)
?Lectures on Government and Binding (1981)
?Knowledge of Language (1986)
?Barriers (1986)
?Language and Problems of Knowledge (1988)
?Language and Thought (1993)
?The Minimalist Program (1995)
?New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind (2000)
?On Nature and Language (2002)
? 2.1 Early theories (1957)
?Innateness hypothesis
?Language acquisition mechanism
?Competence and performance
?Transformations: generating an infinite set of sentences from a finite set of
elements
?Deep structure and surface structure
?Phrase structure rules
?Transformations
?Phrase structure rules
?S → NP VP
?VP → V NP
?NP → Det N
?V →act, beat, catch, dive, …
?N → man, boy, book, flower, ...
?Transformational rules
?NP1 + Aux + V + NP2→
?John + will + write + a story
?NP2 + Aux + be + en + V + by + NP1
? a story + will + be + en + write + by + John
? 2.2 The standard theory (1965)
?Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
?→ Subcategorization
?N → [+N, ±Common]
?[+Common] → [±Count]
?[+Count] → [±Animate]
?[-Common] → [±Animate]
?[+Animate] → [±Human]
?[-Count] → [±Abstract]
?sincerity
?[+N, +Common, -Count, +Abstract]
?boy
?[+N, +Common, +Count, +Animate, +Human]
? 2.3 Extended standard theory
?Trace theory: a phonetically null element to occupy the position from which
a syntactic element has been moved.
?I really love Mary→
?Mary I really love t
?Indexing:
?Who i said Mary kissed him i?
?who i [S t i said Mary kissed him i]
?*Who i did he i say Mary kissed?
?*who i [S he i said Mary kissed t i]
?John i said Mary kissed him i
?*he i said Mary kissed John i
? 2.4 GB/PP theory (1981)
?Government and Binding Theory (early)
?or
?Principles and parameters Theory (later)
?1980s
?Principles
?X-bar theory
?Government theory
?Binding theory
?Case theory
?θ-theory
?Bounding theory
?Control theory
?Government
?speak the language (speak governs the language)
?speak about the language (about governs the language, speak governs
about the language)
?C-command
?Binding
?The logical relation between a quantifier and a variable.
?Binding Theory:
? A. An anaphor is bound in its governing category.
? B. A pronominal is free in its governing category.
? C. An r-expression is free.
?Anaphora
?‘oneself’ and ‘each other’
?John1 likes himself1.
?They1 hit each other1.
?John1doesn’t like Bill’s2 criticism of himself2.
?John1 likes him2.
?Bill1 says John2 likes him1.
?Bill1 says John2 likes the man3.
?Parameters
?The null subject parameter
?Head parameter
?Wh-parameter
? 2.5 The Minimalist Program
?Merge
?Move
(2) You will marry me. (2a) Will you marry me?
?(3) I care not for her. (Shakespearean English)
(3a) Know you not the cause?
Chapter 2 Speech sounds Contents ?How sounds are made? ?Consonants and vowels ?Phonological processes, phonological rules and distinctive features ?Suprasegmentals 超音段 ?Two major areas for studying speech sounds: phonetics and phonology ?Phonetics: it studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and perceived. ?Three branches of phonetics: ?Articulatory phonetics发声语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds. ?Acoustic phonetics声学语音学 is the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. Auditory phonetics听觉语音学 is concerned with the perception of speech sounds ?Phonology：it deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme 音素 as the point of departure. ?It studies the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. ?Ultimately it aims to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. How speech sounds are made? ? speech organs 言语器官 ?Speech organs are also known as vocal organs（发音器官）. ?Parts of human body involved in the production of speech sounds: lungs, trachea (windpipe) 气管, throat, nose, mouth ? organs of speech (Figure 2.2, p.26 on our books)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题 第一章：语言学导论 I. Choose the best answer. (20%) 1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human A. contact C. relation B. communication D. community 2. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A. tree C. crash B. typewriter D. bang 3. The function of the sentence “ Waterboils at 100 degrees Centigrade. i”s A. interrogative C. informative B. directive D. performative 4. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say “碎碎(岁岁)平安”asa means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform? A. Interpersonal C. Performative B. Emotive D. Recreational 5. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability C. Displacement B. Duality D. Arbitrariness 6. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play according to the functions of language? —A nice day, isn 't it? Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive C. Performative B. Phatic D. Interpersonal 7. __________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language usesr knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A. Performance C. Langue B. Competence D. Parole 8. When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists hear and now.
语言学教程chapter1-3 1.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc. 本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。 2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,https://www.doczj.com/doc/a911104733.html,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function. 功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper. 非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。 4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone. 位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。言语行为和事件中的位学系统必须是有效而有意义的，是通过言语社会中的本族语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得的。5.synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind. 共时：以一个固定的时间（通常，但非必须，是现在）为它的观察角度的描写。大多数的语法书属于此类型。 6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history. 历时：在语言的历史过程中研究语言。 7.prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,https://www.doczj.com/doc/a911104733.html,ying down rules for language use. 规定式：规定事情应该是怎样的。如制定语言运用规则。 8.descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. 描写式：描述事情是怎样的。 9.arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 任意性：人类语言的本质特征之一。它指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。 10.duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 二重性：人类语言的本质特征之一。拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分，每层都有自身的组合规则。 11.displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space),at the moment of communication.
Literary linguistics studies the language of literature. It focuses on the study of linguistic features related to literary style. 9.1 Theoretical background
9.2.1 Foregrounding and grammatical form 9.2.2 Literal language and figurative language Simile Metaphor Metonymy Synecdoche 9.2.3 The analysis of literary language
9.3.1 Sound patterning 9.3.2 Different forms of sound patterning Rhyme Alliteration Assonance Consonance Reverse rhyme Pararhyme Repitition
-Metre(Dimetre, Trimetre, Tetrametre, Hexametre, Heptametre, Octametre) -Foot (Iamb, Trochee, Anapest, Dactyl,Spondee, Pyrrhic) 9.3.4 Conventional forms of metre and sound Couplets Quatrains Blank verse Sonnet 9.3.5 The poetic functions of sound and metre 9.3.6 How to analyse poetry?
胡壮麟语言学重难点 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源 2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。 1. 语言的定义特征 1.1. 任意性 1.2. 二重性 1.3. 创造性 1.4. 移位性 1.5. 文化传递性 1.6. 互换性 2. 语言的功能 1.1. 信息功能 1.2. 人际功能 1.3. 施为功能 1.4. 感情功能 1.5. 寒暄功能 1.6. 娱乐功能 1.7. 元语言功能
3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法 2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。 1. 语音学及其三大领域 1.1. 语音学定义 1.2. 语音学三大领域 ①发音语音学 ②声学语音学 ③听觉语音学 2. 辅音 2.1. 辅音定义 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。 2.2. 发音方式 发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式 2.3. 发音部位 发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 3. 元音
Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase 第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成 1. Morpheme 词素的定义 Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology 2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类 ①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素 Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation. Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes. ②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干 A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many others A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot). A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix. ③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀 Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways: 1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. 2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. 3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based on
胡壮麟的语言学术语英汉对照翻译表 1. 语言的普遍特征： 任意性arbitrariness 双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构 多产性productivity 移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西 文化传播性cultural transmission 2。语言的功能： 传达信息功能informative 人济功能：interpersonal 行事功能：Performative 表情功能：Emotive 寒暄功能：Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal 元语言功能metalingual 3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支 语音学Phonetics 音位学phonology 形态学Morphology 句法学syntax 语义学semantics 语用学pragmatics 4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure 提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语 5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky 提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance 1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language: a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain language b. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing. c. we can u se language to refer to something not present d. we can produce sentences that have never been heard befor e. 2.What is the most important function of language? a. interpersonal b. phatic c. informative d.metallingual 3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __ a informative b. phatic c. directive d. performative 4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __
胡壮麟语言学复习及答案 Chapter I In troducti on I.Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1.Lin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage. 2.L in guistics studies particular Ian guage, not Ian guages in gen eral. 3.A scie ntific study of Ian guage is based on what the lin guist thi nks. 4.In the study of lin guistics, hypotheses formed should be based on Ian guage facts and checked aga inst the observed facts. 5.Gen eral li nguistics is gen erally the study of Ian guage as a whole. 6.General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic con cepts, theories, descripti ons, models and methods applicable in any lin guistic study. 7.Phon etics is differe nt from phono logy in that the latter studies the comb in ati ons of the sounds to con vey meaning in com muni cati on. 8.Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meanin gful senten ces. 9.The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10.Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the comb in ati on of morphemes into words and words into senten ces. 11.The study of meaning in Ian guage is known as sema ntics. 12.Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13.Pragmatics is differe nt from sema ntics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolati on, but in con text. 14.Social cha nges can ofte n bring about Ian guage cha nges. 15.Sociolinguistics is the study of Ianguage in relation to society. 16.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17.Moder n lin guistics is differe nt from traditi onal grammar. 18. A diachronic study of Ianguage is the description of Ianguage at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written Ianguage as primary, not the written Ian guage. 20.The disti ncti on betwee n compete nee and performa nee was proposed by F. de Saussure. II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the
2. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学: the study of production of speechsounds.研究语言的发生 phonetics声学语言学：is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.研究语音的物质特征 or Auditory phonetics感知语音学或听觉语音学：is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.研究语音的感知 音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.研究各种语言的语音模式和语音系统 6. IPA国际音标表: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet 变音符:are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.是与元音或辅音符号结合使用的一些附加符号或记号，用于表示元音或辅音在发音上的微小变化 辅音: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.声道紧闭，或声道变窄的程度达到无法 9. Vowl元音:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.气流可以相对不受阻碍的从口腔或鼻腔中排出 排出，一旦排出就会产生可闻的摩擦，这样发生的音叫辅音 10. Coarticulation协同发音: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ 胡壮麟语言学第一章复习 红?色是定义部分笔记在鑫宇那 why study language what is languageThe symbols have been chosen arbitrarily. In other words, it is impossible to predict the meaning from the form, or vice versa. the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The symbols have been chosen arbitrarily. In other words, it is impossible to predict the meaning from the form, or vice versa. 1 arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and ite meaning 语素?音义关系的任意性 2 arbitrariness at the syntactic level 句?法层?面上的任意性 they derive from the choice of subject matters. once such links between particular word and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of https://www.doczj.com/doc/a911104733.html,nguage is a means of verbal communicationarbitrariness任意性 3 arbitrariness and convention 任意性和规约性Saussure索绪尔提出design features of language 语?言的特点duality?二层性It means that language is a system which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of words.下层lower 上层higher=primarysounds交通灯和动物叫声?一样，只有下层含义。 1/ 4
第6章语言与认知 6.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成 3. First language acquisition 第一语言习得 4. Cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 常考考点： 语言习得；第一语言习得；语言的理解和生成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。 本章内容索引： I. Definition of cognition II. Definition of Psycholinguistics III. Language acquisition 1. The Behaviorist Approach
2. The Innateness Hypothesis IV. Language comprehension 1. Sound Comprehension 2. Word recognition 3. Comprehension of sentences 4. Comprehension of text V. Language Production 1. Access to words 2. Generation of sentences 3. Written language production VI. Cognitive Linguistics 1. Definition 2. Construal and Construal Operations (1) Attention/ Salience (2) Judgment/ Comparison (3) Perspective/ Situatedness 3. Categorization (1) Basic level (2) Superordinate level (3) Subordinate level 4. Image Schemas 5. Metaphor
Chapter 3 Lexicon 3.1 What is word? 1. What is a lexeme? A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.” 2. What is a morpheme? A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning. 3. What is an allomorph? An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc. 4. What is a word? A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing. 3.1.1 Three senses of “word” 1. A physically definable unit 2. The common factor underlying a set of forms 3. A grammatical unit 3.1.2 Identification of words 1. Stability Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English. 2. Relative uninterruptibility By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between