大学英语语法系列讲座
从句
中国地质大学（武汉）外语系许峰
第一节名词性从句
名词性从句是在一个句子中起名词作用的主谓结构，它可以在主从复合句中作主语、宾语(包括介词的宾语)、表语和同位语。名词性从句不管在句中起什么作用，都要使用陈述语序。
一、主语从句
用作主语的从句叫做主语从句(Subject Clause)。主语从句可由that，what，whatever，which，whichever，who，whoever，whom等连接代词和how，when，where，why等连接副词来引导。
例1：What she did is not yet known. 她干了什么尚不清楚。
例2：How this happened is not clear to anyone. 这事是怎样发生的，谁也不清楚。
经典考点1：In some countries, is called“equality”does not really mean equal rights for all people.(CET-4,1995年6月)
A)which B)one C)that D)what
巧解 本题应选D。该句中what为关系代词，这里代表“所被称之为平等的东西”，相当于the thing that。全句意思是：所谓的“平等”，在有些国家实际上并不意味着全体人民都有平等的权利。
经典考点2：is the center of our planetary system was a difficult concept to grasp in the Middle Ages.(CET-6，1993年6月)
A)It is the sun and not the earth B)Being the sun and not the earth
C)The sun and not the earth D)That the sun and not the earth
巧解 本题应选D。该句中的连词that引导主语从句，它只起连接作用，在从句中不作任何成分，本身无词义。全句意思是：在中世纪，人们很难接受我们行星体系的中心是太阳而不是地球这一观点。
注：that引导主语从句时不能省略，并且为了保持句子的平衡常常后置，而由it作形式主语。
例1：It doesn't seem likely that she will be here.她来这里似乎是不太可能的。
例2：It happened that I knew his telephone number.碰巧我知道他的电话号码。
经典考点1：It is reported that adopted children want to know who their natural parents are.(CET-4，1997年1月)
A)the most B)most of
C)most D)the most of
巧解 本题应选C。该句中的that引导的主语从句用形式主语it置于句首。类似的句型有It is recorded that…，It is said that…,It should be noted that…，It is suggested that…,It has been found that…等等。全句意思是：据报道，大多数被收养的孩子都想知道他们的生身父母是谁。
二、表语从句
用作表语的从句叫做表语从句(Predictive Clause)。表语从句通常由that和what引导，
但有时也可由how，what，when，where，why等来引导。
例1：The trouble is that I have lost his address. 麻烦是我把他的地址丢了。
例2：The question is how he did it. 问题在于他是如何做此事的。
经典考点1：Output is now six times it was before 1990.(CET-6，1995年1月)
A)that B)what
C)that which D)of that
巧解 本题应选B。该句中的what作关系代词，指“所…东西”。在此句中what代指1990年前的产量，同时它引导的是一个表语从句。全句意思是：现在的产量是1990年以前的6倍。
经典考点2：Water will continue to be it is today—next in importance to oxygen.(考研，1992年)
A)how B)which C)as D)what
巧解 本题应选D。该句中what为关系代词，引导表语从句，并在从句中作表语。全句意思是：水的重要性将与其现在一样，仅次于氧气。
三、同位语从句
用作同位语的从句叫做同位语从句(Appositive Clause)。同位语从句起着对先行词进一步解释说明的作用，通常由that引导，同位语的先行词通常为：appeal,belief,doubt,evidence,fact,hope,idea,likelihood,message,news,order,plan,possibility,promis e,reply,proof,proposal,rumor,suggestion,theory,truth等。
例1：There is a real danger t hat Oxford will not retain its world position. 现在牛津大学有保不住它的世界地位的实际危险。
例2：They were all very much worried over the fact that you were sick. 对于你生病这件事，他们都很焦虑。
经典考点1：The mere fact most people believe nuclear wars would be madness doesn't mean that it will not occur.(CET-4，1997年6月)
A)what B)which C)that D)why
巧解 本题应选C。本题是一主从复合句。主句部分是The mere fact…doesn't mean that it will not occur,从句部分是most people believe nuclear wars would be madness，这一从句揭示了fact的内容，两者是一种同位关系。因此从全句结构和意思看，空缺处应填一个连接词，构成名词fact的同位语从句。所以C项that是正确答案。全句意思是：大多数人认为挑起核大战是一种疯狂的行为，仅这一事实并不意味着核大战不可能发生。
经典考点2：evidence that language-acquiring ability must be stimulated.(CET-4,1999年6月)
A)It being B)It is C)There is D)There being
巧解 本题应选C。分析该题题干可知，句子缺少谓语部分，首先排除A、D两选项。在that引导的从句中，that不做任何成分，只起连接作用，因此是evidence的同位语从句，对evidence作进一步解释说明。根据全句的含义，C答案最恰当。全句意思是：有证据表明，学习语言的能力必须激发。
注：同位语从句可用于下列结构中：
on condition that…the supposition that…
with the exception that…in spite the fact that…
with the probabilities that…等等。
例1：He was allowed to go swimming on condition that he kept near other boys. 他被允许
去游泳，条件是要一直与别的男孩在一起。
例2：He went to the party in spite of the fact that he was not welcome. 尽管不受欢迎，他还是去参加了那个聚会。
四、宾语从句
用作宾语的从句叫做宾语从句(Object Clause)。
1.宾语从句的引导词
宾语从句一般用that和what来引导。此时，that只起连接作用，不作句子成分；what 既起连接作用，也在从句中作句子成分。另外，how，when，where，which，who，why，whether等也可引导宾语从句。
例1：He told us that he felt ill.他告诉我们他感到不舒服。
例2：I doubt whether he will succeed.我怀疑他是否能成功。
经典考点1：Although Anna is happy with her success, she wonders will happen to her private life.(CET-4，2000年1月)
A)that B)what C)it D)this
巧解 本题应选B。该句含有一个让步状语从句，主句中又含有宾语从句，wonder后面常接由疑问词what，how，where等引导的宾语从句。根据题意，B为正确答案。全句意思为：虽然安娜对自己的成功感到很高兴，但她想知道她的私人生活将会发生什么。
经典考点2：By success I don't mean usually thought of when that word is used.(CET-4，1996年6月)
A)what is B)that we C)as you D)all is
巧解 本题应选A。该句中的宾语从句缺少一个主语，主句动词mean缺少一个宾语。A 选项中的what作连接代词，意为“所…的东西”，并且is与thought of一起构成从句的谓语，表示被动含义。全句意思为：我说的成功不是使用这个词时通常所想到的涵义。
经典考点3：This book will show the readers can be used in other contexts.(CET-6，1996年1月)
A)how that they have observed B)that how they have observed
C)how what they have observed D)that they have observed
巧解 本题应选C。该句中how与后面的整个句子一起作为show的间接宾语。what they have observed作为how引导的宾语从句的主语。全句意思是：这本书将要告诉读者怎样把观察到的东西用于其他情境。
2.介词后的宾语从句
宾语从句亦可用作介词的宾语。
例1：He was deeply displeased by what had occurred that day. 他对那天发生的事情感到极为不快。
例2：I am curious as to what he will say. 我很想知道他要说什么。
经典考点1：As teachers we should concern ourselves with what is said, not what we think .(CET-4，1997年6月)
A)ought to be said B)must say
C)have to be said D)need to say
巧解 本题应选A。该句中what we think和what is said一样，都是在介词with后面由what引导的宾语从句。在前一从句中，what是主语，is said是动词的被动语态作谓语；在后一从句中what也是主语，谓语也应用被动语态。也可将后一从句中的we think理解成插
入语成分，去掉它，句子同样正确。全句意思是：作为老师，我们关心的应该是学生说了什么，而不是我们自认为的学生应当说些什么。
经典考点2：Physics is the present-day equivalent of used to be called natural philosophy from which most of the present-day sciences arose.(CET-6，1993年6月)
A)that B)all C)which D)what
巧解 本题应选D。在该句中，what used to be called natural philosophy作介词of的宾语从句，what作从句的主语。全句意思是：如今的物理相当于过去人们所称的自然哲学，后者是当今大多数科学学科的基础。
注：以that引导的宾语从句很少用作介词的宾语，只有在except, in, but, besides, save等介词后才可使用。
例1：Your thesis is quite all right except that the organization is a bit too loose.你的论文挺不错的，只是结构上有些松散。
例2：I like the city, but I like the country better in that I have more friends in the country.我喜欢城市，但更喜欢乡下，因为我在乡下有更多的朋友。
经典考点3：Liquids are like solids they have a definite volume.(CET-4，1995年6月)
A)with that B)for that
C)in that D)at that
巧解 本题应选C。该句中in that可以看成是连词引出一个原因，意为“因为，由于”。此外，that还可和其他介词构成搭配，如except that(要不是，但是)，but that(而不是)等等。全句意思是：液体之所以像固体一样是因为液体有一定的体积。
五、强调句型结构中的从句
that或who用在强调句型It is…that或It is…who中可以对句子的主语、宾语、状语进行强调。
例1：It was not until the accident happened that I became aware of my own foolishness. 直到事发生了我才意识到了我的愚蠢。
例2：It is its structure that gives leather its permeability to air and water vapor. 正是皮革的结构才使得皮革对空气和水蒸汽具有渗透性。
经典考点1：When I try to understand that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there are two causes.(CET-6，1998年1月)
A)why it does B)what it does
C)what it is D)why it is
巧解 本题应选C。本题属于It is…that的强调结构，强调了prevents的主语部分，由what 代替。全句意思是：当我试图搞清是什么使得美国人不像人们想象的那样幸福时，我觉得似乎有两个原因。
经典考点2：she first heard of the man referred to as a specialist.(CET-4，1990年1月)
A)That was from Stephen B)It was Stephen whom
C)It was from Stephen that D)It was Stephen that
巧解 本题应选C。本句是用It was…that…这种强调句型强调句中作状语的短语from Stephen。全句意思是：她是从斯蒂芬那儿第一次听说被称为专家的那个人。
第二节定语从句
用作定语的从句叫做定语从句(Attributive Clause)。定语从句是一个主谓结构，起形容词作用，在主句中修饰或限定前面的先行词(通常是名词或代词，有时也可以是整个主句)。
引导定语从句的关系代词有that，which，who，whom，but，as等，关系副词有when，where，why，how等。定语从句分为限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句。
一、由关系代词引导的定语从句
(1)用作关联词的关系代词有who，whom，whose，that，which等等。who，whom，whose指人，who是主格，在从句中用作主语；whom是宾格，在从句中用作宾语；whose 是属格，在从句中用作定语(有时也可指物)。
例1：The man who was here yesterday is a painter. 昨天在这里的那个人是画家。
例2：A child whose parents are dead is called an orphan. 失去父母的孩子叫做孤儿。
例3：I know the man whom you mean. 我认识你指的那个人。
经典考点1：The residents, had been damaged by the flood, were given help by the Red Cross.(CET-4，1993年6月)
A)all their homes B)all whose homes
C)all of whose homes D)all of their homes
巧解 本题应选C。本题两个逗号之间显然是一个定语从句，修饰the residents。选项B 和C中都有关系代词whose，可以起连接作用。但是我们可以说all of whose homes，而不能说all whose homes。全句意思是：那些房屋全部被洪水毁坏的居民得到了红十字会的救济。经典考点2：We need a chairman .(CET-4，1998年6月)
A)for whom everyone has confidence B)in whom everyone has confidence
C)who everyone has confidence of D)whom everyone has confidence on
巧解 本题应选B。在该句中的定语从句里，关系代词whom在从句中作介词in的宾语，have confidence in是一固定短语，表示“对…有信心”。全句意思是：我们需要一位每个人都信任的主席。
(2)as除了作介词和连词外，也可用作关系代词来引导定语从句。as引导非限定性定语从句时可放在句首或句中，代替整句话的含义。as引导限定性定语从句，一般出现在“such+名词+as”结构或“the same+名词+as”结构之中。as在从句中可以用作主语、宾语或表语。例1：He was a foreigner, as I knew from his accent.他是个外国人，我是从他的口音知道的。例2：He has made such mistakes as cannot be forgiven.他犯了那样一些不能原谅的错误。
经典考点1：might be expected, the response to the question was very mixed.(CET-4，1996年6月)
A)As B)That C)It D)What
巧解 本题应选A。本题中的as作关系代词引导定语从句，代指后面整个句子的含义，并且在从句中充当主语。全句意思是：正如预计的那样，对于这个问题的答案是很混乱的。经典考点2：The British are not so familiar with different cultures and other ways of doing things, is often the case in other countries.(CET-4，1998年6月)
A)as B)what C)so D)that
巧解 本题应选A。as作为关系代词引导非限定性定语从句，可置于主句之前，也可放在主句之后，代表整个句子的意思。全句意思是：英国人对不同的文化和其他行为方式不太了解，别的国家的人也是常常如此。
经典考点3：It wasn't such a good dinner she had promised us.(CET-4，1990年1月)
A)that B)which C)as D)what
巧解 本题应选C。动词promise要求接双宾语，即“答应某人什么”。因此空缺处应填入一个作直接宾语的关系代词，与such连用的关系代词是as，引出的是定语从句，表示前面已经提到过的那类事物。当主句中有such时，也可以用that引导从句，但这时的that 是连接词，而不是关系代词，它引出的是表示结果的状语从句。如：She made such a good meal
that we all ate far too much.她做的饭菜极为可口，我们都吃得太饱了。全句意思是：这顿饭不像她答应我们的那样可口。
(3)but用作关系代词，引导定语从句时，具有否定的含义，相当于who not, that not。在这种情况下，主句中常含有否定词或否定意义的词。
例1：There is not a man but was moved to tears. 没有一个人不被感动得流下眼泪来。
例2：There are few books but have a misprint or two. 很少有不存在一两处印刷错误的书。经典考点1：There is no rule has exceptions.
A)which B)that C)but D)unless
巧解 本题应选C。but作关系代词引导定语从句时，具有否定的含义。在该句中，but 相当于that not,所以该句的意思表示There is no rule that hasn't exceptions。全句意思是：任何一条规则都有例外。
(4)多用关系代词that的情况。
①当all，any，anything，everything，a few，the only one，the one等作定语从句的先行词时，一般用that而不用which引导，that作宾语时常被省略。
例1：All that glitters is not gold.闪光的未必都是金子。
例2：He knew everything that happened in the village.他知道发生在村里的每一件事。
经典考点1：All is a continuous supply of the basic necessities of life.(CET-4，1990年1月)
A)what is needed B)the thing needed C)for our needs D)that is needed
巧解 本题应选D。all在句中作主语，常常后接that引导的定语从句，表示“(全部)…只是”。all that可相当于what。全句意思是：(全部)所需要的只是持续不断地供应基本的生活必要品。
经典考点2：We finished up everything there was on the table.
A)what B)which C)that D)all
巧解 本题应选C。当定语从句的谓语为there be时，作主语的关系代词常可省略。本题中的定语从句修饰先行词everything,用that引导，该处的that也可省略。全句意思是：我们把餐桌上的饭菜统统都吃光了。
②当先行词前有形容词最高级、序数词及only，any，no等词修饰时，常用关系代词that引导定语从句。
例1：It was the largest map that I ever saw.那是我所看见过的最大的地图。
例2：The first thing that we should do now is to work out a plan.我们现在要做的第一件事就是订个计划。
经典考点1：This is the best film I have ever seen.
A)that B)which C)what D)，that
巧解 本题应选A。这里的先行词film由最高级best修饰，其后的定语从句只能用关系代词that引导，并且that只能引导限定性定语从句，所以D项“，that”是错误答案。全句意思是：这是我看过的最好的一部电影。
(5)由“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句。
详见本人的拙文《谈谈“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句时介词的选用标准》。
例1：The planet on which we live is called the earth. 我们生活在它上面的行星叫做地球。例2：The train in which they were traveling was late. 他们乘的那班火车晚点了。
例3：Sound is a tool by means of which people communicate ideas with each other. 声音是一种人们用来交流思想的工具。
例4：An element is a substance, the properties of which cannot be changed by any physical means.元素是一种物质，其性质是不能用任何物理的方法加以改变的。
例5：China has thousands of islands, the largest of which is Taiwan. 中国有几千个岛屿，其中最大的是台湾。
例6：He has a large collection of books, many of which are written in English. 他有大量藏书，其中许多是英文书。
经典考点1：The goals he had fought all his life no longer seemed important to him.(CET-4，1990年1月)
A)after which B)for which C)with which D)at which
巧解 本题应选B。由四个选项可知，从空缺处开始到all his life是一个“介词+which”引出的定语从句，which指代goals。在这个从句中，谓语动词是had fought，表示“为…而奋斗”时，动词fight与介词for连用，故B正确。全句意思是：他过去一生为之奋斗的目标在他看来似乎已不再重要。
经典考点2：Today the public is much concerned about the way .(CET-6，1996年6月)
A)nature is being ruined B)which nature is ruined
C)on which to ruin nature D)of nature to be ruined
巧解 本题应选A。nature is being ruined是一个定语从句，修饰the way, way后面省略了in which，因此这个句子也可以说成：Today the public is much concerned about the way in which nature is being ruined.全句意思是：现在公众对自然界正在遭受的破坏很关注。
经典考点3：Living in the central Australian desert has its problems, obtaining water is not the least.(CET-4，1998年1月)
A)for which B)to which C)of which D)in which
巧解 本题应选C。本句中的“of+ which”引出非限定性定语从句，介词of置前。全句意思是：生活在澳大利亚中部沙漠有许多问题，获得水是个最大的问题。
经典考点4：The course normally attracts 20 students per year, up to half will be from overseas.(CET-4，1998年6月)
A)in which B)for whom C)with which D)of whom
巧解 本题应选D。本句中of whom引导的是非限定性定语从句，关系代词of whom代替20 students,在从句中作介词of的宾语，从句相当于up to half of the students will be from overseas。全句意思是：这门课正常情况下每年能有20个学生选修，其中一半以上是留学生。经典考点5：Water enters into a great variety of chemical reactions, have been mentioned in previous pages.(CET-6，1991年6月)
A)a few of it B)a few of that C)a few of them D)a few of which
巧解 本题应选D。本句中的a few of which结构引导非限定性定语从句，相当于a few of the chemical reactions。该结构在从句中作主语。全句意思是：水参与许多化学反应，其中有一部分前面的章节已提到过。
经典考点6：The Social Security Retirement Program is made up of two trust funds, could go penniless by next year.(考研，1997年)
A)the larger one B)the larger of which C)the largest one D)the largest of which 巧解 本题应选B。在两者中相比较大的，通常用“the+比较级”结构，后面的of which 引导非限定性定语从句，修饰two trust funds,故B项为最佳答案。全句意思是：社会退休保障方案主要依靠两种信托基金，而其中较大的一笔到明年将分文不剩。
(6)非限定性定语从句。
①在非限定性定语从句中，关系代词不能用that,关系代词和关系副词都不能省略，主句和从句之间要用逗号隔开。
例1：Alexander Bell, who invented the telephone, was an American scientists. 亚历山大·贝尔是一名美国人，他发明了电话。
例2：Paris, where I lived for two years, is beautiful. 巴黎是很美丽的，我曾在那里生活过两年。经典考点1：I have to book ahead for concerts, are usually held in London.
A)that B)what C)which D)they
巧解 本题应选C。该句中的which引导非限定性定语从句，代替concerts，并在定语从句中作主语。全句意思是：我得预定音乐会的票，这些音乐会通常在伦敦举行。
经典考点2：He came back late，which time all the guests had already left.(CET-4，1999年6月)
A)after B)by C)at D)during
巧解 本题应选B。介词by引导的短语表示“到…为止”，往往与完成时态连用。该句中的which用作关系代词形容词，which这里代替的是“when he came back late”。全句意思是：他回来晚了，那时所有的客人都已离去了。
②which可以引导修饰整个主句的非限定性定语从句，一般对主句的内容作进一步地说明相当于一个并列分句，此时which可用and this代替。另外，which在从句中作主语时，谓语动词要用第三人称单数。
例1：He tore up my photo, which upset me.他把我的照片撕了，这使我很不高兴。
例2：He missed the train, which annoyed him much.他没赶上这班火车，这使他很恼火。
经典考点1：Helen was much kinder to her youngest child than she was to others, ,of course, made the others jealous.(CET-4，1993年6月)
A)who B)that C)what D)which
巧解 本题应选D。根据全句的意思分析，空缺处填入的连接成分应指代前面整个主句的内容，并且在从句中作主语。A项who,B项that和C项what都不能指代整个主句，所以D 项which是正确答案。全句意思是：海伦对最小的孩子比对别的孩子温和得多，这当然使别的孩子妒忌。
经典考点2：We grow all our own fruit and vegetables, saves money,of course.(CET-6，1993年6月)
A)which B)as C)that D)what
巧解 本题应选A。全句意思是：我们自己种植水果和蔬菜，这样当然可以省钱。
二、由关系副词引导的定语从句
当我们选择关系副词引导定语从句时，是因为他们在从句中充当状语，表示时间、地点、原因等。
(1)where 作关系副词，引导定语从句，修饰前面表示地点的先行词。
例1：I know of a place where we can swim. 我知道一个我们能游泳的地方。
例2：This is the place where we held the meeting yesterday. 这就是我们昨天开会的地方。
经典考点1：Air moves from places the pressure is high to places the pressure is low.
A)where…where B)where…there C)there…where D)there…there
巧解 本题应选A。首先，该句中有一个平行结构from places…to places,因此答案必须在A和D中选择。there不能连接定语从句，所以A项where…where是正确答案。该句中的两个定语从句都是用关系副词where引导，并在从句中作地点状语。全句意思是：空气能从气
压高的地方流向气压低的地方。
(2)when 作关系副词，引导定语从句，修饰前面表示时间的先行词，在从句中作时间状语。
例1：Has he told you the day when he will come? 他来的日期告诉你了吗?
例2：We will put off the picnic until next week, when the weather may be better. 我们打算把野餐推迟到下周，那时天气可能转好。
经典考点1：You are just the same as you were the day I first met you.(考研,1982年)
A)that B)which C)when D)how
巧解 本题应选C。根据句子的含义，空缺后缺少定语从句，修饰the day。而在定语从句中主、谓、宾齐全，所以选when来引导，when在从句中作时间状语。全句意思是：你与我第一次见到你时的样子完全一样，一点都没变。
(3)why作关系副词，引导定语从句，修饰前面表示原因的先行词，在从句中作原因状语。
例1：This is the reason why I am not in favor of revising the plan.这就是我不赞成修改计划的原因。
例2：Do you know the reason why he was late?你知道他迟到的原因吗?
经典考点1：The reason I'm writing is to tell you about a party on Saturday.
A)because B)why C)for D)as
巧解 本题应选B。该句中关系副词why引导定语从句表示原因，在从句中作原因状语，其先行词往往是reason。全句意思是：我给你写信的原因是要告诉你星期六有个晚会。
(4)当先行词为way，day，place，reason等时，还可用关系代词that/which引导，that/which在定语从句中作宾语。要注意和关系副词的比较。
例1：This is the place (that) I have long wanted to visit. 这就是我向往已久要参观的地方。
例2：December 25 is the day (that)Westeners celebrate as their Christmas Day. 12月25日是西方人庆祝圣诞节的日子。
经典考点1：I've never been to Beijing, but it's the place .(CET-4，1999年6月)
A)where I'd like to visit B)I most want to visit
C)in which I'd like to visit D)what I want to visit most
巧解 本题应选B。该句中的关系代词that或which引出定语从句，并在定语从句中作动词visit的宾语，可省略。全句意思是：我从来没有去过北京，但那是我最想去的地方。三、定语从句与同位语从句的区别
同位语从句多数由that引导，that只起连接作用，在从句中不作任何的语法成分。而定语从句的关系代词that在句中充当主语或宾语。
例1：He told us the news that he heard on broadcast.他告诉了我们他在广播上听到的消息。(定语从句)
例2：He told us the news that the Civil War was ended.他告诉我们内战结束的消息。(同位语从句)
经典考点1：My suggestion we should stick to our original plan was finally accepted. A)which B)what C)that D)whether
巧解 本题应选C。首先，我们分析空缺后从句的句子结构，主语是we,宾语是original plan，所以该空缺处的连词只起到连接作用，在句子中不作任何的语法成分。因此，该从句应该是由that引导的同位语从句。全句意思是：我所提出的我们应该坚持原计划的建议终于被接受了。
第三节状语从句
用作状语的从句叫做状语从句(Adverbial Clause)。根据其用途，我们可将状语从句分为时间状语从句、地点状语从句、原因状语从句、结果状语从句、目的状语从句、条件状语从句、让步状语从句、方式状语从句九种。
一、时间状语从句
时间状语从句表时间，常考的连接词有：when，whenever，as，while，before，after，until，till，since，once，as soon as，the moment，the minute，the first time，every time，等等。
例1：When it is dark, the lights of the town go on. 天一黑，城里的灯就亮了。
例2：How have you been since I saw you last?自从上次见你以后你一直好吗?
例3：Every time I catch a cold, I have a pain in my back.我每次感冒都会背疼。
经典考点1：I had just started back for the house to change my clothes I heard voices.(CET-4，1997年6月)
A)as B)when C)after D)while
巧解 本题应选B。句子前半部分用过去完成时，后半部分用一般过去时。前半部分的动作发生在后半部分动作之前。为表达这一情景，前半部分作主句，主句中一般用just, hardly，后半部分作从句，用连接词when引导。as 引出的从句表示主句动作是在as从句的行为过程中发生的。while引出的主从复合句叙述两件事情同时发生。而此处如用连接词after,则两件事情发生的时间先后恰好颠倒过来了。全句意思是：我刚动身回屋换衣服，就听到有人说话。
经典考点2：Scientists say it may be five or ten years it is possible to test this medicine on human patients.(CET-4，1995年6月)
A)since B)when C)after D)before
巧解 本题应选D。全句意思是：科学家认为，这种药物需要5到10年时间才能在人体上作试验。英语中表示“花了多长时间才发生某事”时，常用it is/was…(time)before这一结构，即：“在…以前花了多少(时间)”。所以D项before是正确答案。又如：It was more than three years before the act was passed.过了3年多该法案才得以通过。
经典考点3：I felt somewhat disappointed and was about to leave, something occurred which attracted my attention.(CET-4，1996年1月)
A)unless B)until C)when D)while
巧解 本题应选C。when作并列连词，表示当某事正在进行时，另一事件突然发生，这时when往往放在另一句子的后面，相当于at that time。while也可表示同一时间，其所表示的时间不是一点，而是一段，并且while多用于延续性或同时性动作，但此句的主句与从句相关的动作分别为leave与occur,均为短暂性动作，故不可用while，而应当用when。全句意思是：我感到有些失望，正要离开时，有一件事情吸引了我的注意力。
注：有一些名词和副词也可以作连词用，表示“一…就…”，相当于as soon as。如the moment, the minute, the instant, the second, immediately, directly, instantly等等。
例1：The second he heard the news, he told it to me.他一听到消息就告诉了我。
例2：I recognized her instantly I saw her.我一看到她就认出了她。
经典考点1：Stormy applause broke forth she appeared on the stage.
A)the moment B)a moment C)at the moment D)in a moment
巧解 本题应选A。the moment在这里作为连词，相当于as soon as,表示“一…就…”。at the moment意为“在当时”，常与过去式连用；in a moment意为“一会儿以后”，常与将来时态连用。全句意思是：她在台上一出现，就响起了暴风雨般的掌声。
经典考点2：I know something was wrong I arrived.
A)direct B)instant C)immediate D)immediately
巧解 本题应选D。immediately在这里作连词，相当于as soon as，表示“一…就…”。A、B两项如分别改成directly和instantly也符合题意。全句意思是：我一到就知道出事了。二、地点状语从句
地点状语从句表地点，其关联词有where，wherever，anywhere，everywhere等。
例1：Corn flourishes best where the ground is rich. 谷物在肥沃的土地上生长得最好。
例2：Everywhere they appeared there were ovations. 不管他们出现在哪儿，都受到热烈欢迎。经典考点1：I have kept that portrait I can see it every day, as it always reminds of my university days in London.(CET-4，1996年1月)
A)which B)where C)whether D)when
巧解 本题应选B。该题选择where引出地点状语从句，表示画像放置的位置。空缺后的从句主、谓、宾齐全，故可首先排除关系代词which。其余三项应从意义上判断，“是否”与“在…时”均不合意。因此正确答案为B项where。where是引导地点状语从句的关系副词。全句意思为：我把那张像片放在每天都能看到的地方，因为它总是使我想起在伦敦的大学岁月。
经典考点2：Take this baggage and hang it you find enough space.
A)which B)in which C)wherever D)in where
巧解 本题应选C。wherever 作连接副词用时，意为“no matter where(无论在(到)哪里)”。又如：Wherever he goes, he is welcome.无论他去哪儿都受到欢迎。全句意思是：把这个行李拿走，找个宽敞的地方挂起来。
经典考点3：Although he knew little about the large amount of work done in the field, he succeeded other more well-informed experimenters failed.(CET-4，1998年1月)
A)which B)that C)what D)where
巧解 本题应选D。题中的succeeded 为不及物动词，后不接宾语从句，因此选择where 来引导地点状语从句。全句意思是：尽管他对人们在这个领域所做的大量工作知之甚少，然而他却在其他更有经验的实验者失败的地方取得了成功。
三、原因状语从句
原因状语从句表原因或理由，其关联词有because，as，since，for，now that等连词。例1：We were up early the next morning, as we wanted to be in Oxford by the afternoon. 第二天早晨我们起得很早，因为我们要在下午到达牛津。
例2：Since we've no money, we can't buy it.由于我们没有钱，我们不能买它。
经典考点1：that my head had cleared, my brain was also beginning to work much better.(CET-4，1997年6月)
A)For B)Now C)Since D)Despite
巧解 本题应选B。该句前后两部分无论是语法结构还是意思都是完整的，因此空缺处应填入连词。B项Now是正确答案。now that是复合连词，意为“既然，由于”，相当于since，有时也可用now或seeing (that) 来代替。全句意思为：我头脑的症状已经消失，脑子也就渐渐变得灵活得多。
经典考点2：You want to know why I'm leaving, I'm leaving I'm fed up with it.
A)because B)and C)since D)for
巧解 本题应选A。全句意思是：你知道我为什么要离开这里吗?因为我对这里感到厌倦了。
注意，because, as, since, for均表示“因为，由于”，because语气最强，用以回答why,可表已知或未知的事实。它可与强调词only，just以及否定词not连用。as语气较弱，较口语化，所表的原因比较明显，as引导的从句多置于主句之前。since语气亦较弱，常表示对方已知的事实，它往往相当于汉语中的“既然”。for 则的是逻辑上的理由，即根据所产生的结果来推断造成这种结果的理由，这种理由起着补充说明的作用，通常放在第一个分句后。
此外，有些表示原因的短语亦可引导原因状语从句，如considering that，in case，on the ground that，seeing that，in that等。
例1：Seeing that it is ten o'clock, we will not wait for Mary any long. 既然已经十点多了，我们不再多等玛丽了。
例2：I came to see you on the ground that Mr.Anderson said that you were interested in our project.我来看你是因为安德森先生说你对我们的计划感兴趣。
经典考点1：Criticism and self-criticism is necessary it helps us to find and correct our mistakes.(CET-4，1998年6月
A)by that B)at that C)on that D)in that
巧解 本题应选D。D项in that为连词，在句中引出原因状语从句，表示“因为，由于”。又如：I was lucky in that I was able to find good baby-sitter.我很幸运，因为我找到了一个好保姆。此外连词that还可和but，except 等介词构成搭配，如：except that(要不是，但是)，but that(而不是)等。全句意思是：批评和自我批评是必要的，因为它帮助我们发现和纠正错误。经典考点2：Although many people view conflict as bad, conflict is sometimes useful it forces people to test the relative merits of their attitudes and behavior.(CET-4，2000年1月)
A)by which B)to which C)in that D)so that
巧解 本题应选C。题中空缺处前后两部分均为完整的句子，根据句子的含义，此处需要表示原因的连词，in that为正确答案，它在该句中引导原因状语从句。而so that是引导结果状语从句。全句意思是：虽然一些人认为冲突是不好的，但它有时也有好处，因为它迫使人们去检验他们的态度和行动的相关价值。
四、结果状语从句
结果状语从句表结果，其关联词有that, so…(that),such…that, with the result that等。
例1：She sat behind me so that I could not see the expression on her face. 她坐在我身后，所以我看不见她脸上的表情。
例2：I was in the bath, with the result that I didn't hear the telephone. 我在洗澡，所以没有听见电话铃声。
例3：We left in such a hurry that we forget to lock the door. 我们离开得如此匆忙，以致忘了锁门。
经典考点1：I received my wages yesterday, I can now pay what I owe you.
A)that B)so that C)in order that D)in that
巧解 本题应选B。that和so that都可用来引导结果状语从句，但that前不能加逗号，而so that前常加逗号。so that既可引导目的状语从句，又可引导结果状语从句，两者的区别是：引导目的状语从句时，so that前一般不能加逗号，so that后常有情态动词may(might)，should，can等；引导结果状语从句时，so that前常有逗号，so that后很少有情态动词。但这种区别并不是绝对的，so that所引导的究竟是目的状语从句还是结果状语从句取决于上下文。本题句意是：昨天我领了工资，因此现在能偿还你的钱。
经典考点2：Oxygen is an important element we cannot live without it.
A)so…that B)such…that C)as…as D)not so…as
巧解 本题应选B。全句意思是：氧是一种非常重要的元素，没有它我们就活不了。引导结果状语从句的除了that, so that之外，还有so…that, such…that。so是副词，与形容词或另一个副词连用，such是形容词，与名词连用。又如：It was so hot/It was such a hot day that nobody wanted to do anything.天这么热以致于没有人想做事情。
五、目的状语从句
目的状语从句表目的，其关联词有so, so that, in order that等。目的状语从句常用情态动词may (might)，有时亦用shall (should)和will(would),有时还可用can(could)。目的状语从句多置于主句之后。so that和in order that引导目的状语从句被强调时，可置于句首。
例1：He drew a plan of the village so that she could find the house easily. 他画一张这个村子的草图，以便她能够容易地找到他的房子。
例2：I lent him &5 in order that he might go for a holiday. 我借给他5英镑，让他去度假。经典考点1：Helen listened carefully she might discover exactly what John wanted.(考研，1986年)
A)so as that B)providing C)in case D)in order that
巧解 本题应选D。从全句的含义来看，空缺后所引导的应该是结果状语从句，可排除A、B两项。A如果改为so that即可，B项providing引导条件状语从句。而目的状语从句有情态动词might,故in order that为最佳答案。全句意思为：海伦仔细地听，以便能知道约翰所真正想要的东西。
经典考点2：Give me your telephone number, I need your help.(考研，1990年)
A)whether B)unless C)or else D)in case
巧解 本题应选D。根据上下文的含义，题中空缺后所引导的应该是目的状语从句，whether表示“是否”，or else意为“否则”，相当于otherwise,二者均可排除。B、D两项均可引导状语从句，但unless意为“除非，如果不…”，常表条件，不符合题意，因此in case(万一，如果)为正确答案。全句意思是：请给我你的电话号码，以防我需要你的帮助。
此外，lest，in case和for fear that 也可以引导目的状语从句，但有否定含义，意为“以免”或“以防”。lest 和for fear that常用虚拟语气，从句中常用助动词should，would，might等。而in case引导的从句则通常不用虚拟式。
例1：Take you umbrella lest it should rain.带上你的伞，以防下雨。
例2：Take your umbrella with you in case it rains.带上你的伞，以防下雨。
经典考点1：I was advised to arrange for insurance I needed medical treatment.(CET-4，1999年1月)
A)so that B)in case C)although D)nevertheless
巧解 本题应选B。in case短语常有否定含义，意为“以防(万一)，如果，要是”，相当于in the event。nevertheless意为“然而，不过”，although意为“尽管”，so that表示“目的是，以便能”，均不合题意。全句意思是：我被劝告买保险以防生病。
关于lest, for fear that的具体用法，请见“虚拟语气”一章。
六、条件状语从句
条件状语从句表条件，条件有真实条件和非真实条件两种。前者表现实的或可能变为现实的条件，后者表非现实的或不可能变为现实的条件。关于非真实条件可参见“虚拟语气”一章。这里只讨论真实条件。
真实条件状语从句用直陈语气，其关联词有if，unless，supposing，as long as，on
condition that，suppose，provided (that)，but that等。
例1：You may borrow the book, on condition that you do not lend it to anyone else.你可以把这本书借走，只要你不把它再借给别人。
例2：You may use the room as long as you clean it afterward.你可以使用这个房间，只要你用完后弄干净就行。
经典考点1：We'll visit Europe next year we have enough money.(CET-4，1999年1月)
A)provided B)unless C)until D)lest
巧解 本题应选A。provided (that)常引导条件状语从句，相当于if。unless意为“如果不，除非…”，until意为“直到”，lest意为“以免，恐怕”，后常用虚拟语气，这三个选项均不合题意。全句意思是：如果我们有足够的钱，我们明年将去欧洲旅游。
经典考点2：I am sure he is up to the job he would give his mind to it.(CET-4，1998年1月)
A)if only B)in case C)until D)unless
巧解 本题应选A。if only意为“但愿；要是…就，只要”，常引导条件状语从句，含虚拟的意味，相当于as long as。如：We can surely overcome this difficulties if only we are closely united.只要我们紧密团结一致，一定能克服这些困难。until既可作连词，又可作介词，意为“到…为止，直到”，unless表示“若不，除非…”，in case意为“如果，万一”。根据句意应选A。全句意思是：只要他专心去做，我相信他能胜任这项工作。
经典考点3：he works hard, I don't mind when he finishes the experiment.(CET-4，1998年1月)
A)As soon as B)As well as C)So far as D)So long as
巧解 本题应选D。as well as为并列连词，意为“同样，也，和”，相当于in addition to；so(as)far as表示“就…来说，就…看来”；as soon as表示“一…就…”；so long as表示“只要”，意同as long as，在句中引导一个条件状语从句，该从句用一般现在时表示将来时。全句意思是：只要他努力去做就行，我并不在乎他什么时候完成实验。
注：当and或or或or else连接一个祈使句和一个陈述句时，它前面的祈使句表示条件，相当于if引导的条件状语从句。另外，有时候and前使用一个名词或名词词组，也起到同样的作用。
经典考点1：Turn on the television or open a magazine, and you advertisements showing happy balanced families.(CET-4，1995年6月)
A)are often seeing B)will often see C)often see D)have often seen
巧解 本题应选B。该句中的结构为“祈使句+and(or)+单句”。祈使句相当于if引导的条件句，and或or后的单句相当于用一般将来时表示的一个主句。又如：Hurry up, or you will be late.快点，不然你就会迟到。全句意思是：你一打开电视或翻开杂志，就常会看到显示美满幸福家庭的各种广告。
经典考点2：Five minutes earlier, we could have caught the last train.(CET-4，1993年6月)
A)and B)but C)or D)so
巧解 本题应选A。空缺后用的是情态动词could加动词的完成式，表示本可以做到而实际没有做到，连接词and可以表示条件，即前面是条件，后面是结果。or 也起连接两个句子的作用，通常表示“否则，要不然”。这时，or前面的句子一般是一种警告，后面的句子表示“如果不那么做的话，就会怎么样”。全句意思是：如果早5分钟，我们就可以赶上最后一班火车了。
七、让步状语从句
让步状语从句表“虽然”、“尽管”、“即使”等概念，其关联词有though，although，even though(if)，no matter，as，whatever，wherever，whenever，whichever，whoever等。其中though，as引出的状语从句常倒装，将谓语、宾语、中心动词、状语或表语提前，而表语若为单数可数名词，提前时，该名词省去冠词。
例1：Although he was a child,he could speak English.(=Child as he was,he could speak English.)尽管是个孩子，但他会说英语。
例2：No matter where/Wherever you go, I will be right here waiting for you. 不论你去哪里，我都在此等候。
例3：Jaures is an honest man; I say it, even though I have opposed him. 饶勒斯是个诚实的人；我这样说，尽管我曾经反对过他。
经典考点1：I've already told you that I'm going to buy it, .(CET-4，1996年6月)
A)however much it costs B)however does it costs much
C)how much does it cost D)no matter how it cost
巧解 本题应选A。本题中however修饰副词，应放在much之前，however much相当于no matter how much，引出让步状语从句。本句没有理由倒装，故B、C两项可排除。however 和no matter how在从句中应修饰形容词或副词，D项不对，故A项为正确答案。全句意思是：我已告诉你我要买它，不论花多少钱。
经典考点2：the calculation is right, scientists can never be sure that they have included all variables and mo-deled them accurately.(CET-4，1999年1月)
A)If only B)So long as C)Even if D)As far as
巧解 本题应选C。四个选项的含义分别是：even if表示“即使，即便，哪怕”；as far as 表示程度、范围，意为“就…而言，至于…”；if only表示“只要，要是…多好”；so long as 意为“只要”。根据句子的含义，应选用even if，构成让步状语从句。全句意思是：即便计算无误，科学家也永远无法肯定他们已经概括到了所有的变量，并能准确地仿照。
经典考点3：,he does get irritated with her sometimes.(考研，1992年)
A)As he likes her much B)Much although he likes her
C)Though much he likes her D)Much as he likes her
巧解 本题应选D。as作为连词引导状语从句时，句中的形容词或副词放在as之前，形成倒装语序，表示语气上的让步，相当于Although he likes her much。又如：Disabled as he is (Though he is disabled),he tries his best to serve the people.他虽然残废了，但仍然尽力为人民服务。全句意思是：虽然他很爱她，但有时也的确烦她。
八、方式状语从句
方式状语从句表动作的方式，其关联词有：just as…so，as，as if，as though，how，the way 等等。其中as if，as though引出的状语从句常常用虚拟语气；as引出的方式状语从句中，当从句与主句的谓语一致时，从句中的谓语可用助动词do来代替，以免重复，但有时语序要倒装。
例1：She treated the child the way his mother did.她像母亲那样对待那个男孩子。
例2：He acted as if nothing had happened.他好像什么都没有发生过似的。
例3：You ought to write as he does.你应该像他那样写。
经典考点1：Just as the builder is skilled in the handling of his bricks, the experienced writer is skilled in the handling of his words.(CET-6，1993年6月)
A)as B)thus C)so D)like
巧解 本题应选C。该句中的Just as…so为一固定结构，常引导方式状语从句，意为“正
如…，也…”。全句意思是：正如建筑者能熟练使用砖块一样，有经验的作家能熟练运用文字。
经典考点2：Reading is to the mind food is to the body.
A)that B)which C)of which D)what
巧解 本题应选D。根据句子的含义，应选择what来引导方式状语从句。what常用于“A is to B what C is to D”的句型中，表示A对B之关系犹如C对D之关系。又如：Engines are to machines what hearts are to animals.发动机对机器之关系犹如心脏对动物之关系。全句意思是：阅读对于大脑的作用犹如食物对于身体的作用。
注：as if, as though引导方式状语从句的情况可参见“虚拟语气”一章。
九、比较状语从句
比较状语从句也是一种方式状语从句，其关联词有as…as，as，not so…as，than，the…the…等。
例1：Light travels faster than sound.光比声传播得快。
例2：We will give you as much help as we can.我们将尽量给你提供更多的帮助。
例3：The higher you go, the less dense air becomes.你上升得越高，空气就越稀薄。
经典考点1：She is a musician than her brother.(CET-4，1993年6月)
A)much of B)much as C)more of D)more as
巧解 本题应选C。首先，该句中有引出比较对象的than,空缺处应当用比较级more而不是much。其次，短语“much of a…”常表示“了不起的”。如It is not much of a spectacle as they say.那个景色并没有如人们说的那么壮观。介词of表示相似，说某人“像什么”，常用“be of…”，而不是“be as…”。全句意思是：和她兄弟相比，她更像个音乐家。(或：她比她兄弟更懂音乐。)
经典考点2：Language belongs to each of us, to the flower-seller to the professor.(CET-6，1993年6月)
A)as much as B)as far as C)the same as D)as long as
巧解 本题应选A。选项中的四个短语结构相似，意义却相差甚远。as much as表示“与…同样地，与…一样多”，as far as表示“就…的限度，到…程度”，或“远至…程度”，the same as表示“与…一模一样”，as long as常引导条件状语从句，表示“只要”。全句意思是：语言属于我们每一个人，无论是卖花者还是教授。
经典考点3：A body weighs from the surface of the earth.
A)less the farther it gets B)the farther it gets, the less
C)less than it gets farther D)less than it, the farther it gets
巧解 本题应选A。“the more…the more…”常用来引导比较状语从句。其中，more代表形容词或副词的比较级，前一个“the more…”是从句，后一个“the more…”是主句，主句和从句的语序都须倒装。有时也可将主句放在从句之前，但主句的语序应变为“主语+谓语+(the more)”，从句的语序保持不变，即“the more+主句+谓语”。本句亦可将从句放在主句之后，改为：The farther a body gets from the surface of the earth, the less it weighs。全句意思是：物体离开地面越远，其重量就越
大学英语语法系列讲座 情态动词 中国地质大学（武汉）外语系许峰 情态动词(Modal V erbs)又称为情态助动词(Modal Auxiliaries)。英语中助动词主要有两类：一是基本助动词，如have，do，be等；二是情态助动词，如may，must，need等。情态动词与其他动词连用表示说话人的语气，可表达建议、要求、可能、意愿等。情态动词没有人称和数的变化。在大学英语考试中，情态动词部分主要重点测试以下内容：情态动词+动词完成式。 情态动词must, should, may(might),ought to, can(could),need, would等都可以与动词完成式连用作谓语，其模式为“modal verb+ have+ v-ed”。这类结构表示对过去所发生动作的推测或判断。但是，不同的情态动词所表示的意思又有所不同。 1.must+have+v-ed和can't/couldn't +have+ v-ed “must+ have+ v-ed”表示对过去事情较有把握的、肯定性的推测，常译为“一定”，“准是”，“肯定”。当must用于推测意义时，其否定形式通常不是must not，而是can/could not。“can't/couldn't + have+ v-ed”表示对过去事情的否定性推测，常译为“决不可能”，“不太可能”。 例1：Since the ditch is full of water, it must have raine d last night.既然水沟里积满了水，可见昨天夜里一定是下过雨了。 例2：—You realize that you were driving at 100 mph, don't you? —No, officer, I couldn't have been. This car can't do more than 80. ——“你刚开车的速度为每小时100英里，不知道吗?” ——“不，警官先生，我不可能开那么快，因为这辆车每小时的速度不可能超过80英里。” 经典考点1：Mary's score on the test is the highest in her class; She have studied very hard.(CET-4，1989年6月) A)may B)should C)must D)ought to 巧解 本题应选C。must have v-ed表示推测过去某事一定发生了；may/might have v-ed 表示推测过去某事也许发生了；should/ought to have v-ed表示“本应该…”，表达的是对过去所发生的事情的一种责备、埋怨、反悔的情绪。C项符合题意。本题句意是：玛丽的考试分数是班上最高的；她一定学习非常用功。 经典考点2：You her in her office last Friday; she's been out of town for two weeks.(CET-4，1996年1月) A)needn't have seen B)must have seen C)might have seen D)can't have seen 巧解 本题应选D。can't have v-ed表示对过去发生事情的否定推测；D项符题意。needn't+ have v-ed表示过去做了本不必做的事。本题句意是：上星期你不可能在她办公室见到她，她去外地已经两个星期了。 经典考点3：Mary my letter; otherwise she would have replied before now.(考研，1991年)
第二十四讲 否定 英语中的否定结构形式多样, 有部分否定、全部否定、几乎否定、双重否定等。在译成 汉语时, 有时要将否定结构译成肯定含义, 有时又要将肯定结构译成否定含义; 有时在英语中否定主语, 可是译成汉语时就转换成否定谓语。诸如此类的现象很多, 值得探讨。 一、常用否定表示法 1. 部分否定 代词或副词如all, both, every, everybody, every day, everyone, many, everything, entirely, altogether, absolutely, wholly, completely, everywhere, always , often 等与not 搭 配使用时, 表示部分否定, 意为“并非都是, 不是每个都是”等。例如: Both of them are not my brothers . 他们两个不全是我的兄弟。 这一句是部分否定, 不可译成“他们两个都不是我的兄弟”。如要表达这个意思, 要说: Neither of them is my brother . All is not gold that glitters . = Not all is gold that glitters . 发光的并非都是黄金。 Every man can not do it . = Not every man can do it . 不是每个人都能做这件事。 I do not remember all these formulas . 这些公式我并非全都记得。 This kind of tree is not found everywhere . 这种树并非哪里都能找到。 Everyone can not answer this question . 并非每个人都能回答这个问题。 The rich are not always happy . 富人未必总是幸福的。 Every couple is not a pair . 成对成双多, 珠联璧合少。( = Not every couple is a pair . ) Not all her work is successful . 并非她所有的工作都是成功的。 Not every child wants to become a film star . 并非所有的孩子都想成为电影明星。 Every man cannot be a writer . 并非每个人都可成为作家。 She is not always excited . 她并非总是兴奋。 I don..t altogether agree with you . 我并不完全同意你。 He is not absolutely wrong . 他并不完全错。 I don..t wholly believe it . 我并不完全相信它。 She is not entirely mistaken . 她并没有完全弄错。 Note: 汉语有句成语:“明修栈道, 暗度陈仓”, 指的是一种虚虚实实、声东击西、使人莫辨真 相的战术, 表现了虚指与实指、形式与实质的不同。说来也巧, 英语语言中的否定结 构也往往具有这种形与实不符的现象, 形式上否定的是A, 但实际意义上否定的却 是B, 等等。这种否定的虚实移位, 往往造成歧义, 须细加辨别。 ①否定主语, 但否定词not 在形式上往往否定谓语, 也就是上文所说的“部分否定”。 全称代词all , both 等作否定句主语时, 都可能产生否定移位, 形式上否定全体, 但 实际上否定部分, 参阅上文。再如: Everybody can not enjoy the music . ( = Not everybody can enjoy the music . )并非 每个人都能欣赏这首曲子。
初二英语语法总结 1) leave的用法 1.“leave+地点”表示“离开某地”。例如： When did you leave Shanghai? 你什么时候离开上海的？ 2.“leave for+地点”表示“动身去某地”。例如： Next Friday, Alice is leaving for London. 下周五，爱丽斯要去伦敦了。 3.“leave+地点+for+地点”表示“离开某地去某地”。例如： Why are you leaving Shanghai for Beijing? 你为什么要离开上海去北京？ 2) 情态动词should“应该”学会使用 should作为情态动词用，常常表示意外、惊奇、不能理解等，有“竟会”的意思，例如：How should I know? 我怎么知道？ Why should you be so late today? 你今天为什么来得这么晚？ should有时表示应当做或发生的事，例如： We should help each other.我们应当互相帮助。 我们在使用时要注意以下几点： 1. 用于表示“应该”或“不应该”的概念。此时常指长辈教导或责备晚辈。例如： You should be here with clean hands. 你应该把手洗干净了再来。 2. 用于提出意见劝导别人。例如： You should go to the doctor if you feel ill. 如果你感觉不舒服，你最好去看医生。 3. 用于表示可能性。should的这一用法是考试中常常出现的考点之一。例如： We should arrive by supper time. 我们在晚饭前就能到了。 She should be here any moment. 她随时都可能来。 3) What...? 与 Which...? 1. what 与 which 都是疑问代词，都可以指人或事物，但是what仅用来询问职业。如：What is your father? 你父亲是干什么的？ 该句相当于： What does your father do?
大学英语语法专项练习题 大学英语语法专项练习题 一、时态 1. By the end of April Peter here for three months. A. will have stayed B. will stay C. stays D. has stayed 2. I'm awfully sorry, but I had no alternative. I simply _____ what I did. A. ought to have done B. have to do C. had to do D. must do 3. We ________our breakfast when an old man came to the door. A. just have had B. have just had C. just had D. had just had 4. Ever since the family moved to the suburbs last year, they________ better health. A. could have enjoyed B. had enjoyed C. have been enjoying D. are enjoying 5. I bought a new house last year, but I ______my old house yet, so at the moment I have two houses. A. did not sell B. have not sold C. had not sold D. do not sell 6. I decided to go to the library as soon as I ________. A. finish what I did B. finished what I did C. would finish what I was doing D. finished what I was doing 7. He _________when the bus came to a sudden stop. A. was almost hurt B. was hurt himself C. was to hurt himself D. was hurting himself 8. I suppose that when I come back in ten years' time all those old houses _______down. A. will have been pulled B. will have pulled C. will be pulling D. will be pulled 9. Bob's leg got hurt ________the Purple Mountains. A. while he is climbing up B. while we were climbing up C. while we climbed up D. while he climbed up 10. Pick me up at 8 o'clock. I _______ my bath by then. A. may have B. will be having C. can have had D. will have had 11. If you smoke in a non-smoking section people________. A. will object B. objected C. must object D. have objected 12. By the end of this month, we surely _______ a satisfactory solution to the problem A. have found B. will be finding C. are finding D. will have found 13. We __________to start our own business, but we never had enough money. A. have hope B. hope C. had hoped D. should hope 14. The gray building is where the workers live, and the white one is where the spare parts______ A. are producing B. are produced C. produced D. being produced 15. While people may refer to television for up-to-the-minute news, it is unlikely that television __________the newspaper completely. A. will replace B. have replaced C. replace D. replaced 16. It's reported that by the end of this month the output of cement in the factory ________by
第二十五讲 句式与修辞 在英语语言的实际运用中, 不宜总是用“主—谓—表”、“主—谓—宾”等简单句结构。 简单句容量小, 有局限性, 用多了会使句型呆板、单调, 千句一面, 文章乏味, 没有可读性, 因 而也就不能较好地表达思想。要使语言新鲜、生动、富有吸引力, 不断地变换句子结构、句型及表达方式, 是非常必要的, 也是可能的。比如, 同一思想往往可以用简单句、复合句或并列句表达, 可用分词短语表达, 也可用介词短语表达; 可用主动语态表达, 也可用被动语态表达; 可用肯定形式表达, 也可用否定形式表达; 可用直陈语气表达, 也可用虚拟语气表达, 等等。另外, 从修辞学的角度讲, 英语句子有松散句( loose sentence )、尾重句( periodic sentence)和平衡句(balanced sentence )之分。在松散句中, 主要信息或实质部分先出现, 后跟修饰语或补充性细节; 在尾重句中, 主要信息或实质部分出现在句尾或句子后半部分; 在平行句中, 信息同等重要, 句式结构相同, 并驾齐驱, 相互独立。同时, 行文时, 还可使用某些修辞手法, 如明喻、暗喻、夸张、拟人等, 从而更加形象地描写事物, 更加生动地说明事理。 英语句式变化多样, 修辞手法丰富多彩, 我们完全可以根据思想表达的需要, 利用各种 词句表现手法, 安排句子的各种成分, 以达到理想的表达效果。下面对英语的典型句式和 修辞进行综合考察, 通过转换对比, 揭示出英语行文造句的灵活性和多样性。 一、统一性 1 . 从属关系准则 在一个句子中(指复合句) , 如果要表达的是两个或两个以上的思想, 而这些思想同等重 要, 互不依附, 处于并列的地位, 那就要把它们当作并列句处理, 用并列连词( and, but , or 等)连接起来。例如: His father is a professor and his mother is a musician . 他父亲是一位教授, 母亲是一位 音乐家。 We love peace, but we are not afraid of war . 我们热爱和平, 但是我们并不怕战争。 .. 但是, 如果句子中所表达的两个或两个以上的思想不是同等重要的, 而是一个为主要思想, 其余的为次要的、附属性的思想(用以说明或限定主要思想) , 那就不能把它们当成并 列句处理, 而要用主从复合句或别的结构来处理。主从复合句只能用从属连词( when , where, so, because 等)连接, 不能用并列连词连接。 1)第一原则: 勿将句子中主要思想和次要思想的位置颠倒 The snow stopped when the old man died . (不妥) The old man died when the snow stopped . (正)雪停的时候, 老人去世了。 The waiters were serving coffee when the ship struck the rock and sank . (不妥) When the waiters were serving coffee, the ship struck the rock and sank . (正)服务 员上咖啡的时候, 船触礁下沉了。 2)第二原则: 勿在主从复合句中插入并列连词 He came out first in the football match , and which delighted us . (误) He came out first in the football match , which delighted us . (正)他在足球赛中获得 第一名, 这使我们都很高兴。 I have two brothers, but who are younger than I . (误) I have two brothers, who are younger than I . (正)我有两个兄弟, 年龄都比我小。
大学英语语法及练习 Last updated at 10:00 am on 25th December 2020
大学英语语法及练习 第一讲虚拟语气 I. 考点分析：分四级语法复习 虚拟语气是动词的特殊形式，用来表达说话人的意愿、建议、请求、意图、惊奇、设想等未能或不可能成为事实的情况，以及在说话人看来实现的可能性很小的情况。 虚拟语气是非常重要的语法考点。考查历届四级试题，我们发现与虚拟语气有关的考题每次至少2题，有时甚至3-4题。虚拟语气的考查要点有： 1. 虚拟语气的形式：分清虚拟时间和主从句的动词形式十分重要，因此我们把所有虚拟语气的不同类型列表归纳并进行对比，以便于同学们记忆掌握。
2. 要注意从句中第一/三人称的过去式was用were代替。 例如：If I were invited, I would come. If she were not ill, she could do a lot of things. 3. if条件句中如谓语动词是were, had, should, could时，可以省略if, 把它们前置。
例如： Had my father a lot of money, he would send me abroad. Could I do it, I would surely do it. Should the Black Death reappear, what should we do?（万一黑死病再次出现，我们该怎么办） 4. 错综时间的条件句是难点，如99年1月第60题: If I hadn’t stood under the ladder to catch you when you fell, you wouldn’t be smiling now.（从句用过去完成时，主句用现在进行时） 又如：If I were you, I would have gone to the film last night.(从句虚拟现在，主句虚拟过去)；If we hadn’t got everything ready by now, we should be having a terrible time tomorrow.(从句虚拟过去，主句虚拟将来)； If the weather had been more favorable, the crops would be growing still better.(从句虚拟过去，主句虚拟现在) 5. 虚拟句的另一难点是省略if条件句的含蓄条件句，如： I would have written the paper before, but I have been ill.(=If I had not been ill, I would have written the paper before.); A true friend would have acted differently. (=A friend, if he had been true, would have acted differently.) 6. 注意介词短语 without, but for, in the absence等表示虚拟条件。
大学英语语法专项练习题 一、时态 1. By the end of April Peter here for three months. A. will have stayed B. will stay C. stays D. has stayed 2. I'm awfully sorry, but I had no alternative. I simply _____ what I did. A. ought to have done B. have to do C. had to do D. must do 3. We ________our breakfast when an old man came to the door. A. just have had B. have just had C. just had D. had just had 4. Ever since the family moved to the suburbs last year, they________ better health. A. could have enjoyed B. had enjoyed C. have been enjoying D. are enjoying 5. I bought a new house last year, but I ______my old house yet, so at the moment I have two houses. A. did not sell B. have not sold C. had not sold D. do not sell 6. I decided to go to the library as soon as I ________. A. finish what I did B. finished what I did C. would finish what I was doing D. finished what I was doing 7. He _________when the bus came to a sudden stop. A. was almost hurt B. was hurt himself C. was to hurt himself D. was hurting himself 8. I suppose that when I come back in ten years' time all those old houses _______down. A. will have been pulled B. will have pulled C. will be pulling D. will be pulled 9. Bob's leg got hurt ________the Purple Mountains. A. while he is climbing up B. while we were climbing up C. while we climbed up D. while he climbed up 10. Pick me up at 8 o'clock. I _______ my bath by then. A. may have B. will be having C. can have had D. will have had 11. If you smoke in a non-smoking section people________. A. will object B. objected C. must object D. have objected 12. By the end of this month, we surely _______ a satisfactory solution to the problem A. have found B. will be finding C. are finding D. will have found 13. We __________to start our own business, but we never had enough money. A. have hope B. hope C. had hoped D. should hope 14. The gray building is where the workers live, and the white one is where the spare parts______ A. are producing B. are produced C. produced D. being produced 15. While people may refer to television for up-to-the-minute news, it is unlikely that television __________the newspaper completely. A. will replace B. have replaced C. replace D. replaced 16. It's reported that by the end of this month the output of cement in the factory ________by about 10%. A. will have risen B. has risen C. will be rising D. has been rising 17. Until then, his family___________ from him for six months. A. didn't hear B. hasn’t been hearing C. hasn't heard D. hadn't heard
虚拟语气 一．虚拟语气在虚拟条件句中的应用。 虚拟条件是相对于真实条件而言的。如果假设的条件有可能发生或发生的可能性很大，就用真实条件句；反之，则用虚拟条件句。 如：If you don’t mind, I’ll turn on the radio. (I’m going to turn on the radio, if you ag ree.)真实条件句 If I were you, I would do it some other way. (I’m not you, so I can’t do it some other w ay.)虚拟条件句。 1．虚拟从句与主句的谓语构成。 （1）. 一般时态下的虚拟语气句子的谓语构成； 从句谓语：系动词be一律用were；行为动词一律用过去式 主句谓语：would; could; might; should + 动词原形 If I knew the truth, I would tell you. If I were you, I would receive his invitation. If there were no gravity, we should not be able to walk. （2）. 与过去事实相反的假设 从句谓语：had +过去分词 主句谓语：should; would; might; would + have +过去分词 If I had known that you were coming, I would have met you at the airport. If I had more time, I would have finished my work. You could have done better if you had been more careful. （3）. 与未来事实相反的假设 从句谓语：should; were to +动词原形 主句谓语：should; would; might; could +动词原形 If you should fail, what would you do? If you should encounter with any inconvenience, please don’t hesitate to let us know. If you were to try again, you might succeed. If the cover should have a crack in it, the harmful gas would come out and cause pollution. 注：1. 主句中第一人称用should，也可以用would，第二、第三人称只用would。要表达“能够”情态意义时，主句中要用could；要表达“可能”情态意义时，主句要用might。 2. If引导的含有were, should, had 的从句， if若省略，从句中的were, should, had前置，构成部分倒装，但部分谓语提前的话，否定词不能提前。 Ex. Had it not been for the reservoir we’d never been able to beat the drought. Had she been given some hints, she could have answered the questions. 2. 错综时间虚拟条件句 主句与从句所指的时间不一致，例如从句是过去的假设，而主句是现在的结果，或者相反，等等，这时就要按照各自表示的时间来调整动词的形式。 如：1. If I had a bike, I would have lent it to you yesterday. 2. If the weather had been more favorable, the crops would be growing still better. 3. If he had followed the doctor’s advice, he would be quite all right now. 3．含蓄虚拟条件句 有时句中并未出现引导的条件句从句，其假设情况是用以下的几种情况来表示或暗示的。 （1）. 介词短语 Ex. I could not have fulfilled the task without your help.
语法课教案 I. Teaching aim . 1.Aims on the knowledge : Enable students take in the grammar and related knowledge; 2.Aims on the ability : Develop their abilities of speaking and can use new knowledge to communicate with others in daily life . 3.Aims on the emotion : develop Ss' interest in English and let them love their life. II. Important points: Ss understand the grammar and learn about other related sentence structure . III.Difficult points. Ss take in the grammar and put it into practicing speaking about their daily life and use in express their ideas . IV.Teaching procedure . Step1: Warm-up : at the beagining of class,we can start a game, gusing words . Step2: Presentation . 1. Show students new sentences of grammar and explain for them ; 2. Show students related sentences and words . Let Ss read it by themselves . Step3: Practice. 1. Group member talk about “look, there is a…in/on/nea r…” “look, there are some…in/on nea r…” 2. Everyone can hand up and express their ideas sentences structures . Step4: Product . Combine grammar and some related sentences which teacher show to Ss . Ss have a try to have a dialogue in class with their partners . V. Blackboard design. 1.Show new sentence students at the lift side on the blackboard ; 2.Show some related sentence at the right side on the blackboard . VI. Homework. https://www.doczj.com/doc/9911162751.html,municate with classmates about their Sunday or Saturdays using new sentences structure ; 2.Finish some tasks on the workbook which is about grammars . VII.Summary. 1.Ss may feel difficult about the grammar, teacher need to pay much attention to focus on the reflection of Ss and take actions to help them to understand grammar ;
大学英语语法专题练习 从句练习 1.Ihopealltheprecautionsagainstairpollution,_____suggestedbylocalgovernment, willbeseriouslyconsidered here. A)whileB)sinceC)afterD)as 2. The problem of ________ to select as his successor was quickly disposed of. A)whatB) whomC)whichD)how 3.____youropinionsareworthconsidering,thecommitteefindsitunwisetoplacetoo muchimportanceonthem. A )As B )Since C)ProvidedD) While 4. This is an ideal site for a university _______ it is far from the downtown area. A)provided thatB)so thatC)now thatD)in that 5. You will want two trees about ten feet apart, from _______ to suspend your tent. A)thereB)them C)whichD)where 6. _______quite recently, most mothers in Britain didn“t take paid w ork outside the home. A) BeforeB) UntilC)FromD)Since 7. ___________I admit that there are problems, I don“t think that theycannot be solved. A)UnlessB)Until
大学英语语法系列讲座 动词的时态和语态 作谓语的动词发生变化来表示行为、状态发生的时间及进行的情况的各种形式称为时态。英语有两种语态：主动语态和被动语态。时态和语态是英语语法的重要组成部分，也是大学英语考试必考的内容之一。时态测试主要要求考生掌握几种常见但易错的时态：完成时态——现在完成时、过去完成时、将来完成时；进行时态——现在进行时、过去进行时、将来进行时、完成进行时；一般时态——一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时。从是否跟宾语的角度来看，英语动词可以分为两种，即不及物动词和及物动词。不及物动词没有被动语态。及物动词有两种语态：主动语态和被动语态。任何一个及物动词不是使用主动语态，就是使用被动语态，没有语态的及物动词是不存在的。时态测试实际上也同时测试语态。一、一般时态 一般时态表示现在、过去或将来的动作状态或特征。 1.一般现在时 (1)一般现在时表示没有时限的持久存在的习惯性的动作或状态，或现阶段反复发生的动作或状态，常和副词usually,often,always,sometimes,regularly,near,occasionally,everyyear,every week等连用。 例1：He is always like that.他总是那样。 例2：Mr. Smith travels to work by bus every day. 史密斯先生每天乘公共汽车去上班。(2)在由after, until, before, once, when, even if, in case, as long as, as soon as, the moment 以及if, unless等引导的时间状语从句或条件状语从句中，通常用一般现在时代替
八年级下册英语语法知识点归纳总结 （2021最新版） 作者：______ 编写日期：2021年__月__日 【导语】要想取得好的学习成绩，必须要有良好的学习习惯。习惯是经过重复练习而巩固下来的稳重持久的条件反射和自然需要。建立良好的学习习惯，就会使自己学习感到有序而轻松。以下是小编为您整理的《八年级下册英语语法知识点归纳总结》，供大家查阅。 【篇一】 He said I was hard-working. 重点语法：宾语从句结构：主语 + 谓语动词 + 宾语从句(主语 + 谓语动词 + 宾语/表语) 例句：----Im good at English. He says. (改为加宾语从句的复合句)
----He says Im good at English. 注意：①主句是一般现在时态，宾语从句的时态不受其影响。例句：He says Im good at English now. He says I was good at mathematics when I was young. ②主句是过去时态，宾语从句也要用过去时态。例句：He said I was good at mathematics when I was young yesterday. He said I was good at English now yesterday. ③宾语从句是客观真理时永远用一般现在时态。例句：Our teacher says 24 hours make a day. Our teacher said the sun gives us so many energy yesterday. ④动词原形不能作主语，必须用其 -ing 形式。例句：She said helping others changed her life. 重点短语：direct speech 直接引语 reported speech = indirect speech 间接引语 first of all = at first 首先 pass on 传递 be supposed to do sth. 应该做某事 be good at = do well in 在某方面做得好 in good health 身体健康 get over 克服 open up 打开 care for = take care of = look after 照料;照顾 not any more = not any longer = no longer 不再 have a cold 感冒 end-of-year exam 年终考试 get nervous 变得紧张 forget to do sth. 忘记做某事(该事未做) forget doing sth. 忘记做某事(该事已做) its + adj. + [for sb.] + to do sth. 做某事[对某人来说](加形容词) context 上下文 Reading Strategy(阅读方法) First read for meaning， not for detail. (首先理解文段的大致意思，不在于文段的细节部分。) You can understand the meaning of a word you dont know from the context. (至于不懂的单词，