毕业设计
外文文献及译文
文献、资料题目：Changing roles of the clients
Architects and contractors
Through BIM
文献、资料来源：Engineering, Construction, Archi-
tectual Management
文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2010.2
院（部）：水利工程学院
专业：水电国管
班级：1101
姓名：马锡
学号：201119040317
指导教师：刘风云
翻译日期：2015.2.3
外文文献：
Changing roles of the clients,architects and contractors through BIM
Rizal Sebastian
TNO Built Environment and Geosciences, Delft, The Netherlands
Abstract
Purpose– This paper aims to present a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature and case studies. It seeks to address the necessity for applying BIM and re-organising the processes and roles in hospital building projects. This type of project is complex due to complicated functional and technical requirements, decision making involving a large number of stakeholders, and long-term development processes. Design/methodology/approach– Through desk research and referring to the ongoing European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Through several real cases, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated.
Findings–One of the main findings is the identification of the main factors for a successful collaboration using BIM, which can be recognised as “POWER”: product information sharing (P),organisational roles synergy (O), work processes coordination (W), environment for teamwork (E), and reference data consolidation (R). Furthermore, it is also found that the implementation of BIM in hospital building projects is still limited due to certain commercial and legal barriers, as well as the fact that integrated collaboration has not yet been embedded in the real estate strategies of healthcare institutions.
Originality/value– This paper contributes to the actual discussion in science and practice on the changing roles and processes that are required to develop and operate sustainable buildings with the support of integrated ICT frameworks and tools. It presents the state-of-the-art of European research projects and some of the first real cases of BIM application in hospital building projects. Keywords Europe, Hospitals, The Netherlands, Construction works, Response flexibility, Project planning
Paper type General review
1. Introduction
Hospital building projects, are of key importance, and involve significant investment, and usually take a long-term development period. Hospital building projects are also very complex due to the complicated requirements regarding hygiene, safety, special equipments, and handling of a large amount of data. The building process is very dynamic and comprises iterative phases and intermediate changes. Many actors with shifting agendas, roles and responsibilities are actively involved, such as: the healthcare institutions, national and local governments, project developers, financial institutions, architects, contractors, advisors, facility managers, and equipment manufacturers and suppliers. Such building projects are very much influenced, by the healthcare policy, which changes rapidly in response to the medical, societal and technological developments, and varies greatly between countries (World Health Organization, 2000). In The Netherlands, for example, the way a building project in the healthcare sector is organised is undergoing a major reform due to a fundamental change in the Dutch health policy that was introduced in 2008.
The rapidly changing context posts a need for a building with flexibility over its lifecycle. In order to incorporate life-cycle considerations in the building design, construction technique, and facility management strategy, a multidisciplinary collaboration is required. Despite the attempt for establishing integrated collaboration, healthcare building projects still faces serious problems in practice, such as: budget overrun, delay, and sub-optimal quality in terms of flexibility, end-user?s dissatisfa ction, and energy inefficiency. It is evident that the lack of communication and coordination between the actors involved in the different phases of a building project is among the most important reasons behind these problems. The communication between different stakeholders becomes critical, as each stakeholder possesses different set of skills. As a result, the processes for extraction, interpretation, and communication of complex design information from drawings and documents are often time-consuming and difficult. Advanced visualisation technologies, like 4D planning have tremendous potential to increase the communication efficiency and interpretation ability of the project team members. However, their use as an effective communication tool is still limited and not fully explored (Dawood and Sikka, 2008). There are also other barriers in the information transfer and integration, for instance: many existing ICT systems do not support the openness of the data and structure that is prerequisite for
an effective collaboration between different building actors or disciplines.
Building information modelling (BIM) offers an integrated solution to the previously mentioned problems. Therefore, BIM is increasingly used as an ICT support in complex building projects. An effective multidisciplinary collaboration supported by an optimal use of BIM require changing roles of the clients, architects, and contractors; new contractual relationships; and re-organised collaborative processes. Unfortunately, there are still gaps in the practical knowledge on how to manage the building actors to collaborate effectively in their changing roles, and to develop and utilise BIM as an optimal ICT support of the collaboration.
This paper presents a general review of the practical implications of building information modelling (BIM) based on literature review and case studies. In the next sections, based on literature and recent findings from European research project InPro, the framework for integrated collaboration and the use of BIM are analysed. Subsequently, through the observation of two ongoing pilot projects in The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors through BIM application are investigated. In conclusion, the critical success factors as well as the main barriers of a successful integrated collaboration using BIM are identified.
2. Changing roles through integrated collaboration and life-cycle design approaches
A hospital building project involves various actors, roles, and knowledge domains. In The Netherlands, the changing roles of clients, architects, and contractors in hospital building projects are inevitable due the new healthcare policy. Previously under the Healthcare Institutions Act (WTZi), healthcare institutions were required to obtain both a license and a building permit for new construction projects and major renovations. The permit was issued by the Dutch Ministry of Health. The healthcare institutions were then eligible to receive financial support from the government. Since 2008, new legislation on the management of hospital building projects and real estate has come into force. In this new legislation, a permit for hospital building project under the WTZi is no longer obligatory, nor obtainable (Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport, 2008). This change allows more freedom from the state-directed policy, and respectively, allocates more responsibilities to the healthcare organisations to deal with the financing and management of their real estate. The new policy implies that the healthcare institutions are fully responsible to manage and finance their building projects and real estate. The government?s support for the costs of healthcare facilities will no longer be given separately, but will be
included in the fee for healthcare services. This means that healthcare institutions must earn back their investment on real estate through their services. This new policy intends to stimulate sustainable innovations in the design, procurement and management of healthcare buildings, which will contribute to effective and efficient primary healthcare services.
The new strategy for building projects and real estate management endorses an integrated collaboration approach. In order to assure the sustainability during construction, use, and maintenance, the end-users, facility managers, contractors and specialist contractors need to be involved in the planning and design processes. The implications of the new strategy are reflected in the changing roles of the building actors and in the new procurement method.
In the traditional procurement method, the design, and its details, are developed by the architect, and design engineers. Then, the client (the healthcare institution) sends an application to the Ministry of Health to obtain an approval on the building permit and the financial support from the government. Following this, a contractor is selected through a tender process that emphasises the search for the lowest-price bidder. During the construction period, changes often take place due to constructability problems of the design and new requirements from the client. Because of the high level of technical complexity, and moreover, decision-making complexities, the whole process from initiation until delivery of a hospital building project can take up to ten years time. After the delivery, the healthcare institution is fully in charge of the operation of the facilities. Redesigns and changes also take place in the use phase to cope with new functions and developments in the medical world (van Reedt Dortland, 2009).
The integrated procurement pictures a new contractual relationship between the parties involved in a building project. Instead of a relationship between the client and architect for design, and the client and contractor for construction, in an integrated procurement the client only holds a contractual relationship with the main party that is responsible for both design and construction ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007). The traditional borders between tasks and occupational groups become blurred since architects, consulting firms, contractors, subcontractors, and suppliers all stand on the supply side in the building process while the client on the demand side. Such configuration puts the architect, engineer and contractor in a very different position that influences not only their roles, but also their responsibilities, tasks and communication with the client, the users, the team and other stakeholders.
The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method requires a shift of mindset of the parties on both the demand and supply sides. It is essential for the client and contractor to have a fair and open collaboration in which both can optimally use their competencies. The effectiveness of integrated collaboration is also de termined by the client?s capacity and strategy to organize innovative tendering procedures (Sebastian et al., 2009).
A new challenge emerges in case of positioning an architect in a partnership with the contractor instead of with the client. In case of the architect enters a partnership with the contractor, an important issues is how to ensure the realisation of the architectural values as well as innovative engineering through an efficient construction process. In another case, the architect can stand at t he client?s side in a strategic advisory role instead of being the designer. In this case, the architect?s responsibility is translating client?s requirements and wishes into the architectural values to be included in the design specification, and evaluati ng the contractor?s proposal against this. In any of this new role, the architect holds the responsibilities as stakeholder interest facilitator, custodian of customer value and custodian of design models.
The transition from traditional to integrated procurement method also brings consequences in the payment schemes. In the traditional building process, the honorarium for the architect is usually based on a percentage of the project costs; this may simply mean that the more expensive the building is, the higher the honorarium will be. The engineer receives the honorarium based on the complexity of the design and the intensity of the assignment. A highly complex building, which takes a number of redesigns, is usually favourable for the engineers in terms of honorarium.
A traditional contractor usually receives the commission based on the tender to construct the building at the lowest price by meeting the minimum specifications given by the client. Extra work due to modifications is charged separately to the client. After the delivery, the contractor is no longer responsible for the long-term use of the building. In the traditional procurement method, all risks are placed with the client.
In integrated procurement method, the payment is based on the achieved building performance; thus, the payment is non-adversarial. Since the architect, engineer and contractor have a wider responsibility on the quality of the design and the building, the payment is linked to a measurement system of the functional and technical performance of the building over a certain period of time. The honorarium becomes an incentive to achieve the optimal quality. If the
building actors succeed to deliver a higher added-value that exceed the minimum client?s requirements, they will receive a bonus in accordance to the client?s extra gain. The level of transparency is also improved. Open book accounting is an excellent instrument provided that the stakeholders agree on the information to be shared and to its level of detail (InPro, 2009).
Next to the adoption of integrated procurement method, the new real estate strategy for hospital building projects addresses an innovative product development and life-cycle design approaches. A sustainable business case for the investment and exploitation of hospital buildings relies on dynamic life-cycle management that includes considerations and analysis of the market development over time next to the building life-cycle costs (investment/initial cost, operational cost, and logistic cost). Compared to the conventional life-cycle costing method, the dynamic life-cycle management encompasses a shift from focusing only on minimizing the costs to focusing on maximizing the total benefit that can be gained. One of the determining factors for a successful implementation of dynamic life-cycle management is the sustainable design of the building and building components, which means that the design carries sufficient flexibility to accommodate possible changes in the long term (Prins, 1992).
Designing based on the principles of life-cycle management affects the role of the architect, as he needs to be well informed about the usage scenarios and related financial arrangements, the changing social and physical environments, and new technologies. Design needs to integrate people activities and business strategies over time. In this context, the architect is required to align the design strategies with the organisational, local and global policies on finance, business operations, health and safety, environment, etc. (Sebastian et al., 2009).
The combination of process and product innovation, and the changing roles of the building actors can be accommodated by integrated project delivery or IPD (AIA California Council, 2007). IPD is an approach that integrates people, systems, business structures and practices into a process that collaboratively harnesses the talents and insights of all participants to reduce waste and optimize efficiency through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. IPD principles can be applied to a variety of contractual arrangements. IPD teams will usually include members well beyond the basic triad of client, architect, and contractor. At a minimum, though, an Integrated Project should include a tight collaboration between the client, the architect, and the main contractor ultimately responsible for construction of the project, from the early design until
the project handover. The key to a successful IPD is assembling a team that is committed to collaborative processes and is capable of working together effectively. IPD is built on collaboration. As a result, it can only be successful if the participants share and apply common values and goals.
3. Changing roles through BIM application
Building information model (BIM) comprises ICT frameworks and tools that can support the integrated collaboration based on life-cycle design approach. BIM is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its lifecycle from inception onward (National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, 2007). BIM facilitates time and place independent collaborative working. A basic premise of BIM is collaboration by different stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle of a facility to insert, extract, update or modify information in the BIM to support and reflect the roles of that stakeholder. BIM in its ultimate form, as a shared digital representation founded on open standards for interoperability, can become a virtual information model to be handed from the design team to the contractor and subcontractors and then to the client (Sebastian et al., 2009).
BIM is not the same as the earlier known computer aided design (CAD). BIM goes further than an application to generate digital (2D or 3D) drawings (Bratton, 2009). BIM is an integrated model in which all process and product information is combined, stored, elaborated, and interactively distributed to all relevant building actors. As a central model for all involved actors throughout the project lifecycle, BIM develops and evolves as the project progresses. Using BIM, the proposed design and engineering solutions can be measured against the client?s requirements and expected building performance. The functionalities of BIM to support the design process extend to multidimensional (nD), including: three-dimensional visualisation and detailing, clash detection, material schedule, planning, cost estimate, production and logistic information, and as-built documents. During the construction process, BIM can support the communication between the building site, the factory and the design office– which is crucial for an effective and efficient prefabrication and assembly processes as well as to prevent or solve problems related to unforeseen errors or modifications. When the building is in use, BIM can be used in combination with the intelligent building systems to provide and maintain up-to-date information of the
building performance, including the life-cycle cost.
To unleash the full potential of more efficient information exchange in the AEC/FM industry in collaborative working using BIM, both high quality open international standards and high quality implementations of these standards must be in place. The IFC open standard is generally agreed to be of high quality and is widely implemented in software. Unfortunately, the certification process allows poor quality implementations to be certified and essentially renders the certified software useless for any practical usage with IFC. IFC compliant BIM is actually used less than manual drafting for architects and contractors, and show about the same usage for engineers. A recent survey shows that CAD (as a closed-system) is still the major form of technique used in design work (over 60 per cent) while BIM is used in around 20 percent of projects for architects and in around 10 per cent of projects for engineers and contractors (Kiviniemi et al., 2008).
The application of BIM to support an optimal cross-disciplinary and cross-phase collaboration opens a new dimension in the roles and relationships between the building actors. Several most relevant issues are: the new role of a model manager; the agreement on the access right and Intellectual Property Right (IPR); the liability and payment arrangement according to the type of contract and in relation to the integrated procurement; and the use of open international standards.
Collaborative working using BIM demands a new expert role of a model manager who possesses ICT as well as construction process know-how (InPro, 2009). The model manager deals with the system as well as with the actors. He provides and maintains technological solutions required for BIM functionalities, manages the information flow, and improves the ICT skills of the stakeholders. The model manager does not take decisions on design and engineering solutions, nor the organisational processes, but his roles in the chain of decision making are focused on:
●the development of BIM, the definition of the structure and detail level of the model, and the
deployment of relevant BIM tools, such as for models checking, merging, and clash detections;
●the contribution to collaboration methods, especially decision making and communication
protocols, task planning, and risk management;
and the management of information, in terms of data flow and storage, identification of communication errors, and decision or process (re-)tracking.
Regarding the legal and organisational issues, one of the actual questions is: “In what way does the intellectual property right (IPR) in collaborative working using BIM differ from the IPR in a traditional teamwork?”. In terms of combined work, the IPR of each element is attached to its creator. Although it seems to be a fully integrated design, BIM actually resulted from a combination of works/elements; for instance: the outline of the building design, is created by the architect, the design for the electrical system, is created by the electrical contractor, etc. Thus, in case of BIM as a combined work, the IPR is similar to traditional teamwork. Working with BIM with authorship registration functionalities may actually make it easier to keep track of the IPR(Chao-Duivis, 2009).
How does collaborative working, using BIM, effect the contractual relationship? On the one hand, collaborative working using BIM does not necessarily change the liability position in the contract nor does it obligate an alliance contract. The General Principles of BIM Addendum confi rms: …This does not effectuate or require a restructuring of contractual relationships or shifting of risks between or among the Project Participants other than as specifically required per the Protocol Addendum and its Attachments? (ConsensusDOCS, 2008). On the other hand, changes in terms of payment schemes can be anticipated. Collaborative processes using BIM will lead to the shifting of activities from to the early design phase. Much, if not all, activities in the detailed engineering and specification phase will be done in the earlier phases. It means that significant payment for the engineering phase, which may count up to 40 per cent of the design cost, can no longer be expected. As engineering work is done concurrently with the design, a new proportion of the payment in the early design phase is necessary(Chao-Duivis, 2009).
4. Review of ongoing hospital building projects using BIM
In The Netherlands, the changing roles in hospital building projects are part of the strategy, which aims at achieving a sustainable real estate in response to the changing healthcare policy. Referring to literature and previous research, the main factors that influence the success of the changing roles can be concluded as: the implementation of an integrated procurement method and a life-cycle design approach for a sustainable collaborative process; the agreement on the BIM structure and the intellectual rights; and the integration of the role of a model manager. The
preceding sections have discussed the conceptual thinking on how to deal with these factors effectively. This current section observes two actual projects and compares the actual practice with the conceptual view respectively.
The main issues, which are observed in the case studies, are:
●the selected procurement method and the roles of the involved parties within this method;
●the implementation of the life-cycle design approach;
●the type, structure, and functionalities of BIM used in the project;
●the openness in data sharing and transfer of the model, and the intended use of BIM in the
future; and
●the roles and tasks of the model manager.
The pilot experience of hospital building projects using BIM in the Netherlands can be observed at University Medical Centre St Radboud (further referred as UMC) and Maxima Medical Centre (further referred as MMC). At UMC, the new building project for the Faculty of Dentistry in the city of Nijmegen has been dedicated as a BIM pilot project. At MMC, BIM is used in designing new buildings for Medical Simulation and Mother-and-Child Centre in the city of Veldhoven.
The first case is a project at the University Medical Centre (UMC) St Radboud. UMC is more than just a hospital. UMC combines medical services, education and research. More than 8500 staff and 3000 students work at UMC. As a part of the innovative real estate strategy, UMC has considered to use BIM for its building projects. The new development of the Faculty of Dentistry and the surrounding buildings on the Kapittelweg in Nijmegen has been chosen as a pilot project to gather practical knowledge and experience on collaborative processes with BIM support.
The main ambition to be achieved through the use of BIM in the building projects at UMC can be summarised as follows:
●using 3D visualisation to enhance the coordination and communication among the building
actors, and the user participation in design;
●facilitating optimal information accessibility and exchange for a high
●consistency of the drawings and documents across disciplines and phases;
●integrating the architectural design with structural analysis, energy analysis, cost estimation,
and planning;
●interactively evaluating the design solutions against the programme of requirements and
specifications;
●reducing redesign/remake costs through clash detection during the design process; and
●optimising the management of the facility through the registration of medical installations
and equipments, fixed and flexible furniture, product and output specifications, and operational data.
The second case is a project at the Maxima Medical Centre (MMC). MMC is a large hospital resulted from a merger between the Diaconessenhuis in Eindhoven and St Joseph Hospital in Veldhoven. Annually the 3,400 staff of MMC provides medical services to more than 450,000 visitors and patients. A large-scaled extension project of the hospital in Veldhoven is a part of its real estate strategy. A medical simulation centre and a women-and-children medical centre are among the most important new facilities within this extension project. The design has been developed using 3D modelling with several functionalities of BIM.
The findings from both cases and the analysis are as follows. Both UMC and MMC opted for a traditional procurement method in which the client directly contracted an architect, a structural engineer, and a mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) consultant in the design team. Once the design and detailed specifications are finished, a tender procedure will follow to select a contractor. Despite the choice for this traditional method, many attempts have been made for a closer and more effective multidisciplinary collaboration. UMC dedicated a relatively long preparation phase with the architect, structural engineer and MEP consultant before the design commenced. This preparation phase was aimed at creating a common vision on the optimal way for collaboration using BIM as an ICT support. Some results of this preparation phase are: a document that defines the common ambition for the project and the collaborative working process and a semi-formal agreement that states the commitment of the building actors for collaboration. Other than UMC, MMC selected an architecture firm with an in-house engineering department. Thus, the collaboration between the architect and structural engineer can take place within the same firm using the same software application.
Regarding the life-cycle design approach, the main attention is given on life-cycle costs, maintenance needs, and facility management. Using BIM, both hospitals intend to get a much
better insight in these aspects over the life-cycle period. The life-cycle sustainability criteria are included in the assignments for the design teams. Multidisciplinary designers and engineers are asked to collaborate more closely and to interact with the end-users to address life-cycle requirements. However, ensuring the building actors to engage in an integrated collaboration to generate sustainable design solutions that meet the life-cycle performance expectations is still difficult. These actors are contracted through a traditional procurement method. Their tasks are specific, their involvement is rather short-term in a certain project phase, their responsibilities and liabilities are limited, and there is no tangible incentive for integrated collaboration.
From the current progress of both projects, it can be observed that the type and structure of BIM relies heavily on the choice for BIM software applications. Revit Architecture and Revit Structure by Autodesk are selected based on the argument that it has been widely used internationally and it is compatible with AutoCAD, a widely known product of the same software manufacturer. The compatibility with AutoCAD is a key consideration at MMC since the drawings of the existing buildings were created with this application. These 2D drawings were then used as the basis to generate a 3D model with the BIM software application. The architectural model generated with Revit Architecture and the structural model generated by Revit Structure can be linked directly. In case of a change in the architectural model, a message will be sent to the structural engineer. He can then adjust the structural model, or propose a change in return to the architect, so that the structural model is always consistent with the architectural one.
Despite the attempt of the design team to agree on using the same software application, the MEP consultant is still not capable to use Revit; and therefore, a conversion of the model from and to Revit is still required. Another weakness of this “closed approach”, whi ch is dependent to the use of the same software applications, may appear in the near future when the project further progresses into the construction phase. If the contractor uses another software application, considerable extra work will be needed to make the model creted during the design phase to be compatible for use in the construction phase. Since traditional procurement method is used, this problem may appear just after tender, which means there will not be much time and resource to re-create or re-b uild the model. The contractor?s ICT system and applications are unknown before the tender because no contractor is yet involved in the project. A particular attention in hospital
building projects is given on the development of object libraries. Since a very large number of complex objects are typical to hospital buildings (e.g. installations, equipments, operation rooms, special facilities), the effective handling of the object library determines the efficiency of the design process. Since the approach to BIM still depends to specific software applications instead of an open-source approach, the openness, accessibility, and extension possibility of the object libraries may rather be limited.
5. Conclusions
In the midst of the changing real estate strategy in the healthcare sector and the changing roles in hospital building projects, integrated collaboration and BIM are highly required. Based on the analysis of the literature, previous research and case studies, the five success factors for integrated collab oration using BIM can be identified as “POWER” that comprises:
(1) Product information sharing (P).
(2) Organisational roles synergy (O).
(3) Work processes coordination (W).
(4) Environment for teamwork (E).
(5) Reference data consolidation (R).
There is much research on how to release the power of collaboration through the changing roles of the client, architect, engineer, and contractor within a collaborative process using BIM. However, the management of the collaborative processes and the implementation of BIM as ICT support in the real practice are still suboptimal. The main findings from the case studies in the Netherlands can be concluded as follows. In contrary to the ambition to endorse a life-cycle strategy to manage healthcare real estate effectively and efficiently, traditional procurement method is still largely used in hospital building projects. Although many attempts are made to realise an integrated collaboration, the contractual limitations of the roles and responsibilities of the building parties in the traditional procurement method hinder the optimal implementation of a performance-based honorarium system (a system which may stimulate the building actors to continuously assess the life-cycle consequences of their design, engineering, and construction solutions). The decisions on ICT solutions for BIM are often not adequately grounded in the business and real estate strategies of the healthcare institutions. In the current situation, a “closed approach” that depends on a certain software app lication is still used. Consequently, much time is
needed to define the structure of object and data modelling at the initiation of the project while changes must be enforced in a later phase as new actors with different ICT systems work with the model.
The healthcare sector serves as an appropriate case, but in terms of BIM development it is not an isolated case. The knowledge of the collaborative processes with BIM support can be generalised to the wider construction sector. Collaboration processes in a building project cannot be standardised and neither can BIM. BIM is not a ready-made solution; it has to be tailored for each project. The collaboration framework, the modelling approach, the structure and level of detail of the model, and the supporting tools have to be shaped in accordance to the project complexity and the objective of the involved building actors.
References
AIA California Council (2007), A Working Definition –Integrated Project Delivery, McGraw Hill Construction, New York, NY.
Bratton, J. (2009), “Making the transition from CAD to BIM”, EC&M Magazine,https://www.doczj.com/doc/949370117.html,/design_engineering/bim_switching_benefits_0301/ (accessed 21 January 2010).
Chao-Duivis, M. (2009), “The implications of working with BIM”, Journal of Building Law, Vol.
44 No. 3 (in Dutch).
ConsensusDOCS (2008), Building Information Modelling (BIM) Protocol Addendum 301, McGraw-Hill Construction, New York, NY.
Dawood, N. and Sikka, S. (2008), “Measuring the effectiveness of 4D planning as a valuable communication tool”, IT Con, Vol. 13.
Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport (2008), WTZi Regulation no. MC-U-2827900, Sdu, The Hague (in Dutch).
InPro (2009), Business Concepts, Project Report D9b, InPro, Gothenburg.
InPro (2009), Framework for Collaboration, Project Report D16b, InPro, Gothenburg.
Joint Contracts Tribunal (2007), Deciding on the Appropriate JCT Contract, Sweet & Maxwell, London.
Kiviniemi, A., Tarandi, V., Karlsh?j, J., Bell, H. and Karud, O.J. (2008), Review of the
Development and Implementation of IFC Compatible BIM, Erabuild, Espoo.
National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS (2007), National Building Information Modeling Standard, Version 1: Part 1, National Institute of Building Sciences NIBS, Washington, DC. Prins, M. (1992), “Flexibility and cost in the design process: a design decision support model”, PhD thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven.
Sebastian, R., Haak, W. and Vos, E.J. (2009), “BIM application for integrated design andengineering in small-scale housing development: a pilot project in The Netherlands”,Future Trends in Architectural Management Proceedings of International Symposium CIB-W096 in Tainan, 2-3 November, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan.
van Reedt Dortland, M. (2009), “Mitigating uncertainties in capital inve stments of healthcare real estate”, working PhD research proposal, University of Twente, Enschede.
World Health Organization (2000), Why do Health Systems Matter?, WHO, Paris, Report.
Further reading
Sebastian, R. (2007), Managing Collaborative Design, Eburon, Delft.
Sebastian, R. and Prins, M. (2009), “Collaborative architectural design management”, in Emmitt, S., Otter, A. and den Prins, M. (Eds), Architectural Management: International Researchand Practice, Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.
中文译文：
通过BIM改变业主、设计师、承包商的角色Rizal Sebastian，荷兰建筑环境与地球科学研究院，代尔夫特省，荷兰
摘要
目的——本文旨在介绍一种具有实际意义的基于文献和案例研究的建筑信息模型(BIM)。它试图解决BIM和重组的过程和角色在医院建设项目中应用的必要性。这种类型的项目很复杂是由于复杂的功能与技术要求,做出决定涉及大量的涉众,和长期的开发过程。
设计/方法/途径——通过文献研究和参考欧洲正在进行的研究项目InPro,框架集成协作和使用BIM进行了分析。
调查结果——其中一个主要发现是识别为一个成功写作使用BIM的主要因素，这可以被视为“POWER”:产品信息共享(P),组织角色协同(O),工作流程协调(W)、环境对于团队(E),然后参考数据整合(R)。
独创性/价值——本文有助于在改变所需角色和过程开发与经营可持续建筑环境支持集成的ICT的框架和工具的科学和实践。介绍了先进的欧洲研究项目和一些真实的应用于医院建设项目BIM的真实案例。
关键字：欧洲、医院、荷兰、工程施工、响应的灵活性，项目计划
论文类型：综述
1 导言
医院建设项目非常关键，涉及到重要投资且建设周期长。医院建设项目也非常复杂，因为涉及卫生安全、特殊设备和大量数据的处理。建设过程是动态的，包括迭代阶段和中间的变化。转移议程、角色和责任的许多建筑相关人员都积极参与，比如：医疗保健机构，国家和地方政府，项目开发商，金融机构，建筑师，承建商，顾问，设施管理，设备制造商和供应商。这些建设项目的影响很大，随着医学、社会、科技的发展，医疗政策也在迅速变化。在不同国家之间同样如此（世界医疗组织2000）。比如在荷兰，因为2008年推出的荷兰卫生政策，卫生保健部门的建设项目组织方式经历了巨大的变革。
迅速变化的环境要求一个建筑在其生命周期中具有灵活性。出于整合生命周期的考虑，在建筑设计、施工技术和设施的管理策略，多学科的合作是必要的。医疗建设项目建立全面合作的尝试在实践中仍面临着严重问题，如预算超支、延时、灵活性带来的次优的质量、
用户不满和能源效率。显而易见的是，在这些问题背后的最重要原因是缺乏一个建设项目的不同阶段所涉及的角色之间的沟通和协调。不同的利益相关者之间的沟通变得非常重要，因为每个利益相关者具有不同的技能。因此，复杂的设计图纸和文件信息的提取，解释和通信的过程往往耗时和困难。先进的可视化技术，如4D规划，有巨大的潜力可以提高项目团队的沟通效率和项目成员的解释能力。然而，作为一个有效的沟通工具的使用仍然有限，并没有充分探讨(Dawood and Sikka, 2008)。在信息传递和集成也有其他方面的障碍，例如：许多现有的信息和通信技术系统不支持的数据和结构的先决条件是不同的建筑角色或学科之间的有效合作的开放性。
建筑信息模型（BIM）为事前问题的解决提供了整体方法。因此，BIM是越来越多地使用信息和通信技术作为一个在复杂的建设项目的支持。一个有效的多学科协作，最佳使用BIM的支持，需要不断变化的客户，建筑师和承包商的角色，新的合同关系;和重新组织的合作进程。不幸的是，在实践方面仍然存在一些差距，比如怎样使建筑参与者们再变换的角色中有效合作、改进并利用BIM作为一个最佳的信息和通信技术的协作支持。基于文献回顾和案例研究，本文全面回顾了建筑信息建模（BIM）。在下一部分将重点分析全面合作框架和BIM的应用，这部分研究会基于文献和来自欧洲的研究项目inpro。随后，通过观察在荷兰进行的两个试点项目，将研究通过IBM的应用，客户、建筑师和承包商之间的角色转换。总之，应用IBM的统一协作，其成功因素和障碍都是确定的。
2.通过统一协作和生命周期设计的角色变化方法
一个医院建设项目涉及不同的参与人员，角色和知识领域。在荷兰，因为新的医疗政策，医院建设项目中的客户，建筑师和承包商的角色变化是不可避免的。以前，医疗机构根据医疗机构法（WTZi）需要获得新的建设项目和重大整修许可证和建筑许可证。许可证由荷兰卫生部颁发，医疗机构从政府获得财政支持。2008年以来，管理医院建筑项目和房地产所有权的法令已经生效。在新法律中，为医院下建设项目许可证不是强制的，也不是能获得的（荷兰健康法，福利与体育，2008）。这种变化从国家政策导向方面给与了更多的自由，也分配了更多的责任给医疗机构对其房地产融资和管理。新政策意味着医疗机构对建设项目和房地产所有权进行全面负责管理和资金拨付。将不再得到政府单独的医疗保健设施拨款，但将包括对医疗服务的费用。这意味着，医疗机构必须通过他们的服务，他们对房地产的投资赚回来。这项新政策旨在刺激医疗建筑的设计，采购和管理，这将有助于有效和高效的初级卫生保健服务的可持续创新。
这个建设项目和房地产管理的新战略找到了集成的协作方式。以保证在施工期间，使
用和维护的可持续性，最终用户、设备管理人员、承建商及专门承建商需要在规划和设计过程中涉及。新战略的影响，反映在建筑者角色的转变和新的采购方法上。
在传统的采购方法中，建筑师和设计工程师改进设计和细节。然后，客户端（医疗机构）给卫生部发送申请获得建筑许可证和政府财政支持。在此之后，选择承包商的招标过程中，强调为寻找最低价格的投标人。施工期间，变化往往发生由于施工问题和客户需求的新要求。由于技术的复杂性、决策的高水平，从开始直到交付医院建设项目全过程可能需要长达十几年的时间。交付后，医疗机构完全负责设施的运作。重新设计和变化也发生在使用阶段，以应付新的功能和医学界的发展。(van Reedt Dortland, 2009) 综合采购描绘了有关各方在建筑项目上的新的合同之间的关系。在综合采购项目中，顾客只跟建筑施工方保持契约关系，而与建筑设计师和承包方之间没关系 ( Joint Contracts Tribunal, 2007) 。而在需求方面的客户端任务和职业群体之间的传统边界变得模糊，因为建筑师，顾问公司，承包商，分包商和供应商都在建设过程中的供应方的立场。这样的配置使建筑师，工程师和承包商在一个非常不同的位置，影响不仅自己的角色，而且他们的职责，任务和与客户，用户，团队和其他利益相关者沟通。
从传统采购法到综合采购法的过渡需要供给双方当事人心态上的一个转变。它是为客户和承包商能有一个公平和公开的合作，使他们都可以最佳利用他们的能力。综合协作的有效性也取决于客户的能力和战略，以组织创新的招标程序。(Sebastian et al., 2009) 一个新的挑战出现在案件的定位的一名建筑师合作伙伴承包商。对于建筑师同一个承包商达成合作伙伴关系，一个重要的问题是如何确保建筑的价值观的实现，以及通过高效施工过程来实现的创新过程。在另一起案件中,建筑师可以站在客户端战略顾问的角色而不是设计师。在这种情况下,建筑师的责任是将客户的需求和愿望翻译成建筑值将其体现在设计规范中,并评估承包商的提议反对这个。在这些新角色中,建筑师拥有作为代表利益的服务商的责任，掌握托管人的客户价值和托管人的设计模型。
从传统到综合采购方法的过渡也带来了对付款方案的影响。在传统的建筑过程中，建筑师的酬劳通常是基于项目花费的百分比，这可能仅意味着这个建筑花费的越多，酬劳将越高。工程师基于设计的复杂程度和任务的强度来接受酬劳。一个高度复杂的建筑将造成大量的返工设计，就红利而言，这点对于工程师是有利的。一个传统的承包商通常可获得委员会根据招标建造建筑最低的价格满足给定的最小规格客户端。
交付之后,承包商不再负责建筑的长期使用。在传统的采购方式中，所有的风险是置于客户一方的。
在综合采购方法中，付款方式是根据所获得的建筑性能;因此,付款是非对抗性的。自从建筑师、工程师和承包商对建筑的设计和质量拥有广泛的责任，付款是在这段时间内连接这座建筑的测量系统的功能和技术性能的纽带。酬劳变成一种达到最理想质量的激励。如果这个项目的参与者成功交付一个超过最低客户的需求高附加值建筑物,他们将根据客户的额外所得而获得一笔奖金。这种透明度的水平也是可以提高的。如果利益相关者同意共享信息和其详细程，则打开账簿记录会是一个优秀的工具（InPro,2009) 接下来采用综合采购方法，医院建设项目的新房地产策略对创新产品开发和生命周期的设计方法发表评论。一个可持续的业务投资案例和医院大楼的开发依赖动态的生命周期管理，它包括考虑和分析建筑生命周期成本随时间的发展的变化(投资/初始成本、运营成本、和物流成本)。相比传统生命周期成本法，动态的生命周期管理包含一个转变,即从只关注于专注最大限度地减少成本到总收益最大化的获得。其中一个关于成功实现动态生命周期管理的一个决定性因素是可持续设计的建筑和建筑的组件，这意味着设计携带者足够的灵活性来适应长时期产生的变化（发表于1992）。
设计基于生命周期管理的原则影响了建筑师的角色，因为他需要了解关于使用场景和相关财务安排、不断变化的社会环境和物质环境和新技术。设计需要集成人活动和业务的战略时间。在这种背景下，建筑师通过组织的、当地的和全球的金融政策、经营、健康和安全、环境等等来联合自己的设计策略。
结合的过程和产品的创新，不断变换角色的项目参与者可以通过集成项目交付或IPD （美国建筑师协会，加利福尼亚议会，2007）来适应。IPD是一种集合参与人员、体系、业务结构和实习于一个过程，该过程能够通过设计、制造、建设的所有阶段，综合人才并协作所有参与者的见解以减少浪费、提高效率。IPD原则可以被应用于多种合同安排。IPD团队包含的成员将远远超过三位一体的建筑师、工程师和承包商。至少,尽管,一个集成项目应该包含一个客户,建筑师,承包商，工程师之间的紧密合作，但主要承包商最终负责项目的建设,从早期的设计直到项目交接。IPD成功的关键是集合一个可以齐心协力并工作高效的团队。IPD是建立在写作上的。因此，如果参与者分享应用共同点价值观和目标，IPD才能成功。
3.通过BIM应用改变角色
BIM包括ICT框架和可以支持基于生命周期设计的的方法的综合协作的工具。BIM是一个数字表示的物理和功能特性的设施。这样，它作为一个为形成一个可信赖的生命周期从开始向前的决策基础服务的共享知识资源（国家建筑科学研究院NIBS，2007）。BIM促进不同
An Analysis of Working Capital Management Results Across Industries Greg Filbeck. Schweser Study Program Thomas M. Krueger. University of Wisconsin-La Crosse Abstract Firms are able to reduce financing costs and/or increase the funds available for expansion by minimizing the amount of funds tied up in current assets. We provide insights into the performance of surveyed firms across key components of working capital management by using the CFO magazine’s annual Working Capital Management Survey. We discover that significant differences exist between industries in working capital measures across time. In addition. we discover that these measures for working capital change significantly within industries across time. Introduction The importance of efficient working capital management is indisputable. Working capital is the difference between resources in cash or readily convertible into cash (Current Assets) and organizational commitments for which cash will soon be required (Current Liabilities). The objective of working capital management is to maintain the optimum balance of each of the working capital components. Business viability relies on the ability to effectively manage receivables. inventory. and payables. Firms are able to reduce financing costs and/or increase the funds available for expansion by minimizing the amount of funds tied up in current assets. Much managerial effort is expended in bringing non-optimal levels of current assets and liabilities back toward optimal levels. An optimal level would be one in which a balance is achieved between risk and efficiency. A recent example of business attempting to maximize working capital management is the recurrent attention being given to the application of Six Sigma? methodology. Six Sigma? methodologies help companies measure and ensure quality in all areas of the enterprise. When used to identify and rectify discrepancies. inefficiencies and erroneous transactions in the financial supply chain. Six Sigma? reduces Days Sales Outstanding (DSO). accelerates the payment cycle. improves customer satisfaction and reduces the necessary amount and cost of working capital needs. There appear to be many success stories. including Jennifer Towne’s (2002) report of a 15 percent decrease in days that sales are outstanding. resulting in an increased cash flow of approximately $2 million at Thibodaux Regional Medical Center. Furthermore. bad debts declined from $3.4 million to $600.000. However. Waxer’s (2003) study of multiple firms employing Six Sigma? finds that it is really a “get rich slow” technique with a rate of return hovering in the 1.2 – 4.5 percent range. Even in a business using Six Sigma? methodology. an “optimal” level of working capital management needs to be identified. Even in a business using Six Sigma? methodology. an “optimal” level of working capital management needs to be identified. Industry factors may impact firm
PA VEMENT PROBLEMS CAUSED BY COLLAPSIBLE SUBGRADES By Sandra L. Houston,1 Associate Member, ASCE (Reviewed by the Highway Division) ABSTRACT: Problem subgrade materials consisting of collapsible soils are com- mon in arid environments, which have climatic conditions and depositional and weathering processes favorable to their formation. Included herein is a discussion of predictive techniques that use commonly available laboratory equipment and testing methods for obtaining reliable estimates of the volume change for these problem soils. A method for predicting relevant stresses and corresponding collapse strains for typical pavement subgrades is presented. Relatively simple methods of evaluating potential volume change, based on results of familiar laboratory tests, are used. INTRODUCTION When a soil is given free access to water, it may decrease in volume, increase in volume, or do nothing. A soil that increases in volume is called a swelling or expansive soil, and a soil that decreases in volume is called a collapsible soil. The amount of volume change that occurs depends on the soil type and structure, the initial soil density, the imposed stress state, and the degree and extent of wetting. Subgrade materials comprised of soils that change volume upon wetting have caused distress to highways since the be- ginning of the professional practice and have cost many millions of dollars in roadway repairs. The prediction of the volume changes that may occur in the field is the first step in making an economic decision for dealing with these problem subgrade materials. Each project will have different design considerations, economic con- straints, and risk factors that will have to be taken into account. However, with a reliable method for making volume change predictions, the best design relative to the subgrade soils becomes a matter of economic comparison, and a much more rational design approach may be made. For example, typical techniques for dealing with expansive clays include: (1) In situ treatments with substances such as lime, cement, or fly-ash; (2) seepage barriers and/ or drainage systems; or (3) a computing of the serviceability loss and a mod- ification of the design to "accept" the anticipated expansion. In order to make the most economical decision, the amount of volume change (especially non- uniform volume change) must be accurately estimated, and the degree of road roughness evaluated from these data. Similarly, alternative design techniques are available for any roadway problem. The emphasis here will be placed on presenting economical and simple methods for: (1) Determining whether the subgrade materials are collapsible; and (2) estimating the amount of volume change that is likely to occur in the 'Asst. Prof., Ctr. for Advanced Res. in Transp., Arizona State Univ., Tempe, AZ 85287. Note. Discussion open until April 1, 1989. To extend the closing date one month,
forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.
期末论文 院系 专业班级 学号 学生姓名 成绩评定
管理原则 也许在那些关于管理者这门学科的书中有许多关于管理的定义。许多定义是相对扼要和简单化的。一位早期的学者将它定义为“清楚地知道你想让人们去做什么，然后看着他们以最好最廉价的方式去完成它”。管理实际上是一个非常复杂的过程——远远比那些定义让我们知道的要复杂得多。因此，我们要建立一种管理的定义，从而能更好地了解这过程的实质。 管理是在一定的环境条件下通过对人员技术和资金等资源的利用和协调去设立和完成某一个组织目标的过程。这个过程有若干个核心包括计划和决策，组织，人员，领导，管理和控制。所有从事于这些工作的负责人在更大或更小的程度上都依赖于他们所承担的特殊的责任。当谈论管理的定义时，我们不应该忽略管理的原则。 管理的最基本原则在文明诞生时就存在了。当人们第一次开始群居生活和首次提高他们的生活质量时它就存在了。2500年前，巴比伦国王尼布甲尼撒二世决定把他的沙漠王国变成绿洲去取悦他的妻子。在公元前6世纪，尼布甲尼撒二世耗尽了国家财政部的金钱，雇佣劳动者和技术人员利用有限的资源建造一个宫殿，建造了完善的管网系统，把当地河流的水输送到皇宫里。当工程完成后，他在平台上种植漂亮稀有的花草树木。巴比伦的空中花园改变了这座城市。 尼布甲尼撒二世制定了一个目标。他要把沙漠中的主要城市变成绿洲。他利用和协调人员，技术和金钱去完成这一目标。他从王室金库中获得的资金去雇佣民工和技师并从附近地区购买材料。他在这种只能提供原始水管装置，建筑技术以及只能从茫茫沙漠中取得有限的材料的环境下完成了目标。最终，每个人在这个工程商所付出的努力创造了世界七大奇观之一。 2500年前，人们完成某项巨大的任务所运用的管理过程与如今运用的基本原理相似，管理者在执行这个过程是将它分成了5个部分。 这篇文章的主旨在于表达有关管理过程的一些观点和如何将它运用到我们所面临的不同的情况中去。你们所要学习的管理原则是指指导管理者的宗旨，原则或者是组织规范。他们会提供一个行动框架，为了有效的使用他们，一个人必须培养和使用技能的决策。理智决策是识别某个问题或机会，找到可行的方法去处理它并选择最好的方法的过程。因此，决策是最重要的管理活动。管理者必须决定去实施管理的每个功能以及每种情况所需要采取的相应的原则。 在这一点上，我们对于管理必须有两点最基本的理解。首先，在特定的环境下运用各种资源设立完成目标。第二，为了确保组织的成功，组织者必须满足他的技术要求，行政要求和责任制度。尽管这听起来很简单，但这两个原则却经过了几个世纪的发展才形成的。之后将要提到的所有原则都是随着时间的推移从各种来源中汲取的。一些原则来源于各人的直觉，然而其他的则反映了组织中那些成功企业家，著名商业巨子或者是富有创新精神的工作者的经验。直到十九世纪，直觉和经验仍是管理原则的基本来源 尽管本能和直觉曾经是商业管理的基础，但现在创业者创立新的企业经常以他们的直觉进行管理。在十九世纪70年代至80年代的电脑产业中，对技术很精通，但对管理知之甚少的企业家成立了数以百计的硬件和软件公司，一些存活下来，更多的则不是。许多公司开始发展得好是得益于创
Study on Project Cost Control of Construction Enterprises By: R. Max Wideman Abstract With the increasing maturity of construction market, the competition between construction enterprises is becoming fierce. The project profit is gradually decreasing. It demands that all construction enterprises enhance their cost control, lower costs, improve management efficiency and gain maximal profits. This paper analyses the existing problems on project cost control of Chinese construction enterprises, and proposes some suggestions to improve project cost control system. Key Words ：Construction enterprises, Project management, Cost control After joining the WTO, with Chinese construction market becoming integrated, the competition among architectural enterprises is turning more intense. Construction enterprises must continually enhance the overall competitiveness if they want to develop further at home and abroad construction market. Construction Enterprises basically adopt the "project management-centered" model, therefore, it is particularly important to strengthen project cost control. 1.The Current Domestic Project Cost Classification and Control Methods Cost refers to the consumption from producing and selling of certain products, with the performance of various monetary standing for materialized labor and labor-consuming. Direct and indirect costs constitute the total cost, also known as production cost or manufacturing cost. Enterprise product cost is the comprehensive indicator to measure enterprise quality of all aspects. It is not only the fund compensation scale, but also the basis to examine the implementation of cost plan. Besides, it can provide reference for product pricing According to the above-mentioned definition and current domestic cost classification, construction project cost can be divided into direct costs and indirect costs. Direct costs include material cost, personnel cost, construction machinery cost, material transportation cost, temporarily facility cost, engineering cost and other direct cost. Indirect costs mainly result from project management and company's cost-sharing, covering project operating costs (covering the commission of foreign projects), project's management costs (including exchange losses of
姓名： 学号： 10447425 X X 大学 毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 （2014届） 外文题目Developments in excavation bracing systems 译文题目开挖工程支撑体系的发展 外文出处Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 31 (2012) 107–116 学生XXX 学院XXXX 专业班级XXXXX 校内指导教师XXX 专业技术职务XXXXX 校外指导老师专业技术职务 二○一三年十二月
开挖工程支撑体系的发展 1.引言 几乎所有土木工程建设项目（如建筑物，道路，隧道，桥梁，污水处理厂，管道，下水道）都涉及泥土挖掘的一些工程量。往往由于由相邻的结构，特性线，或使用权空间的限制，必须要一个土地固定系统，以允许土壤被挖掘到所需的深度。历史上，许多挖掘支撑系统已经开发出来。其中，现在比较常见的几种方法是：板桩，钻孔桩墙，泥浆墙。 土地固定系统的选择是由技术性能要求和施工可行性（例如手段，方法）决定的，包括执行的可靠性，而成本考虑了这些之后，其他问题也得到解决。通常环境后果（用于处理废泥浆和钻井液如监管要求）也非常被关注（邱阳、1998）。 土地固定系统通常是建设项目的较大的一个组成部分。如果不能按时完成项目，将极大地影响总成本。通常首先建造支撑，在许多情况下，临时支撑系统是用于支持在挖掘以允许进行不断施工，直到永久系统被构造。临时系统可以被去除或留在原处。 打桩时，因撞击或振动它们可能会被赶入到位。在一般情况下，振动是最昂贵的方法，但只适合于松散颗粒材料，土壤中具有较高电阻（例如，通过鹅卵石）的不能使用。采用打入桩系统通常是中间的成本和适合于软沉积物（包括粘性和非粘性），只要该矿床是免费的鹅卵石或更大的岩石。 通常，垂直元素（例如桩）的前安装挖掘工程和水平元件（如内部支撑或绑回）被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，从而限制了跨距长度，以便减少在垂直开发弯矩元素。在填充情况下，桩可先设置，从在斜坡的底部其嵌入悬挑起来，安装作为填充进步水平元素（如搭背或土钉）。如果滞后是用来保持垂直元素之间的土壤中，它被安装为挖掘工程的进行下去，或之前以填补位置。 吉尔- 马丁等人（2010）提供了一个数值计算程序，以获取圆形桩承受轴向载荷和统一标志（如悬臂桩）的单轴弯矩的最佳纵筋。他们开发的两种优化流程：用一个或两个直径为纵向钢筋。优化增强模式允许大量减少的设计要求钢筋的用量，这些减少纵向钢筋可达到50％相对传统的，均匀分布的加固方案。 加固桩集中纵向钢筋最佳的位置在受拉区。除了节约钢筋，所述非对称加强钢筋图案提高抗弯刚度，通过增加转动惯量的转化部分的时刻。这种增加的刚性可能会在一段时间内增加的变形与蠕变相关的费用。评估相对于传统的非对称加强桩的优点，对称，钢筋桩被服务的条件下全面测试来完成的，这种试验是为了验证结构的可行性和取得的变形的原位测量。 基于现场试验中，用于优化的加强图案的优点浇铸钻出孔（CIDH）在巴塞罗那的
本科毕业设计（外文翻译） 题目居住区交往空间规划与设计 院（系部）xxx学院 专业名称xx 年级班级xx 学生姓名xx 指导教师xx xx 年xx 月x 日 Planning and Design of Association Space of residential District
Xia dong liang 【Abstract】:The association space refers to the indoor and outdoor space for communication between residents.The article presents an overall discussion of the necessity，hierarchy and functionality of association space,with a wish to create positive and healthy association atmosphere and stimulate good communication among residents so that the residential area can become a homeland full of love and harmony． 【Keyword】:residential area；association space；necessity；hierarchy；Functionality 【Foreword】：As the housing system reform and the rapid development of real estate, urban residential areas large urban settlements have emerged on the layout of residential buildings, public buildings, public green space, life and living facilities such as roads, to provide urban residents live in the community and The establishment, is an integral part of the city. Exchanges between the living room area residents is to communicate and exchange of indoor and outdoor space. At this stage, people's living standards greatly improved the living environment of continuous improvement district. Developers should not only focus on residential construction and the reasonable comfort, paying greater attention to the construction of residential environment. However, the current environment in the construction of residential areas, they are often the natural ecology of greening the environment is much more to consider, and the promotion of exchanges between the residents of the space environment to consider less, environmental construction can not meet the occupants of the psychological characteristics and needs. From the basic physiological needs gradually to meet the psychological and cultural fields of promoting a higher level, the residential area is not only the function of living, but also people's thinking and feelings of the local exchange. Therefore, the strengthening of exchanges between the residential areas of space construction, increase residential neighbourhood affinity, should be developed in the planning and construction of residential areas should also consider the issue. How to conduct exchanges between the residential areas of space planning and design, improve people's quality of life, the author of his own real estate development
A FIELD STUDY:SMALL MANUFACTURING COMPANIES In this section, the implementation of the proposed Integrated ABC-EVA System at two small manufacturing companies is presented. The managers of the companies wished for their company names to remain anonymous. T herefore, they will be referred to as “Company X” and “Company Y” from here on. Prior to the field study, both companies were using traditional costing systems. The overhead was allocated to product lines based on direct labor hours. In both companies, managers felt that their traditional costing systems were not able to provide reliable cost information. 1 Company X Company X, located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was a small manufacturing company with approximately 30 employees. Company X’s main products l ines were Overlays、Membranes、Laser、Roll Labels and N’Caps. In the mid 1990’s, a group of investors purchased the company from the previous owner-manager who had retired. At the time of the study, the company was managed by its former vice-president, who was supported by a three-person management group. Investors were primarily concerned with financial performance rather than daily decision-making. The management group was very eager to participate in the field study for two reasons. First, the management was under pressure from their new investors who were not satisfied with the current return from existing product lines; Second, management was trying to identify the most lucrative product line in order to initiate a marketing campaign with the biggest impact on overall profits. 2 Company Y Company Y, also located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was owned and managed by three owner-managers who bought the company from a large corporation in the mid 1990’s, Company Y employed approximately 40 people. The majority of this compa ny’s business was in the area of manufacturing electrical devices and their main product lines were Motors and Motor Parts、Breakers、and Control Parts. Company Y sold its products in the domestic market as well as abroad. A portion of the company’s output was sold directly to end-users, while the remainder was sold with the help of independent distributors. The management of Company Y was
中英文资料对照外文翻译 Design phase of the project cost management Abstract Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. Described the current stage of the project cost management situation on the strengthening of the various stages of construction cost management of the importance of and raised a number of key initiatives. Keywords：cost of the construction project cost management status investment decision phase of the design phase of the implementation phase of the cost management in a market economy, Even under the WTO and China's accession to the world community, China's construction industry how to effectively control construction cost of the construction and management of an important component part. However, the current budget for the construction projects - estimate, budget, Super budget accounts for the "super three" is still widespread and that eventually led to a serious loss of control of project investment. Project cost management is the basic contents to determine reasonable and effective control of the project cost. As the project cost to the project runs through the entire process, stage by stage can be divided into Investment Decision stage, the design and implementation phases. The so-called Project Cost effective control is the optimization of the construction plans and design programs on the basis of in the building process at all stages, use of certain methods and measures to reduce the cost of the projects have a reasonable control on the scope and cost of the approved limits.