Chapter 10 Language Acquisition语言习得
一、本章纲要
二、本章重点
Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up. The development of a first or native language (L1)
is called first language acquisition (FLA), and then second language acquisition (SLA). L1 and L2 development do not seem to involve identical processes. 语言习得关注的是人类语言能力发展。语言习得一般指儿童母语的发展。有些孩子除了习得母语外，还要继续习得第二语言或外国语。习得母语或第一语言称为第一语言习得，除了母语再习得另一门语言或外语称为第二语言习得。
The study of language acquisition enables linguists, psychologists and applied linguists to better understand the nature of human language and developmental processes of language acquisition.
1.First language acquisition第一语言习得
Whatever their culture, all normal human beings acquire their native language at a given time of life and in an appropriate linguistic environment that provides sufficient language exposure.
(2004, 2007, 判断) It is an established understanding among linguists that the capacity to acquire one’s first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with.
No one is more successful than others in acquiring a first language. Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyntactic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. 儿童在习得母语时虽然会有个性差异，但是正常儿童只要有正常的交际环境和正常的母语输入都可以成功地习得母语，他们习得母语的过程也非常相似。
1.1The biological basis of language acquisition语言习得的生物基础
This biological, or nativist 天赋, view of language acquisition means that humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use. Our language faculty permits us to acquire any human language to which we are exposed to, including deaf children acquiring a sign language. Different languages have a similar level of complexity and details, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic system called the Universal Grammar普遍语法.
习得语言的能力是人类的生物特征之一。人生来就有习得语言的神经系统。只要有能力习得某一种语言的儿童就有能力不费力气地习得任何语言。正常儿童语言习得的能力无高低之分；儿童习得的语言也无优劣之别。虽然在习得语言某一特定的内容与习得另一种语言相应的内容看上去似乎有难易之别，但是这并不意味着一门语言作为母语比另一门语言难学。儿童在习得母语时所需要的时间大致是一样的。这在一定的程度上表明人类语言的难度是类似的，反映了普遍语法(universal grammar)的存在---一种高度抽象的语言共性体系。
(2006，判断) A child born to Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number of years to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.
1.2Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules语言习得是语法规则的习得
（2007,单选；2008，判断）Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language. It is misleading to speak of children acquiring language simply as internalizing individual expressions of language.
What are actually acquired by young children are some general principles that are fundamental to the grammaticality of speech. It is noted that when producing utterances, children tend to apply general grammatical rules and defy individual irregular cases.语言习得是对语法规则系统的习得。首先，没有人的大脑能够储存一个语言中的所有的词与表达。儿童在处理语言时会根据所听到的语言输入构件自己的语法规则，并依据他们所构件的语法规则去说话。如果没有这些生成性的规则，语言使用者是不可能说出和理解无数的他们从没有听过或使用的句子。
语言习得主要是句法体系的习得，但是这并不意味着习得一条一条具体的语法条条框框。儿童实际所习得的是一些数量有限的抽象而高度概括的规则，他们会忽视这些规则的例外情况。比如，儿童可能在一个名词后边加-s构成名词的复数，而不管这个名词是否是规则还是不规则的。因此儿童在习得语言中的错误是体系的，也是可预见的。
1.3The role of input and interaction语言输入与交流的作用
Children must be provided with an appropriate linguistic environment. The modified speech typically addressed to young children is called（2006，名词解释）caretaker speech, also known as babytalk, mothers-es, or parentese. Exposure to this type of language makes it easier for children to match linguistic forms with their meanings and for that reason, their acquisition of the vocabulary and structure of the language is made easier. 虽然人类习得语言的能力是人类天赋的生物特征，但是这种天赋的条件不是习得语言的充要条件。一个正常的儿童还需要有接触语言和使用语言的环境才能习得语言。如果在孩子出生后前几年，没有接触语言和使用语言的环境，那么孩子习得语言的能力就会受到严重的影响。
保姆语(caretaker speech, babytalk, motherese, parentese)是一种成年人的简化语言形式，通常用于和儿童的交际。研究表明没有接触保姆语的儿童在习得母语的速度上并不一定比接触保姆语的儿童习得母语慢。这意味着保姆语的存在对习得母语并不是必要条件。但是保姆语有助
于儿童建立语言形式与语义的关系，有助于孩子对语言的理解，使得词汇习得和结构习得变得相对容易些。
1.4The role of instruction语言教学的作用
(2007，填空) Linguists have found that for the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires little conscious instruction有意识教育on the part of adults.
正常儿童在习得母语时并不需要刻意的语言教学的帮助。在自然的环境中，父母很少纠正孩子在交际中所出现的语法错误。即使父母这样去做，他们的努力也是收效甚微。也没有证据表明儿童需要这种形式的知识传授。如：
Child: I taked a cookie.
Parent: Oh, you mean you took a cookie.
Child: Yes, that's right, I taked it.
当然这并不是说语言的教学对儿童语言的发展没有作用，只是作用较小。
1.5The role of correction and reinforcement纠错与强化的作用
Proponents of Behaviorist learning theory suggested that a child’s verbal behavior was conditioned through association between a stimulus and the following response. Children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the language of their community when their “bad”speech gets corrected and when their good speech gets positively reinforced. Researchers have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development. Reinforcement has been found to occur usually in children’s pronunciation or reporting of truthfulness of utterances, rather than in the grammaticality of sentences.
行为主义的理论认为儿童的言语行为主要通过刺激与反应来建立。正确的言语行为被强化，错误的言语行为得到纠正，从而使儿童逐渐获得正确的使用语言的行为。现代研究表明纠错与强化在儿童第一语言习得过程中并不起关键作用，如：
Child: Nobody don't like me.
Mother: No, say "Nobody likes me."
Child: Nobody don' t like me.
[This type of exchange is repeated eight times. ]
Mother: No, now listen carefully; say "Nobody likes me."
Child: Oh! Nobody don't LIKES me.
一般来说，在儿童习得母语的过程中，父母会对儿童的发音进行强化，对儿童说话的真值进行强化。
1.6The role of imitation模仿的作用
Children do not blindly mimic adult speech in a parrot fashion, but rather exploit it in very restricted ways to improve their linguistic skills. Imitation, like overt teaching, plays at best a very minor role in the child’s mastery of language.
模仿在母语习得中所起的作用不大。儿童从所接收到的语言输入中发现构件自己的语言规则。如果习得母语的过程是被动模仿的过程，那么他们所犯的许多错误就不能得到很好地解释，因为这些错误是成年人言语中所不存在的。例如儿童常把my feet,说成my foots,把went说成goed,把made说成maked等。
除此之外，由于生理缺陷不能说话的儿童却能学会一门语言。
孩子在学习母语时不是盲目的模仿，而是选择性地使用模仿，比如利用选择性模仿学习词汇。但是模仿本身在母语习得中并不起关键作用。
2.Stages of first language acquisition第一语言习得的发展阶段
There is substantial variation among children in terms of the age at which particular features of linguistic development occur. Some stages last short, some longer, some overlap for a short period, and the transition between stages may be sudden.
(2008，简答) Starting from the prelinguistic cooing and babbling stage, children move through the one-word, two-word and multiword stages; gradually acquiring phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, semantics, and discourse skills of the adult language system as they grow.
儿童在习得母语时所经历的发展阶段十分相似，几乎具有普遍性：前语言阶段、独词句阶段、双词句阶段以及多词句阶段。各个阶段可能会有交叉。儿童在各个阶段所需的时间有其个性差异。
2.1 The prelinguistic stage前语言阶段
1)The earliest sounds produced by infants cannot be considered early language. The noises such as cries and whimpers呜咽of the newborn in all language communities sound the same. The first recognizable sounds are described as cooing, with velar consonants such as /k/ and high vowels such as /u/ usually present.
2)Around the age of three or four months, children begin to babble speech-like sounds. Meaningless, it does not depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input.
3)By the age of six months when they are able to sit up, children are heard producing a number of different vowels and consonants.
4)When they begin to pull themselves into a standing position through the 10th and 11th months, they are capable of using their vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis, and of attempting at the grand task of language acquisition. Thus begin the linguistic stages of first language acquisition.
处于前语言阶段的婴儿能运用发音器官发出各种声音。到六个月时，儿童能发出许多不同的元音和辅音。
前语言阶段的声音其语音结构不以任何一种人类语言为基础，婴儿所发出的有些咿呀学语声非婴儿所处社区的语言所有。事实上，在咿呀学语阶段，一个正常孩子所发出的音与一个失去听力的儿童所发出的音没有什么区别，这说明儿童的咿呀学语不依赖儿童的语言输入。
2.2 The one-word stage独词句阶段
（2005，单选）At some point in the late part of the first year or the early part of the second year, the babbling stage gradually gives way to the earliest recognizable stage of language, often referred to as the one-word stage, which is also called holophrastic sentence because they are associated with an entire sentence. One-word utterances sometimes show an overextension or underextension. The age at which children pass through one-word stage varies significantly from child to child.
在独词句阶段，儿童开始把语音与意义相联系。儿童使用一个词可以起到一句话的作用，所以这个词被称为独词句(holophrastic sentences)。如:儿童使用“Mama”这个词可表示:“Mama is coming.”或者I saw Mama’s socks.”等。
儿童这一阶段使用的词基本上名词和动词，功能词非常罕见。
儿童倾向于使用信息最强的词来进行交际。例如，儿童会使用“milk”而不是“I”或“want”去表示“I want milk.”; 他们会使用“Daddy”，而不是“I”, “my”和“see”去表示“I see my Daddy.”
在这一阶段，儿童的语言经常发生扩展过度或扩展不足现象。例如儿童可能会使用“Daddy”不只是称呼他自己的爸爸，也称呼其他男性成年人，因为他们在外表上看上去有其共同之处，造成词的所指扩展过度。儿童可能也会使用“toy”只指某种类型的玩具，而不是所有的玩具，造成：toy”使用的扩展不足现象。
(2006，填空) Children’s one-word utterances are also called holophrastic sentences, because they can be used to express a concept or predication that would be associated with an entire sentence in adult speech.
2.3 The two-word stage双词句阶段
（2003，单选）It begins roughly in the second half of the child’s second year. At first each word has its own single-pitch contour being separated by a pause between the two words. Later they begin to form actual two-word sentences with clear syntactic and semantic relations. The language at this stage begins to reflect the distinction between sentence-type. Like one-word expressions, they are absent of syntactic or morphological markers.
儿童通常是在一岁半以后进入双词句阶段。这一阶段早期，儿童开始把两个词以不同的方式组合在一起来表达语义。两个词的结合有着句子一样的语音模式，两个词之间也有着明确的句法关系和语义关系。如:
Mama book.
Toy mine.
Milk me.
Sock pretty
句子的各种词序表达了各种语法关系和语义关系。如，
1) 拥有者与被拥有事物的关系：Mama book.
2) 主谓关系：Daddy go.
除此之外，双词句具有以下特征：
1）双词句缺少表示句法关系的形态形式。
2）双词句中的代词使用很罕见。
3) 同时根据表达的语境不同，双词句可以表示不同的语义关系和功能，如: Mama Book可表示以下的语义：
(1) This is Mama’s book.
(2) Mama gave me the book.
(3) Mama is reading the book.
通过使用双词句，儿童积极主动与成年人进行交际。这种交际大大有助于儿童的语言习得。
2.4 The multiword stage多词句阶段
Between two and three years old, children begin to produce longer utterances with more complex grammatical structures. The salient feature of the utterances at this stage is not the number of words, but the variation in strings of lexical morphemes. It is called telegraphic speech as functional words are missing and the “substantive”and “content”words are usually used. The sentences follow the principles of sentence formation in hierarchical constituent structures similar to the syntactic structures of the adult speech. By the age of five, children have completed the greater part of the language acquisition process.
儿童大约在2到3岁之间语言的使用进入多词句阶段。在双词句阶段和多词句阶段，并不存在明显的三词句阶段。在多词句阶段，儿童言语的主要特征是语素使用的多样性，如：
Cathy build house.
Cat stand up table.
Daddy like this book.
He play little tune.
This shoe all wet.
Chair all broken.
I good boy today.
Me put it back.
What that?
What her name?
No sit there.
Mummy no play.
Baby no eat apple.
在早期的多词句中，典型的特征是这些言语缺少形态变化以及缺少一些表达语法的功能词或其他次要词汇范畴的词，比如言语中没有介词、冠词、动词不定试标记”to”，以及”be”动词。由于儿童在多词句阶段所说的话与电报语体非常相似，所以儿童的多词句又被称为电报式言语(telegraphic speech)。这些电报式言语不是词的无序结合，而是遵循了基本的句法规则。
在这一阶段儿童言语的词序模式与成年人的一样变化多样，几乎没有词序的错误。在多词句阶段后期，儿童言语中有了语法形态的变化，功能词的使用也不断增加。一般认为，儿童在5岁时,语言习得的绝大多数过程已完成。
3. The development of the grammatical system语法体系的发展
3.1 The development of phonology语音的发展
The emergence of articulatory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds. Children first acquire the sounds that are found in all language of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire the “more difficult” sounds.
儿童语音的发展始于婴儿的咿呀学语阶段。儿童早期所习得的声音不受儿童语言环境的影响，所发出的音也不局限于某一特定的语言中。在早期发出的音包括/b/,/m/,/d/,/k/等相对简单的音，而在发音的后期，才出现发音较难的音，如/θ/。
此后受语言环境的影响，儿童语音的发展逐步朝着本族语的语音系统发展，非本族语的音逐渐消失。
3.2 The development of syntax句法的发展
Children’s early language is not only semantically based, but also makes reference to syntactic categories, such as NP and VP, and grammatical relations, such as subject and object.
儿童的早期语言不只是以语义为基础，也有着句法的范畴，如，名词短语和动词短语以及语法的关系，如主语和谓语。
在双词句阶段，儿童往往对一个对象进行命名，然后，对命名的对象进行某种陈述。无论他们的句子在形式上是多么不完整，它们都是受
句法规则的限制，体现了成年人话语中的句法规则。例如：
Milk me =Milk, [give it to] me.
Sock nice = Sock, [they are] nice.
儿童的语言发展到多词句后，屈折词素、派生词素以及介词、冠词、连词、助动词等功能词开始进人句法体系。儿童的句法发展经历了由简单到复杂的过程，其中否定句的发展很好地显示了儿童句法阶段性发展过程。
在独词句阶段，否定主要是通过单个词“no”等来构成。但是在多词句的早期阶段，否定的构成主要是在多词句句首加“no”来构成，如：No hot.
No play.
No Daddy eat all sweet.
在多词句的后期，儿童开始把“no”, “can’t”, “don’t”等通常插入句子的主语和谓语之间来构成否定，如：
He no bite you.
I can' t catch you.
3.3 The development of morphology词形的发展
Children’s early words are simply a bunch of bare stems without affixes. By the time they are going beyond the telegraphic stage, children begin to incorporate some of the inflectional morphemes which indicate the grammatical function of the nouns and verbs used. The first to appear is usually the “-ing”form. Then comes the marking of regular plurals with the “-s”form. This acquisition is often accompanied by a process of overgeneralization.
儿童早期语言中的词是没有形态变化的词。随着儿童语言能力的提高，他们的语言中开始先后出现表示各种语法功能的屈折词素，例如-ing 和表示复数的词素-s。
儿童在习得语言早期，把词的规则形式和不规则形式作为独立的词来习得的，如make, made；go, went，但是不久，儿童开始构建自己的句法规则，并过度扩展这些规则的使用，导致maked, goed, foots等的产生，而一些原先曾使用过的非规则动词等会暂时消失，如made, went等。这是儿童主动运用规则的结果，属儿童语言的词形发展过程中出现的正常现象。
到了语言习得后期，儿童才开始习得规则形式和不规则形式，才意识到句法规则的例外情况。曾经暂时消失的不规则动词，如“made”和“went”又会重新出现在他们的言语中。
3.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics词汇与语义的发展
Overgeneralization also occurs in this development. Children virtually acquired the basic fabric of their native language at the age of five or six. (***)
儿童两岁以前，由于词汇量有限，儿童在使用单词时经常扩展词义，造成词义扩展过度(overgeneralization)。如儿童可能会用单词“Mama”去指任何成年女性。
两岁半以后，儿童的词汇量开始快速上升。6岁时，儿童的词汇量大约可达7800。到8岁时，儿童的词汇量平均可达17，600到28，300之间。随着年龄的增长，儿童的话语不断变长，词义的过度扩展现象逐步缩小。
儿童在5岁或6岁时，已经基本掌握了母语，即获得运用本族语的语法知识和词汇进行以听说为主的语言交际活动的能力。儿童上学后的语言训练主要是阅读和写作的训练。
4.Second language acquisition第二语言习得
SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language (target language) after they have acquired their first language (L1). Some problems in L2 development do not exist in children’s L1. Very few adults seem to reach native-like proficiency in L2. 第二语言习得主要研究第一语言习得过程与第二语言习得过程的相似性和相异性，研究造成成年人学习语言困难的原因所在以及有助于第二语言习得的方式方法。
4.1 Acquisition vs. Learning习得与学习
A primary difficulty for most L2 learners can be captured in terms of a distinction between acquisition and learning, which was proposed by the American Stephen Krashen. According to him, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning is a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually
obtained in school settings. It is recognized that children acquire their native language without explicit learning. A L2 is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on environment and input receipt. A rule can be learned before it is internalized (acquired), but having learned a rule does not necessarily prevent having to acquire it later.
美国语言学家Stephen Krashen区分了语言习得（acquisition）和语言学习(learning)。Krashen认为语言习得是在自然的语言环境中通过使用语言下意识地习得语言的过程，语言学习是在学校有意识地学习第二语言的过程。
儿童并不是通过刻意的学习去习得自己的母语，而第二语言通常是在非自然的环境中有意识地学来的,当然在一定的语言环境中，第二语言也可以被习得。
语言学习者可能在习得某一规则（即，规则在大脑中的内在化）之前，先学习会了这一规则，但是学会一个规则并不意谓着一定能习得这个规则。语言使用者可能学会了一个规则，但是在交际中使用这个规则时仍然会出错。下意识地习得语言和有意识地学习语言是两种不同的过程，前者有利于语言能力的发展，而后者则有利于语言知识的发展。
4.2 Transfer and interference转移与干扰
（2003，名词解释）Learners subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a L2, known as language transfer. Positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern. Otherwise, it is negative pattern known as interference, which was believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced and errors made by L2 learners.
（2006，名词解释）An interlingual contrastive procedure called Contrastive Analysis was developed to identify the areas of learning difficulty. Within the framework of Contrastive Analysis, second language learning was believed to be a matter of overcoming the differences between L1 and L2 systems. Later one study shows that only 3% of the subjects’ errors could be classified as interference errors, while 85% was development errors. Consequently, SLA is no longer viewed as a process of overcoming old speech habits and forming new ones but a process of constructing and modifying rules of communication, which is as development errors and should not be looked upon simply as a failure to learn the correct form, but as an indication of the actual acquisition process in action.
语言转移指在学习第二语言过程中，学习者自觉或不自觉地借助于本族语的语言知识来学习第二语言的现象。当本族语的模式与第二语言的模式相一致或相似时，就会发生语言的正向转移(positive transfer)，而当本族语的模式与目标语的模式不一样，这时借助于本族语的模式来学习目标语就会发生语言学习中的负向转移现象(negative transfer),负向转移又称之为干扰(interference)。
第二语言习得研究中的“对比分析”是一种母语与目标语系统的对比分析研究。通过对比分析，找出它们之间的相似形和相异性，从而预测语言学习者在目标语的学习中可能遇到的主要困难，从而编写相应的教材，制定出相应的教学计划和方法。对比分析家认为，正向转移对第二语言学习起帮助作用，而负向转移学习则对第二语言学习起干扰作用，是造成错误的主要原因,因此第二语言学习过程是不断克服两种语言体系差异的过程。
但是实践并没有支持对比分析理论的假设。通过研究，人们发现学生在学习第二语言时所犯的许多错误并不是母语干扰的结果，而是学生积极构建目标语规则的结果。因此，这些错误本身也是系统的，受规则支配的。
对学生错误的研究导致了人们对学生所犯错误的态度的变化。第二语言的习得过程不再被看成是克服旧的言语习惯，形成新的言语习惯的过程，而是一个不断构建和修正交际规则的过程。
4.3 Error analysis and the natural route of SLA development错误分析与第二语言的自然发展轨道
Through error analysis approach, it shows that L2 learners follow broadly similar routes, although minor differences exist due to variable learner factors and learning situations.
通过对语言错误的分析，错误分析学者发现，由于学习者的个人因素存在差异，以及个人学习环境存在的差异，第二语言习得者的语言发展轨迹可能与母语习得的轨迹有所不同，但是这种差异很小。在本质上，第二语言的发展有一条自然轨道，它与第一语言的自然发展轨道有着惊人的相似之处。
4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization语际语与语言僵化现象
（2002，40，名词解释；2003，填空）SLA is viewed as process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage. It is a product of L2 training, mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and communicative strategies of the learner.
（2004，40，名词解释）Learner’s interlanguage fossilized some way short of target language competence while the internalized rule system contained rules that are different from those of the target language system. This fossilization is believed to be a major source of incorrect forms resistant to
further instruction (进一步学习).
语际语是由母语向目标语过渡的一种中继语，既不同于母语又不同于目标语的语言形式，它是第二语言学习者在第二语言能力发展的过程中按照自己构建的目标语体系来说或使用语言，因此语际语是体系的。
语际语，作为中继语，反映的是语言学习者的语言能力向目的语趋近的动态本质。语际语的产生是第二语言的训练方式、母语的干扰、目的语规则的扩展过度、学习和交际策略等因素造成的。
当第二语言学习者的语言形式停止向目的语系统的趋近，致使学习者在目的语的学习中达不到以目的语为母语的人的语言能力，这种现象被称为僵化。由于僵化，与目的语不同的语言规则被第二语言学习者习得。语言的僵化现象有其内在的原因和外在的原因，但是导致僵化的确切原因以及解决语言习得中的僵化问题的方法都有待于进一步研究。
4.5 The role of input语言输入的作用
第二语言习得需要学习者有着足够的目的语输入以及使用目的语的机会。得体的语言输人是决定第二语言习得成功与否的先决条件之一。至于什么是最佳输入，语言学界并没有一个统一的认识。
有些学者认为，第二语言学习者只有接受可理解的语言输入信息，才能使语言学习转变为语言习得。还有一些学者认为，语言输入不等于语言纳入(intake)。语言纳入是指已经成为语际语系统有机成分的输入。决定第二语言习得成功与否的因素还应包括语言交流和语言纳入。
4.6 The role of formal instruction正规教学的作用
课堂教学对第二语言习得的作用研究没有得出统一的研究结果，但是总的来说研究结果证明了课堂教学有助于第二语言习得。课堂教学几乎不改变第二语言习得的轨道，但是通过提供可理解的、易纳入的输入可以加速学习者第二语言习得的速度。
课堂教学对培养学生笔头能力，事先准备的口头演讲以及水平考试作用明显，从长远的角度来看，课堂教学有助于学生口头交际能力的培养。
4.7 Individual learner factors学习者的个人因素
4.7.1 The optimum age for second language acquisition学习第二语言的最佳年龄
It is early teenage as the learner’s flexibility of the language acquisition faculty has not been completely lost while one’s cognitive skills have developed considerably to facilitate the processing of linguistic features of a new language. 从年龄的角度来看，虽然学习第二语言的关键期是在青春期以前，但是这并不意味着第二语言学习者的年龄越小越好。学习第二语言的最佳时间应该是10岁左右的儿童(early teenage),他们的认知能力已经得到很大的发展，但是大脑的单侧化还没有最后完成，大脑仍然具有可塑性。
4.7.2 Motivation动机
（2004，单选；填空）Instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional, and integrative motivation when the goal is social. If the target language functions as a foreign language (used in a limited environment such as in school), the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation; If it functions as a second language (primary means of communication), instrumental.
动机可分为功能性动机（instrumental motivation）和介入性动机(integrative motivation)。功能性动机是把第二语言作为一种工具来学习，比如说,学习的目的是为了找到一份更好的工作。介入性动机是一种社会动机，学习的主要目的是为了融入第二语言社区，成为第二语言社区的一员。
一般来说，目的语是一门外国语，那么介入性动机对学习者的影响相对较大。如果目的语是一门第二语言，是学习者言语社区的主要交际语言，那么功能性动机对学习者的影响较大。
4.7.3 Acculturation语言文化移入
（2001，40，名词解释）A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the L2 community. This adaptation process is called acculturation. Successful language learning is more likely when learners succeed in acculturating to the L2 society. As one social and psychological condition for successful L2, the more a person aspires to acculturate to the community of the target language, the further he will progress along the developmental continuum. 语言文化移入(accultruation)指第二语言习得者对目的语语言文化的适应过程。一种假设是如果学习者能够主动适应或接受目的语社区的文化，那么第二语言的学习成功的机率就高。学习者适应目的语社区的程度以及他与目的语社区文化保持的社会或心理的距离程度将决定学习者与目的语的接触量，从而影响学习者习得第二语言的成功率。
4.7.4 Personality个性
As a result of being frequently exposed to and interacting with the target language, learners with an extroverted personality are likely to achieve better oral fluency than otherwise.
学习者的个性有外向性和内向性之分。一种假设认为外向性性格的人擅长于和使用目的语的人进行交际，能够获得更多的输入以及更多的练习机会，因此他们比内向性性格的人在第二语言学习上更容易取得成功。研究结果表明外向性格与第二语言的整体能力之间关联性不大，但是一般认为，外向性格的人口语能力略强。
总的来说，一个理想的第二语言学习者应该是一个青少年，他有着明确的学习动机，能够适应不同的学习环境，能够充分利用机会使用目的语进行交际，愿意融入目的语文化社区。
三、本章历年试题
I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%)
10. Which of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?_______.( )
A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation
B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings
C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language
D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use
10. Basically all the following categories except ______ are always missing in the children's telegraphic speech stage.
A. the copula verb "be"
B. inflectional morphemes
C. function words
D. content words
10. In general, the __________ stage begins roughly in the second half of the child’s second year.
A. babbling
B. one-word
C. two-word
D. multiword
10. ( ) motivation occurs when the learner desires to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.
A. Instrumental
B. Functional
C. Integrative
D. Social
10. In general, children’s holophrastic sent ences begin .
A. in the late part of the first year or the early part of the second year
B. in the second half of the second year
C. between two and three years old
D. between four and five years old
10．In a sense, humans can be said to be biologically programmed to acquire at least one language. What is meant by this ______________view of language acquisition is that humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use.（）
A．behaviorist B．nativist C．mentalist D．empiricist
10. Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the _________system of language.
A. phonological
B. semantic
C. grammatical
D. communicative
10. The Chinese sound/d/in English interlanguage pronunciation of “dat” for “that” belongs to _______ error. ( )
A. fossilization
B. transfer
C. interference
D. overgeneralization
II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1% ×10=10%)
20. In order to acquire a second language, learners will subconsciously use their first language knowledge in learning a second language. This is know as language t________.
20. Linguists often use the term native language or mother tongue instead of first language, and _t________ language instead of second language in second language acquisition literature.
20. I is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.
20. Although the development of a communicative system is not unique to human beings, the natural acquisition of l as a system of highly abstract rules and regulations for
creative communication is what distinguishes humans from all other animal species.
20. C speech refers to the simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitters, etc. when they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language.
20. At children’s language developm ent, one-word utterances can be used to express a concept or predication similar to a sentence in adult speech. For example, a child might use the
word “dada” to mean “Dada, come here”, “more” to mean “Give me more candy”. Those utterances can also be call ed h_________________ sentences.
20. For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and requires
little conscious i on the part of adults.
20. Within the framework of C_______ Analysis, second language learning was believed to be a matter of overcoming the differences between L 1 and L2 systems.
III. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. If you think a statement is false, you must explain why you think so and then give the correct version. (2%×10=20%)
( ) 30. When children learn to distinguish between the sounds of their language and the sounds that are not part of the language, they can acquire any sounds in their native
language once their parents teach them.
30. ( ) Conscious knowledge of linguistic rules does ensure acquisition of the rules and therefore an immediate guidance for actual performance.
30. ( ) Instruction and correction are key factors in child language development.
30 ( ) A child born to a Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number of years to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.
30. ( ) According to Behaviorist lea rning theory, children are believed to gradually assume correct forms of the language of their community when their “bad” spe ech gets corrected and when their good speech gets positively reinforced.
30. ( )A child born to a Chinese or English speaking family takes about the same number of years to acquire their native tongue, regardless of their general intelligence.
30. ( ) Some languages are more challenging to acquire as a first language.
30.( ) Language acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the grammatical system of language.
IV. Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (3% ×10=30%)
40. acculturation
40. interlanguage
40. fossilization
40. telegraphic speech
39. contrastive analysis
40. caretaker speech
V. Directions: Answer the following questions. (10%×2=20%)
42. Explain briefly the four main individual learner factors that affect a learner’s
acquisition of a second language.
42. Discuss the different theories of child language acquisition with reference to the
behaviorist learning model and the nativist biological model.
42. Describe briefly what stages children go through in their first language acquisition.
2016年10月高等教育自学考试全国统一命题考试 语言学概论试卷(课程代码 00541) 第一部分选择题 一、单项选择题(本大题共20小题，每小题l分，共20分) 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将“答题卡” 的相应代码涂黑。未涂、错涂或多涂均无分。 1.下面各项中，属于汉语北方方言的是 A.广州话 B.福州话 C.重庆话 D.上海话 2.汉语拼音字母b、p、m都是 A.舌尖音 B.唇齿音 C.正齿音 D.双唇音 3.下面各项属于自源文字的是 A.英文字母 B.甲骨文 C.腓尼基字母 D.希腊字母 4.儿童“以词代句语言”出现在 A.单词句阶段 B.语法句阶段 C.简单句阶段 D.复杂句阶段 5.“叶子岀水很高，像亭亭的舞女的裙”一句采用的修辞手法是 A.比拟 B.仿写 C.夸张 D.比喻 6.下面各项中含有轻声音节的是 A.渐渐 B.妈妈 C.声声 D.人人 7.“在家休息”是一个 A.动宾词组 B.主谓词组 C.偏正词组 D.兼语词组 8.不同行业有自己的“行话“行话”属于 A.地域方言 B.社会方言 C.亲属语言 D.混合语言 9.“半两棉花——免弹（谈)”采用的方法是 A.转移欢关 B.语义汉关 C.语音双关 D.替代双关 10.下面各项属于语言符号特点的是 A.约定性 B.自然性 C.固定性 D.想象性 11.一种语言的共同语是在某一个方言的基础上形成的，这种方言叫 A.母方言 B.底层方言 C.基础方言 D.原始方言
12.谈话体属于 A.书面语体 B.宣传语体 C.文学语体 D.口语语体 13.唐太宗名李世民，唐代人便把“世”改为“代'把“民”改成“人”，这是为了 A.避讳 B.图吉利 C.讨口彩 D.自谦 14.中国历史上推行“书同文”措施的是 A.齐桓公 B.秦始皇 C.汉武帝 D.唐玄宗 15.汉语中“罗汉、菩萨、塔、阎罗”等词的出现，是因为 A.儒家学说的兴盛 B.道教的兴起 C.名教的影响 D.佛教的传入 16.“弟弟吃苹果”不能说成“苹果弟弟吃'这是受制于语言符号的 A.组合关系 B.聚合关系C联想关系 D.分类关系 17.音高取决于声波的 A.振幅 B.数量 C.长短 D.频率 18.“这是革命的春天，这是人民的春天，这是科学的春天”，这个句子是 A.反复句 B.顶真句 C.对偶句 D.回环句 19.中国叫“绥远、定远”之类名字的地方，往往当年 A.水草丰美 B.山川秀丽 C.曾发生战乱后被抚平 D.人口特别多 20.—个民族的全体或部分成员放弃使用本民族语言转而使用另一民族语言的现象叫 A.语言混合 B.语言转用 C.克里奥尔 D.双语现象 二、多项选择题(本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分) 在每小题列出的五个备选项中至少有两个是符合题目要求的，请将其选出并将“答题卡”的相应代码涂黑。未涂、错涂、多涂或少涂均无分。 21.下面关于语言和民族、国家关系的说法中，正确的有 A.—个民族只能说一种语言 B.—个民族可以说多种语言 C.一个国家只有一种语言 D.—个国家可以有多种语言 E.不同民族可以说同一种语言 22.下面各项中，属于元音的有 A.[a] B.[f] C. [l] D.[o] E.[p] 23.下面各项中属于发散思维的表现形式的有 A.音乐 B.舞蹈 C.绘画 D.推理 E.文学 24.下面各项中彼此有亲属关系的语言有 A.日语 B.葡萄牙语 C.老挝语 D.朝鲜语 E.英语 25.下面各项中，属于借词的有
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
2014年10月高等教育自学考试英语（二）试卷 （课程代码00015） 本试卷满分100分，考试时间150分钟。 考生答题注意事项： 1．本卷所有试卷必须在答题卡上作答。答在试卷上无效，试卷空白处和背面均可作草稿纸。 2．第一部分为选择题。必须对应试卷上的题号使用2B铅笔将“答题卡”的相应代码涂黑。 3．第二部分为非选择题。必须注明大、小题号，使用0.5毫M黑色字迹签字笔作答。 4．合理安排答题空间，超出答题区域无效。 第一部分选择题 一、阅读判断（第1—10题，每题1分，共10分） 下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B；如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题纸相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 The Stranger Who Changed My Life It was a sunny morning in the spring of 1966. I was driving a taxi, looking for a customer. While passing New York Hospital, I found a man running down the hospital steps, waving at me. I stopped. The man reached the taxi and jumped in. “The Airport, please,”he said. As always, I wondered about my passenger. Was this man a talker? After a few moments, he started saying, “How do you like driving a taxi?” “It’s OK” I said. “I make a living and meet interesting people sometimes.” “What do you do?” I asked. “I am a doctor at New York Hospital.” Many times during long rides, I’d developed a good relationship with my passengers and received very good advice from them. This time I decided to ask for his help. “Could I ask a favor of you?” He didn’t answer. “I have a son, 15, a good kid. He wants a job this summer. Is it possible that you get one for him?” He still wasn’t talking, and I was starting to feel foolish. Finally, he said, “Well, my students have a summer research project. Maybe he could join in. Have him send me his school record.” He left his address and paid me. It was the last time I ever saw him.
1.Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but the detail of language have to be taught and learned. 2.Displacement means that language can be used to refer to thing which present or not present, real or imagined matter in the past, present or future or in far-away places. https://www.doczj.com/doc/933013131.html,nguage is a system considering of two sets of structures, or two levels. https://www.doczj.com/doc/933013131.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5.Chomsky defined competence as the ideal speaker’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 7.Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken from of language. 8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. 9.Psycholinguistic relates the study of language to psychology. 10.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 11.Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. 12.vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing 13.of all the speech organs , the tongue is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other. 14.when the obstruction is partial and the air if forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point ,the speech sound thus produced is a fricative in the production of
2019年10月髙等教育自学考试全国统一命题考试 英语(二）试卷（课程代码：00015） 本试卷共8页，满分100分，考试时间150分钟。 考生答卷前必须将自己的姓名和准考证号写在答题卡上。 必须在答题卡上答题，写在试卷上的答案无效。 第一部分：阅读判断（第1?10题，每题1分，共10分） 下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B;如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题卡相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 To Lease(租赁) or Not to Lease Planning to lease a car because you don't think you can afford to buy? Think again. Leasing can end up being just as expensive as buying. Most people think about leasing because they believe it will cost them less money. They're right-it is cheaper, but only in the short term. For example, if you were to lease anew Subaru Forester, you might pay $300 per month for the car. If you were to buy the same car, you would pay about $400 per month. Over a three-year, you would save $3600-a big savings. But after your lease is over, you have to give the car back. Many people want to lease because they can drive a more expensive car than they might otherwise be able to afford. For example, if you spend $300 monthly on a car, you might be able to lease a new Ford Explorer. For the same price, you might have to buy a used Explorer, or buy a new but much less expensive model. A lease，therefore，allows you to drive the latest models of more expensive cars. However, whatever car you can afford to buy you get to keep it, and it will always have a resell or trade-in(以新旧换)value if you want to upgrade to a new car later. Furthermore, people who lease cars are often shocked by how much they must pay when the lease is over . Most leases limit you to a certain number of miles. If you go over that, you must pay for each mile. As a result, you may end up paying thousands of dollars in mileage(里程) fees. In addition, when you lease ,you have to pay for regular maintenance and repairs to the vehicle. Since you must return the car finally, you are paying to repair someone else's car.
2016年10月高等教育自学考试英语（二）真题 第一部分：阅读判断（第1~10题，每题1分，共10分）下面的短文后列出了10个句子，请根据短文的内容对每个句子作出判断：如果该句提供的是正确信息，选择A；如果该句提供的是错误信息，选择B；如果该句的信息文中没有提及，选择C。在答题卡相应位置上将答案选项涂黑。 Being ”Cool” in Middle School A new study shows that gentle and quiet kids in middle school will grow up to rule. Or, they’ll live healthier and more productive lives than the “cool” kids will. The study looked at 13-year-olds who acted old for their age by having “cool”behavior, such as early romantic relationships. They were seen as “cool” and popular kids. But as they grew up, things changed. The study found that these kids tended to have problems with drugs and relationships by their 20s. Their behavior was no longer linked with popularity. Instead, they were thought to be less socially skilled by their peers. Besides, the average “cool”kids, by age 22, did more poorly than the average kids in the study. They had a 45 percent greater rate of problems due to drugs and alcohol. They also had a 22 percent greater rate of criminal behavior. The study also found that these kids failed to develop important life skills. They spent so much time trying to seem cool. They didn’t
历年全国自考语言学概论真题 请考生按规定用笔将所有试题的答案涂、写在答题纸上。 选择题部分 注意事项： 1. 答题前,考生务必将自己的考试课程名称、姓名、准考证号用黑色字迹的签字笔或钢笔填写在答题纸规定的位置上。 2. 每小题选出答案后,用2B铅笔把答题纸上对应题目的答案标号涂黑。如需改动,用橡皮擦干净后,再选涂其他答案标号。不能答在试题卷上。 一、单项选择题(本大题共20小题,每小题1分,共20分) 在每小题列出的四个备选项中只有一个是符合题目要求的,请将其选出并将“答题纸”的相应代码涂黑。错涂、多涂或未涂均无分。 1．下列关于语言符号的表述,不正确的一项是 A．语言符号包括能指和所指 B．语言符号的音和义不可分割 C．语言符号音义关系具有任意性 D．语言符号不能分解和重新组合 2．几万、几十万个词通过排列组合可以产生无限多的句子,这主要是由于语言符号具有 A．离散性 B．强制性 C．可变性 D．任意性 3．下列关于韵律特征的表述,不正确的一项是 A．韵律特征在不同的语言中具有不同的特点 B．韵律特征自身不能单独占据一个时间段落 C．韵律特征从构成要素看是一种对比性特征 D．韵律特征包括“音质特征”和“音段特征” A．同化 B．异化 C．弱化 D．增音
6．下列关于“语”的表述,正确的一项是 A．“语”指的是那些由语素构成的固定词组 B．“语”和“词”在内部构造方面没有分别 C．“语”的结构往往不具有固定性和整体性 D．“语”的结构常常呈现为某种特定的格式 7．英语动词“like(喜欢)”的单数第三人称形式是“likes”,这属于 A．变形构词 B．变性成词C．语汇构词 D．语法构词8．“众人拾柴火焰高”属于 A．惯用语 B．谚语C．歇后语 D．成语9．主要功能是用来“造句”的同一级语法单位是 A．语素和语素组 B．语素组和词C．词和词组 D．词组和句子10．对“很中国”中“中国”一词用法的说明,正确的是 A．仍然是名词 B．变成了形容词 C．名词活用作形容词 D．名词兼形容词11．“你吃点什么吗?”这个句子是 A．一般疑问句 B．特指疑问句C．选择疑问句 D．反问疑问句12．下列词语,属于相对反义词的一组是 A．必然—偶然 B．萧条—繁荣
现代语言学名词解释 现代语言学 一绪论 1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language 2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants 3 Phonology” : T he study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means d ifferent context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are
2011年1月广东省高等教育自学考试英语语言学问卷课程代码06422） I.Blank-filling (20%)Fill in the following blanks with a word ,whose initial letter has been given. 1. The 3 branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics ,auditory phonetics ,and a__________ phonetics. 2. When 2 different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings ,they are said to be in a m_________ pair . 3. R__________ motivation refers to the fact that learners learn a second language for external purposes . 4. Later Noam Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as UG ,i.e. U_____ Grammar. 5. In "NP → （Deg )A(pp)……", the dots in the rule indicate that other c________ options are available . 6. The articulatory apparatus of human being are contained in 3 important areas :the p______ cavity，the oral cavity ,and the nasal cavity. 7. L________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community . 8. H________ refers to the sense relation between a more general ,more inclusive word and a more specific word . 9. The description of a language at a given point in time is a s______ study. 10. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication is called p_________. 11. The structure corresponding to the final syntactic output of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations is called s______ structure. 12. The term d________, first used by Ferguson in 1959,refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism . 13. Learners' independent system of the second language which is of neither the second language is known as i______. 14. The sound ［p］in pit is pronounced with a strong puff of air, which is said to be a________. 15. C_______ model states that in word comprehension words are analyzed by hearers from beginning to end. 16. S______ is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form and is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form . 17. Major lexical categories are Noun, Verb , Adjective , and P___________. 18. S_______ is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between linguistic and society between the uses of language and social structures. 19. P________ is concerned with the progress of language comprehension and production. 20. Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but languages in g____. II. Multiple choice(20%)Choose the best answer to the following items. 21. __refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed . A.Syntax B. Etymology C. Lexicology D. Morphology 22. ___ aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication . A. Phonetics B. Phonemics C. Phonology D. Phonotactics 23. Language ___ refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. A. aptitude B. competence C. performance D. attitude 24. ___ is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional ,social, gender, and age variations . A. Idiolect B. Pidgin C. Sociolect D. Creole
2018年4月高等教育自学考试《英语（一）》试题 课程代码：00012 一、阅读判断 Finding Paradise (天堂) and Success in Retirement Ivy Singh and her husband had their retirement all planned out. They wanted to have a place with enough land to grow plants. The couple successfully found a proper place and turned it into a farm called Bollywood Veggies. "We came and had a look and we found paradise. We started Bollywood Veggies there and then," she says. The basic idea of starting the farm was to keep themselves busy in retirement. Mrs. Singh says it was never begun as a business. "We started this as a lifestyle project for retirement." The farm's produce includes beans, cabbage and other crops. Soon, more people found out about the farm. Visitors often asked whether the farm offered any food or drinks. So the couple started a restaurant and a food museum on the farm. As the farm changed from a retirement to a commercial project, Mrs. Singh sought new business opportunities. A key area was growing bananas. Given the popularity of bananas and their use in a range of food products, she saw great potential. The farm uses its crop to make products such as banana chips and bread. Mrs. Singh, driven by the success of the project, now wants to open a retirement home on the farm. She says the farm is a nice place for people who have retired. Mrs. Singh says she does not care much about the profit, because she is getting to live her dream while making a difference to society. 1. Ivy and her husband made a careful plan for retirement. A. True B. False C. Not Given 2. Before retirement, the couple were doing business on plants. A. True B. False C. Not Given 3. The couple started Bollywood Veggies for business purposes. A. True B. False C. Not Given 4. Cabbage was the first vegetable planted on the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 5. The couple opened a restaurant close to the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 6. Mrs. Singh planted bananas because they were very popular. A. True B. False C. Not Given 7. Visitors to the farm like its banana chips the best. A. True B. False C. Not Given 8. Mrs. Singh built a retirement home on the farm. A. True B. False C. Not Given 9. Mrs. Singh thinks the farm is a good place for retired people.
全国2011年1月高等教育自学考试 现代语言学试题答案及解析点评 （课程代码：00838） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2% ×10=20%) 1. C 【解析】句意：语言使用者所知道的语言能力，与我们在实际生活中对语言的产出和理解的具体运用之间存在着区别。因此应当选C。参考书本第7页。 【点评】本题考查语言学中语言能力与语言运用的区别，属重点，应识记。 2. A 【解析】The letter “ch” in the word “church” pronounces /t?/, while the letter “dge” in “judge” pronounces /d?/. /t?/ and /d?/ are all affricates. Affricates means “赛擦音”. 【点评】本题考查英语语音的分类。属概念题，应理解记忆。 3. D 【解析】能够表示如数，时态，级，格这样的语法关系或语法范畴的语素是曲折词缀。曲折词缀——inflectional morpheme 相见书本第52页。 【点评】本题考查形态学中的语素特性，应了解。 4. D 【解析】X-标杆理论中XP可能不仅仅只包含X，它通常包含核心语（head），补语（complement），另外还有指示语（specifier），故选D specifier 详见书本80页。 【点评】本题考查X-标杆理论中XP包含的成分，应了解。 5. C 【解析】意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的，是词汇所有特征的集合，而词汇所制成的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。详见书本第96页。 【点评】本题考查意义与所指两个术语的概念，属于常考点，应识记。 6. C 【解析】言外行为是表达说话人意图的行为，是在说话过程中完成的行为。 【点评】本题考查奥斯汀语言实施行为的3种行为中的言外行为。属重点，应牢记。 7. C 【解析】语音系统的变化包括元音的变化，语音的丧失，元音的增加，语音移位。语音的丧失中的尾音脱落（apocope）指词尾语音成分的去除。如name在古英语中发音为/nɑ:ma: /，而在中世纪英语中发音是/nɑ:m? /,再到现代英语中的/neim/, name 的发音在英语发展中词尾的发音脱落掉了。