Towards Tbps wavelength conversion with a bulk
semiconductor optical amplifier
Z. Li a, Y. Liu a, S. Zhang a, J. Molina V′azquez a, G.D. Khoe a, H.J.S. Dorren a and D. Lenstra a,b
a. COBRA Research Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven,
The Netherlands(Email:Zhonggui.li@tue.nl).
b. Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
By utilizing extensive numerical modeling, which takes into account ultrafast carrier dynamics (such as spectral hole burning, carrier heating, two photon absorption, etc.) and optical field propagation, we model Tbps wavelength conversion in a single bulk semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) followed by a detuned optical bandpass filter.
Introduction
Wavelength conversion received tremendous research efforts in the past several years because it plays an important role in future optical networks employing either optical circuit switching [1] or optical packet switching [2]. Extensive research has been dedicated to semiconductor optical amplifier (SOA) based wavelength converters due to their power efficiency and integration potential. SOA-based wavelength converters, however, suffer from long carrier lifetime (typically ~ns), which limits the operation speed of the device up to 10 Gb/s. By driving the SOA in a push-pull mode, higher bit rate operations have been achieved, for example, 168 Gb/s wavelength conversion using a delayed interference signal converter (DISC) [3].
Recently, a simple wavelength converter, which is composed of an SOA followed by an optical bandpass filter (OBF), has been demonstrated to work at bit rates as high as 160 Gb/s [4], although the SOA has a recovery time longer than 90 ps. After the SOA the leading edges of the (inverted) converted probe pulses are red-shifted, whereas the falling edges are blue-shifted [5]. If the central wavelength of the OBF is blue-shifted with respect to the central wavelength of the probe beam, the converted signal recovers much faster compared to the case where the central wavelengths of the filter and the probe beam coincide [6]. The function of the filter in the wavelength converter is to convert chirp dynamics (phase modulation) into amplitude modulation. Since the chirp dynamics is much faster than gain dynamics, this scheme should work at much higher bit rates.
A natural question to ask then is whether bit rates of 1 Tb/s are feasible. We found that, even using a classical rate equation without the intra-band ultrafast carrier dynamics being taken into account [5], 1 Tb/s wavelength conversion can be achieved. However, since the pulse width used in 1 Tb/s transmission systems is ~300 fs, we also did the simulations by utilizing an extensive numerical model, which takes into account the ultrafast carrier dynamics (such as spectral hole burning, carrier heating, two photon absorption, etc.) and optical field propagation. In this paper we report on the results obtained with the extended model, which also accounts for gain dispersion and group velocity dispersion caused by the waveguide.
Simulation results
A simulation using a classical rate equation model [5] is shown in Fig. 1. The full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the input pulses is 300 fs and the pulse energy is 10 fJ. The power of the continuous wave (CW) probe is 10 mW. This classical model only includes inter-band carrier dynamics. Gain dispersion and group velocity dispersion are not taken into account. The small signal gain of the SOA is 19.6 dB. The linewidth enhancement factor is 4. Since the carrier lifetime is 200 ps in the simulation, patterning effects are clearly observed in Fig.1 (a) because the SOA gain has no time to fully recover in one bit slot (1 ps in this case). If the filter central frequency is 2.5 THz higher than the probe frequency (the FWHM bandwidth of the filter is 1.998 THz.), the result shown in Fig.1 (b) is achieved. The patterning effect is significantly reduced and the original data is converted to a new wavelength with inverted polarity. It is noted that in all the simulations presented in this paper, the optical BPF has a Gaussian transfer function and is realized in the frequency domain using a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm. The simulation results shown in Fig.1 shows the potential of Tb/s wavelength conversion, however, as stated in the introduction, the physical picture has to be refined by simulations from a more advanced model. In the following, an extensive model [8] is employed to carry out the simulations for a bulk SOA. In addition, gain dispersion and group velocity dispersion are also taken into account. A finite-difference beam propagation method (FD-BPM) [7] is adopted. The SOA has a strained bulk active region of 250 μm and active volume of 50 μm 3 ,the same as in Fig. 1. The other parameters are: the confinement factor (for TPA): 0.22 (0.5), the linewidth enhancement factor (for TPA): 5(-2), the free carrier absorption coefficients in conduction (valence) band: 1×10-9 (0) m 2, the carrier lifetime: 300 ps, the gain coefficient: 4×10-7 m 2, the group velocity: 100 ps/ m, the waveguide loss: 0.00175 m -1, the photon energy :0.8 eV, the carrier-carrier scattering time in conduction (valence) band: 0.1 (0.05) ps and the carrier-phonon relaxation time in the conduction (valence) band: 0.7 (0.25): ps, TPA coefficient: 3.5×10-7 m/mW, optical transition state density: 5.3×105 μm -3. The first order gain dispersion coefficient is 6.81×10-4 ps/ m and the second order gain dispersion coefficient is -2×10-5 ps 2/ m. The group velocity dispersion coefficient is 2×10-6 ps 2/ m. The calculations are performed for 160 mA injection current.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1 Output waveform from the BPF following the SOA (a) no detuning (b) the central frequency is 2.5 THz higher than the probe frequency. Fig. 2 The spectra of the signal after the SOA
In the simulations the input data is 215-1 pseudo-random binary series (PRBS) return-to-zero (RZ) signal. The input pulses are Gaussian and the pulse width is 200 fs (FWHM). The frequency of the probe signal is 3 THz higher than the reference frequency, while the central frequency of the pump is 3 THz lower than the reference frequency. The relative location of the input signals in the frequency domain is shown in Fig. 2, where the spectrum of the output from the SOA is shown for the case that the input pulse energy is 50 fJ and the probe CW power is 5 mW. It can be clearly observed that the spectrum of the probe signal is considerably broadened and spectral spikes around the probe frequency are also visible. We also observe four wave mixing (FWM) components. Note that in Fig. 2 the reference frequency (0 Hz) corresponds to 1550 nm. In a traditional wavelength converter based on XGM, an optical BPF is employed with the central frequency the same as the probe central frequency. The output waveform from the filter is shown in Fig. 3 (a) and the eye diagram in Fig.3 (b). The filter bandwidth (FWHM) is 2.16 THz. The filter should be wide enough to extract the modulated probe and narrow enough to minimize the crosstalk from the pump channel. When the filter bandwidth is too large, intensity distortions caused by the beating between pump signal and the probe signal can be observed. It is important to note that due to the ultra-fast carrier dynamics, ultra-fast gain recovery is clearly visible at the filter output, which in turn is followed by the slow gain recovery process driven by the inter-band carrier injection. Although the eye diagram is open, the variances for the “1” level (corresponding to “0” in the data) and “0” level” (corresponding to “1” in the data) show that there is still considerable patterning effect.
The patterning effect is significantly reduced when we place the BPF at the blue side of the probe wavelength, as presented in Fig. 4. The output waveform from the BPF is shown in Fig. 4 (a) and the eye diagram in Fig. 4 (b). The filter bandwidth is the same as in Fig. 3, however, the central wavelength is shifted 1 THz to the blue side of the probe. It is clear that, by comparing Fig. 4 to Fig. 3, the variances for the “1” level (corresponding to “0” in the data) and “0” level” (corresponding to “1” in the data) are
Fig. 3 The waveform (a) and eye diagram (b) of the output signal from a BPF without detuning Fig. 4 The waveform (a) and eye diagram (b) of the output signal from a BPF with 1 THz detuning to the
much smaller when the filter is detuned from the probe wavelength. The reduction is more significant for the “0” level than the “1” level. It is also noticeable that overshoot exists in the trailing edge of the inverted pulse. These behaviors are due to the chirp dynamics of the probe introduced by the pump data signal when they propagate together in the SOA. Detailed analysis is out of the scope of this paper and will be presented somewhere else.
Conclusion
A recently proposed wavelength converter is investigated for 1 Tb/s operation. Employing numerical models with various complexities, we performed extensive simulations, which confirm the possibility of Tb/s wavelength conversion using a single SOA with an optical BPF. The ultrafast chirp dynamics, which are related to the gain recovery governed by intra- and inter- band carrier dynamics, are found to be responsible for the ultra-fast operation of the wavelength converter.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), the Technology Foundation STW and the Ministry of Economic Affairs through respectively the NRC Photonics grant, the “Innovational Research Incentives Scheme Program” and the technology program “Towards Freeband Communication Impulse”.
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翻译研究中的概念混淆 ——以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”为例 熊兵华中师范大学 《中国翻译》2014（3）82-88 摘要：本文对学界在“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”这三个基本概念上所存在的普遍的混淆进行了剖析，提出应对这三个概念进行明确区分。在此基础上论文对这三个概念的定义、特性、相互关系及其各自的分类体系进行了系统阐述。 关键词：翻译策略；翻译方法；翻译技巧；混淆；定义；分类 1．话题缘起 在翻译研究中，有一个问题一直以来都未引起学界足够的重视，并因此在一定程度上妨碍了翻译研究的进一步发展，这个问题即为翻译研究中的概念混淆，其中又尤以“翻译策略”、“翻译方法”和“翻译技巧”这三个概念的混淆为甚。一方面，学界对翻译“策略”、“方法”和“技巧”的讨论虽多如牛毛，但把它们作为一个方法论系统的关键要素进行综合研究，深入考察其各自的内涵、相互关系及分类体系的系统性研究还相当少见。另一方面，学界在对这三个术语的认识和使用上普遍存在着定义不明、分类不当、概念混淆不清的问题。例如，在一些翻译教材中中，“归化”与“异化”一方面被作为“翻译方法”加以讨论(如龚芬，2011：79—81)，另一方面又被视为“翻译策略”进行阐述(同上：93—106)。一些翻译论文把本应属于翻译技巧层面的增补型翻译(类似于增译)、浓缩型翻译(类似于减译)划归为“翻译策略”的类别(如李克兴，2004：66—67)。在一些翻译方向的硕士研究生论文中，把翻译“策略”、“方法”、“技巧”混为一谈的更是比比皆是。甚至翻译专业的老师对此问题也存在一些模糊的、甚至是错误的看法(如把归化等同于意译，把异化等同于直译)。 国外学界对此也存在一些模糊或混淆(或未予严格区分。比如Shuttleworth & Cowie (2004：44，59)一方面把domestication／foreignization称作是“strategy”，另一方面却又把free／literal translation也视为“strategy”(同上：63，96 )。Vinay & Darbelnet (1958／2000：84—93) 把翻译方法(method)分为两类：直接翻译(direct translation)和间接翻译(oblique translation)，前者包括三种处理方式(procedures)，即借译，拟译，直译，后者包括四种处理方式，即词类转换，视点转换，等值翻译，顺应翻译。可在论述中却经常把其划分出来的“方法”(methods)和“处理方式”(procedures)混为一谈。另外，他们把“借译、拟译、直译、等值翻译、顺应翻译”和“词类转换、视角转换”划归为一类(同属procedures)也欠妥当，因为前者应属“翻译方法”的范畴，而后者则应属“翻译技巧”的范畴。实际上，这里Vinay ＆Darbelnet的分类涉及到三个层面：翻译策略、翻译方法和翻译技巧。其划分出来的两大“翻译方法”(直接翻译和间接翻译)其实应为“翻译策略”(所以Munday说，“The two general translation strategies identified by Vinay ＆Darbelnet are direct translation and oblique translation”，见Munday，2008：56)，而在其划分出来的七类“处理方式”中，前三类和最后两类属于“翻译方法”，第四、第五类则属于“翻译技巧”。总之，Vinay ＆Darbelnet在其分类中把翻译“策略、方法、技巧”混淆在一起，这也导致后来很长时间学界在这几个概念上的混淆(Molina ＆Albir，2002：506 0 关于国外译学界在译学术语，特别是在“翻译策略、翻译方法、翻译技巧”三个术语上所存在的概念混淆、使用混乱的问题，Chesterman(2005)和Molina & Albir(2002)曾专门撰文予以讨论。如Chesterman指出，学界用于描述文本操作过程的术语除翻译“策略”外，其他还有“技巧、方法、转换、转化、变易”等等(2005：17)。他认为这种众多术语相互混用
四种翻译方法 1.直译和意译 所谓直译，就是在译文语言条件许可时，在译文中既保持原文的内容，又保持原文的形式——特别指保持原文的比喻、形象和民族、地方色彩等。 每一个民族语言都有它自己的词汇、句法结构和表达方法。当原文的思想内容与译文的表达形式有矛盾不宜采用直译法处理时，就应采用意译法。意译要求译文能正确表达原文的内容，但可以不拘泥与原文的形式。（张培基） 应当指出，在再能确切的表达原作思想内容和不违背译文语言规范的条件下，直译有其可取之处，一方面有助于保存原著的格调，另一方面可以进新鲜的表达方法。 Literal translation refers to an adequate representation of the original. When the original coincides or almost tallies with the Chinese language in the sequence of vocabulary, in grammatical structure and rhetorical device, literal translation must be used. Free translation is also called liberal translation, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original.（郭著章） 直译法是指在不违背英语文化的前提下，在英译文中完全保留汉语词语的指称意义，求得内容和形式相符的方法。
外文翻译--第三方物流企业的作业成本法 本科毕业论文（设计） 外文翻译 外文出处 International Advances in Economic Research, 2001,7 1 : 133-146. 外文作者 Carles Gríful-Miquela 原文： Activity-Based Costing Methodology for Third-Party Logistics Companies This paper will analyze the main costs that third-party logistics companies are facing and develops an activity-based costing methodology useful for this kind of company. It will examine the most important activities carried out by third-party distributors in both warehousing and transporting activities. However, the focus is mainly on the activity of distributing the product to the final receiver when this final receiver is not the customer of the third-party logistics company. Introduction In the last decade, development of third-party logistics companies has been very important. There are several reasons for such development, the most important being the trend to concentrate in the core business
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翻译方法和技巧之分译法、合译法翻译方法和技巧之分译法、合译法 Division & Combination * 翻译英语句子时，有时我们可把原文的句子结构整个保存下来或只稍加改变即可，但在不少情况下则必须将原来的句子结构作较大的改变。 * 分译法和合译法是改变原文句子结构的两种重要方法。 * 所谓分译法是指把原文的一个简单句译成两个或两个以上的句子。 * 所谓合译法是指把原文两个或两个以上的简单句或一个复合句在译文中用一个单句来表达。 * 一、分译法 * (一)把原文中的一个单词译成句子，使原文的一个句子分译成两个或两个以上的句子。 * 1.副词 They, *not surprisingly, did not respond at all. 他们根本不回答，这是不足为怪的。 * 2.形容词 * Chairman Mao might have spoken with understandable pride of his policy of “self-reliance”. * 毛主席在谈到他的“自力更生”政策时，也许有些自豪感，这是可以理解的。 * That region was the most identifiable trouble place. 那个地区是个麻烦的地方，这是大家很容易看到的。 * 3.名词
* A movie of me leaving that place would look like a shell leaving a rifle. * 我离开那个地方的速度之快，要是拍成电影的话，会像出膛的子弹一样。 * He shook his head and his eyes were wide, then narrowed in indignation. 他摇了摇头，双目瞪地圆圆的。 * (二)把原文中的一个短语译成句子，使原文的一个句子分译成两个或两个以上的句子。 * 1.分词短语 * She sat with her hands cupping her chin, staring at a corner of the little kitchen. * 她坐在那儿双手托着下巴，眼睛凝视着小厨房的一角。 * Sunrays filtered in wherever they could, driving out darkness and choking . the shadows 阳光射到它所能透过的所有地方，赶走了黑暗，驱散了幽影。 * 2.名词短语 * I wrote four books in the first three years, a record never touched before. * 我头三年写了四本书，打破了以往的记录。 * Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, a universal accepted law. * 能量既不能被消除也不能被创造，这是一条普遍公认的规律。 * 3.前置词短语
成本会计-英文术语
成本会计中英文术语 非正常毁损Abnormal spoilage 生产成本法Absorption costing 账户分析法Account analysis method 会计回报率Accounting rate of return 权责发生制下会计回报率Accrual accounting rate of return 作业Activity 作业基础的预算管理Activity-based budgeting 作业成本法 Activity-based costing 作业管理 Activity-based management 实际成本Actual cost 实际成本法Actual costing 调整分配率途径Adjusted allocation-rate approach 允许的成本Allowable cost 鉴定成本Appraisal costs 拟构成本Artificial costs 注意力导向Attention directing 自治Autonomy 平均成本Average cost 平均等候时间Average waiting time 反冲成本法Backflush costing
平衡记分卡Balanced scorecard 批次级成本 Batch-level costs 观念系统Belief systems 标杆管理Benchmarking 账面价值Book value 瓶颈Bottleneck 边界系统Boundary systems 盈亏平衡点Breakeven point 预算Budget 预算成本Budgeted cost 预算松弛Budgetary slack 预算间接成本分配率Budgeted indirect-cost rate 捆绑产品Bundled product 业务功能成本Business function costs 副产品Byproducts 资本预算Capital budgeting 储囤成本Carrying costs 现金预算Cash budget 因果图 Cause-and-effect diagram 财务管理认证Certified in financial management 注册管理会计师Certified management accountant 财务总监Chief financial officer 决定系数Coefficient
葡萄品种介绍 葡萄品种Chardonnay霞多丽Sauvignon Blanc 长相思 葡 萄 园 中 葡萄特征果粒大，呈黄色，边缘带棕色斑点 萌芽早，早熟，有高糖潜力（高酒精度），容 易种植，适应能力强，产量高 中等大小果粒，果串紧凑（不通风，容易霜霉菌）， 高酸度，萌芽晚，早熟，特别茂盛。 容易感染白粉霉，霜冻，晚季时酸度下降孢菌，白粉霉，黑霉 气候适合多种气候，在温暖环境中会成熟过快适应凉爽气候 土壤适合多种土壤，最适合石灰质土壤（碱性土 壤），石灰石，白垩土，砂石。 不适合潮湿或肥沃的土壤 白垩土，沙烁，粘土，燧石（火石），泥灰土 酒 厂 中 苹果酸乳酸 发酵 被广泛应用，添加黄油质感，奶油未：保持清爽的酸度和辛辣的香味（植物香气） 发酵：口感柔和（西班牙，智利）调配调配：添加塞美容，柔和口感和增添香味（波尔 多产区，有很强的陈年能力）橡木熟成与橡木接触，加深颜色，带有烤面包木材味添加烤面包的风味，使香气变得柔和。 塞美容Semillon+长相思 惰性容器熟 成 保留矿物质和水果特征保持新鲜的香气 窖藏能力大部分出厂后饮用，顶级酒可窖藏10+年大部分年轻时饮用苏玳出产的可窖藏数几十年。 主要著名产区法国勃艮第（夏布利Chablis，默尔索 Meursault，布衣富塞Pouill-Fuisse），香槟产区 Champagne 法国卢瓦尔河（桑塞尔Sancerre，布衣富美 Pouillu-Fume）清爽，无橡木风格。 法国波尔多（苏玳Sauternes）贵腐甜酒。经常与 塞美容调配，橡木风格 美国加州California：浓郁，橡木风格 澳大利亚Australia：热带水果，橡木风格 新西兰（马尔伯勒Mrlborough）清爽，无橡木风 格。 智利Chile，阿根廷Argentina，新西兰New Zealand，南非South Africa，俄勒冈州Oregon 智力：非常辛辣的香气 加州：有时候标为：Fume Blanc 南非South Africa，澳大利亚Australia 外观 Appearance 中等稻草黄/绿色 中等到深金/黄色(用过橡木桶) 浅等稻草黄/绿色
A FIELD STUDY:SMALL MANUFACTURING COMPANIES In this section, the implementation of the proposed Integrated ABC-EVA System at two small manufacturing companies is presented. The managers of the companies wished for their company names to remain anonymous. T herefore, they will be referred to as “Company X” and “Company Y” from here on. Prior to the field study, both companies were using traditional costing systems. The overhead was allocated to product lines based on direct labor hours. In both companies, managers felt that their traditional costing systems were not able to provide reliable cost information. 1 Company X Company X, located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was a small manufacturing company with approximately 30 employees. Company X’s main products l ines were Overlays、Membranes、Laser、Roll Labels and N’Caps. In the mid 1990’s, a group of investors purchased the company from the previous owner-manager who had retired. At the time of the study, the company was managed by its former vice-president, who was supported by a three-person management group. Investors were primarily concerned with financial performance rather than daily decision-making. The management group was very eager to participate in the field study for two reasons. First, the management was under pressure from their new investors who were not satisfied with the current return from existing product lines; Second, management was trying to identify the most lucrative product line in order to initiate a marketing campaign with the biggest impact on overall profits. 2 Company Y Company Y, also located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was owned and managed by three owner-managers who bought the company from a large corporation in the mid 1990’s, Company Y employed approximately 40 people. The majority of this compa ny’s business was in the area of manufacturing electrical devices and their main product lines were Motors and Motor Parts、Breakers、and Control Parts. Company Y sold its products in the domestic market as well as abroad. A portion of the company’s output was sold directly to end-users, while the remainder was sold with the help of independent distributors. The management of Company Y was
文献出处: RICHARD C. Enterprise Cost Control Strategies: The Case of High-tech Enterprise [J]. The Journal of International Finance, 2014, 6(12): 13-29. （本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库） 原文 Enterprise Cost Control Strategies: The Case of High-tech Enterprise RICHARD C Abstract Since 1980s, trends like globalization, technological innovation, and information technology have changed the way companies are managed. On the one hand, the development of information technology brings companies more advanced management tools to reduce costs and increase productivity; on the other hand, globalization of markets is increasing the intensity of competition among industries. In order to survive in the competitive environment, companies must have long-term strategic plan, implement effective management and improve competitiveness. Accounting information, especially cost accounting information plays an important role in developing and implementing the company’s strategy. In practice, many companies find that the competitive advantages depend on three factors: cost, quality, product development and on time deliveries. Cost management has a broad focus. It is not just the cost accounting reporting and the accounting system. It is also the approaches and activities of a company in short--run and long--run planning that increase value for customers and lower costs of products and services. Strategic cost management focuses on higher productivity, shorter production runs, larger product quantity and higher product quality. Key Words: Cost management, Cost control, Strategic domain, Strategic method, Cost information system. 1 Introduction In practice, many companies find that the competitive advantages depend on three factors: cost, quality, product development and on time deliveries. Cost
第三方物流企业的作业成本法【外文翻译】本科毕业论文(设计) 外文翻译 外文出处 International Advances in Economic Research, 2001,7(1): 133-146. 外文作者Carles Gríful-Miquela 原文: Activity-Based Costing Methodology for Third-Party Logistics Companies This paper will analyze the main costs that third-party logistics companies are facing and develops an activity-based costing methodology useful for this kind of company. It will examine the most important activities carried out by third-party distributors in both warehousing and transporting activities. However, the focus is mainly on the activity of distributing the product to the final receiver when this final receiver is not the customer of the third-party logistics company. Introduction In the last decade, development of third-party logistics companies has been very important. There are several reasons for such development, the most important being the trend to concentrate in the core business by manufacturing companies and new technological advances, In this context, conventional approaches to costing might generate distorted information, This can result in making wrong decisions. When companies
重庆理工大学 文献翻译 二级学院应用技术学院 班级 112216101 学生姓名陈语宣学号 11221610117 译文要求 1、译文内容必须与课题(或专业内容相关,并需注明详细出处。 2、外文翻译译文不少于2000字;外文参考资料阅读量至少3篇(相 当于10万外文字符以上。 3、译文原文(或复印件应附在译文后备查。 译文评阅 导师评语(应根据学校“译文要求”,对学生外文翻译的准确性、翻译数量以及译文的文字表述情况等作具体的评价 指导教师: 年月日 外文翻译 译文 作业成本法:仍然有用吗? 资料来源:管理会计季刊,2011年春季 作者:William Stratton, Denis Desroches, Raef Lawson, Toby Hatch
在过去的几年里,顾问、从业者和学术研究者已经注意到,作业成本法(ABC已经发展到提高决策支持以及成本与利润核算系统的精度,但是预期结果往往不是很理想。Robert S. Kaplan 和Steven R. Anderson 指出,许多公司丢弃了作业成本法,因为它没有抓住公司经营的复杂性,花费了很长时间去实施,建立和维护又太昂贵。作业成本法在其他地方出现进一步的批评:在理论上作业成本法简单易懂,但是在实践中运用却是非常困难的。它涉及“作业”定义,并试图判断每年需要使用多少费用,而且它必须定期进行检查。很多公司有些厌倦了,所以放弃运用作业成本法。在2001年的年度调查报告中,作业成本法在最广泛使用的管理工具中排行第11位,而到2008年已经下跌至22位。 作业成本法的应用研究反映了技术的不完善。在Bain公司2005年和2007年度的调查报告中显示,作业成本管理(ABM的使用率为50%和52%,其使用效果满意度低于其他方法。类似的研究结果刊登在SUNY-Albany大学, Hyperion和Pepperdine Study的研究(SHAPS调查指出:在同一时期,他们发现作业成本法的使用价值与其使用率一样处于下降趋势。 尽管这些研究得出很多负面结果,但是也有很多案例研究和报告中可以发现许多公司已经采用作业成本法,并报告了对其使用价值的满意度。这些公司将运用作业成本法视为一种投资,他们认为值得花时间和资源。进行这项研究的一个动机是为了寻求一个问题的答案:“成功实施作业成本法与没有实施这种方法的结果有什么区别?” 贯穿整个价值链的成本与利润的测量方法 成本分配到产品、客户或其他成本对象一直是一个棘手的问题。在利润表的对外报告中,生产成本必须被分配到产品。但是对于运营成本控制、战略决策和绩效评估的目的来说,许多公司在内部价值链还分配的其他功能费用。 用什么方法来衡量成本和整个价值链的利润,以及不同方法的使用功能有何区别?
第27卷第3期唐山师范学院学报2005年5月Vol. 27 No.3 Journal of Tangshan Teachers College May 2005 奈达翻译理论初探 尹训凤1，王丽君2 （1.泰山学院外语系，山东泰安 271000；2.唐山师范学院教务处，河北唐山 063000） 摘要：奈达的翻译理论对于翻译实践有很强的指导作用：从语法分析角度来讲，相同的语法结构可能具有完全不同的含义；词与词之间的关系可以通过逆转换将表层形式转化为相应的核心句结构；翻译含义是翻译成败的关键所在。 关键词：奈达；分析；转换；重组；核心句 中图分类号：H315.9 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1009-9115（2005）03-0034-03 尤金?奈达是美国当代著名翻译理论家，也是西方语言学派翻译理论的主要代表，被誉为西方“现代翻译理论之父”。他与塔伯合著的《翻译理论与实践》对翻译界影响颇深。此书说明了中国与西方译界人士思维方式的巨大差别：前者是静的，崇尚“信、达、雅”，讲究“神似”，追求“化境”；后者是动的，将语言学、符号学、交际理论运用到翻译研究当中，提倡“动态对等”，注重读者反应。中国译论多概括，可操作性不强；西方译论较具体，往往从点出发。他在该书中提到了动态对等，详细地描述了翻译过程的三个阶段：分析、转换和重组，对于翻译实践的作用是不言而喻的。笔者拟结合具体实例，从以下角度来分析其理论独到之处。 一 一般来说，结构相同的词组、句子，其语法意义是相同或相近的。然而奈达提出，同样的语法结构在许多情况下可以有不同的含义。“名词+of+名词”这一语法结构可以对此作最好的阐释。如下例： （1）the plays of Shakespeare/ the city of New York/ the members of the team/ the man of ability/ the lover of music/ the order of obedience/ the arrival of the delegation 在以上各个词组中，假设字母A和B分别代表一个名词或代词，它们之间存在着不同的关系。在the plays of Shakespeare 中，Shakespeare是施事，plays是受事，用公式表示就是“B writes A”；在the city of New York中，city和New York是同位关系，用公式表示就是“A is B”；the members of the team中，members和team是所属关系，即“A is in the B”；在the man of ability中，“B is A’s characteristic”；在the lover of music中，lover表示的是活动，即动作，music是它的受事，因此可以理解为（he/she）loves the music, 用公式表示就是“X does A to B”（X施A于B）或“B is the goal of A”（B为A的受事）；在the order of obedience中，obedience表示的是活动，order是它的受事，因此用公式表示就是“X does B to A”（X施B于A）或“A is the goal of B”（A为B的受事）；在the arrival of the delegation中，arrival表示动作，而delegation是动作的发出者，所以是“B does A”。 因此它们的结构关系如下所示： the plays of Shakespeare——Shakespeare wrote the plays. the city of New York——The city is New York. the members of the team——The members are in the team. the man of ability——The man is able. the lover of music——(He/She) loves the music. the order of obedience——(People) obey the order. the arrival of the delegation——The delegation arrives. ────────── 收稿日期：2004-06-10 作者简介：尹训凤（1976-），女，山东泰安人，泰山学院外语系教师，现为天津外国语学院研究生部2003级研究生，研究方向为翻译理论与实践。 - 34 -
文献翻译 译文要求 1、译文内容必须与课题(或专业内容相关,并需注明详细出处。 2、外文翻译译文不少于2000字;外文参考资料阅读量至少3篇(相 当于10万外文字符以上。 3、译文原文(或复印件应附在译文后备查。 译文评阅 导师评语(应根据学校“译文要求”,对学生外文翻译的准确性、翻译数量以及译文的文字表述情况等作具体的评价 指导教师: 年月日 外文翻译 译文 作业成本法:仍然有用吗? 作者:William Stratton, Denis Desroches, Raef Lawson, Toby Hatch 在过去的几年里,顾问、从业者和学术研究者已经注意到,作业成本法(ABC已经发展到提高决策支持以及成本与利润核算系统的精度,但是预期结果往往不是很理想。Robert S. Kaplan 和Steven R. Anderson 指出,许多公司丢弃了作业成本法,因为它没有抓住公司经营的复杂性,花费了很长时间去实施,建立和维护又太昂贵。作
业成本法在其他地方出现进一步的批评:在理论上作业成本法简单易懂,但是在实践中运用却是非常困难的。它涉及“作业”定义,并试图判断每年需要使用多少费用,而且它必须定期进行检查。很多公司有些厌倦了,所以放弃运用作业成本法。在2001年的年度调查报告中,作业成本法在最广泛使用的管理工具中排行第11位,而到2008年已经下跌至22位。 作业成本法的应用研究反映了技术的不完善。在Bain公司2005年和2007年度的调查报告中显示,作业成本管理(ABM的使用率为50%和52%,其使用效果满意度低于其他方法。类似的研究结果刊登在SUNY-Albany大学, Hyperion和Pepperdine Study的研究(SHAPS调查指出:在同一时期,他们发现作业成本法的使用价值与其使用率一样处于下降趋势。 尽管这些研究得出很多负面结果,但是也有很多案例研究和报告中可以发现许多公司已经采用作业成本法,并报告了对其使用价值的满意度。这些公司将运用作业成本法视为一种投资,他们认为值得花时间和资源。进行这项研究的一个动机是为了寻求一个问题的答案:“成功实施作业成本法与没有实施这种方法的结果有什么区别?” 贯穿整个价值链的成本与利润的测量方法 成本分配到产品、客户或其他成本对象一直是一个棘手的问题。在利润表的对外报告中,生产成本必须被分配到产品。但是对于运营成本控制、战略决策和绩效评估的目的来说,许多公司在内部价值链还分配的其他功能费用。 用什么方法来衡量成本和整个价值链的利润,以及不同方法的使用功能有何区别? 目前已确定的方法中最常用的类型为: (1实际成本核算 (2定额成本核算
奈达翻译理论简介 （一）奈达其人尤金?奈达（EugeneA.Nida）1914年出生于美国俄克勒荷马州，当代著名语言学家、翻译家和翻译理论家。也是西方语言学派翻译理论的主要代表，被誉为西方“现代翻译理论之父”。尤金是当代翻译理论的主要奠基人，其理论核心是功能对等。 尤金先后访问过90个国家和地区，并著书立说，单独或合作出版了40多部书，比较著名的有《翻译科学探索》、《语言与文化———翻译中的语境》等，他还发表论文250余篇，是世界译坛的一位长青学者。他还参与过《圣经》的翻译工作。他与塔伯合著的《翻译理论与实践》对翻译界影响颇深。此书说明了中国与西方译界人士思维方式的巨大差别：前者是静的，崇尚“信、达、雅”，讲究“神似”，追求“化境”；后者是动的，将语言学、符号学、交际理论运用到翻译研究当中，提倡“动态对等”，注重读者反应。中国译论多概括，可操作性不强；西方译论较具体，往往从点出发。他在该书中提到了动态对等，详细地描述了翻译过程的三个阶段：分析、转换和重组，对于翻译实践的作用是不言而喻的。 （二）奈达对翻译的定义 按照奈达的定义：“所谓翻译，是指从语义到文体（风格）在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现 源语的信息。”其中，“对等”是核心，“最切近”和“最自然”都是为寻找对等语服务的。奈达从社会语言学和语言交际功能的观点出发，认为必须以读者的反应作为衡量译作是否正确的重要标准。翻译要想达到预期的交际目的，必须使译文从信息内容、说话方式、文章风格、语言文化到社会因素等方面尽可能多地反映出原文的面貌。他试图运用乔姆斯基的语言学理论建立起一套新的研究方法。他根据转换生成语法，特别是其中有关核心句的原理，提出在语言的深层结构里进行传译的设想。 奈达提出了词的4种语义单位的概念，即词具有表述事物、事件、抽象概念和关系等功能。这4种语义单位是“核心”，语言的表层结构就是以“核心”为基础构建的，如果能将语法结构归纳到核心层次，翻译过程就可最大限度地避免对源语的曲解。按照4种语义单位的关系，奈达将英语句子归结为7个核心句：（1）Johnranquickly.（2）JohnhitBill.（3）JohngaveBillaball.（4）Johnisinthehouse.（5）Johnissick.（6）Johnisaboy.（7）Johnismyfather. （三）奈达翻译理论的经历阶段 奈达翻译理论的发展经历过三个阶段，分别是描写语言阶段、交际理论阶段和和社会符号学阶段。 第一个阶段始于1943年发表《英语句法概要》，止于1959年发表《从圣经翻译看翻译原则》。这一阶段是奈达翻译思想及学术活动的初期。 第二阶段始于1959年发表的《从圣经翻译看翻译原则》，止于1969年出版的《翻译理论与实践》。主要著作有《翻译科学探索》、《信息与使命》。在这10年中，奈达确立了自己在整个西方翻译理论界的权威地位。1964年出版的《翻译科学探索》标志着其翻译思想发展过程中一个最重要的里程碑。第三阶段始于70年代，奈达通过不断修正和发展自己翻译理论创建了新的理论模式———社会符号学模式。奈达在继承原有理论有用成分的基础上，将语言看成一种符号现象，并结合所在社会环境进行解释。在《从一种语言到另一种语言》一书中，奈达强调了形式的重要性，认为形式也具有意义，指出语言的修辞特征在语言交际及翻译中的重要作用，并且用“功能对等”取代了“动态对等”的提法，是含义更加明确。 三、对奈达翻译理论的评价 （一）贡献 奈达是一位硕果累累的翻译理论家。可以说，在两千年的西方翻译思想发展史上，奈达的研究成果之丰是名列前茅的。他的研究范围从翻译史、翻译原则、翻译过程和翻译方法到翻译教学和翻译的组织工作，从口译到笔译，从人工翻译到机器翻译，从语义学到人类文化学，几乎无所不包，从而丰富并拓展了西方的翻译研究领地。 奈达的理论贡献，主要在于他帮助创造了一种用新姿态对待不同语言和文化的气氛，以增进人类相互之间的语言交流和了解。他坚持认为：任何能用一种语言表达的东西都能够用另一种语言来表达；在语言之间、文化之间能通过寻找翻译对等语，以适当方式重组原文形式和语义结构来进行交际。因此也说明，某