1.The field of sociolinguistics in the early 21 century ia a mature, confident and vibrant discipline (Llamas, 2007)
2.Sociolinguistics is the study of languages in relation to society. (i.e., the structure of language: words, sounds,
constructions, relations vs. the structure of society: people, groups, relations)。
Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. (Sociolinguistics by Bernard Spolsky)
3.Broad/narrow conceptions of sociolinguistics (Spolsky, 2000: PP5-7)
Broad: Macrolinguistics – social emphasis (sociology of language)
-Social functions of language (national identity, power and solidarity)
-Political policy (urbanization, minority group issues, education, language policies)
-Language use in the constitution of individual identity (Dialect show where a person comes and register reveals what he does.)
-How conversational patterns signify community membership (e.g., black English)
Narrow: microlinguistics – language emphasis: variation at some level of the grammar (sociolinguistics) Eg.,dialect, style, register…
4.The scope of enquiry
Fairclough calls it as transdisciplinary(超学科).
-Sociolinguistics and language teaching
-Sociolinguistics and translation
-Sociolinguistics and discourse analysis
-Sociolinguistics and pragmatics
-Sociolinguistics and literature
Cognitive Sociolinguistics（Kristiansen，Gitte and RenéDirven，2008）
Sociolinguistics and Linguistics
现代语言学大致可分为三大流派:形式学派、功能学派和社会语言学学派。
社会语言学既具有现象学-解释学特征,也与实用主义有共性。
它是一门内容涉及极为广泛的交叉学科,在研究方法上也借鉴了其它的语言理论。从语言观上,社会语言学可归入功能学派。它研究的重心是语言交际,即研究语言在特定的社会中的使用问题,对语言的描写也当然包括了对语言功能的描写。
5.Topics
Speech communities
Language and politeness
Terms of address
Dialects and varieties
Code-switching
Language and gender
Language and identity
Language change
Language and politics
Multilingualism
Language planning
3.1 Theories of sociolinguistics
The family-tree and wave theories of change.
The prototype theories of thought.
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis about language and thought.
The face theory of interaction.
The accommodation theories of linguistic choices.
3.2 The methods of enquiry
Quantitative and qualitative methods
Detailed techniques:
recording: collecting data.
sociolinguistic interview: technique of a recorded conversation intended to collect speech samples.
Questionnaire: a prepared list of questions to whixh strangers are asked to respond.
Ethnography of speaking/communication交际民族志
The approach to the description of speech events that calls for an analysis of each of the relevant factors is called the ethnography of speaking.( Spolsky,1998)
The ethnography of speaking is concerned with the situations and uses, the patterns and functions, of speaking as an activity in its own right (Hymes,1962).
I. Speech communities
1. What is speech communities?
1) From the language only perspective:
Chomsky (1965) : completely homogeneous speech community. (ideal)
Lyons (1970): all the people who use a given language (or dialect). (real)
2) From certain linguistic norms:
Labov (1972): The speech community is not defined by any marked agreement in the use of language elements, so much as by participation in a set of shared norms; these norms may be observed in overt types of evaluative behavior, and by the uniformity of abstract patterns of variation which are invariant in respect to particular levels of usage.
3) How to define ―groups‖?
Hymes (1974): It is a local unit, characterized for its members by common locality and primary interaction. Wardhaugh (2000): A speech community is a group of some kind. ―Group‖ is a relative concept, and ―speech community‖ must also be relative. An individual belongs to various speech communities at the same time, but on any particular occasion will identify with only one of them, the particular identification depending on what is especially important or contrastive in the circumstances. Such intersecting identifications lead to linguistic variation.
祝畹瑾(1992) 言语共同体( Speech Community)又称言语社团或言语社区, 是对群体的语言使用者进行分析所采用的基本单位, 是指在某种语言使用上持有某些共同社会准则的人员的集合体, 其大小可按照研究的需要和抽象程度来划分。某个国家或地区、某个城镇或乡村、各种社团都可视为言语共同体。
2.What?s the function of language?
Phatic: establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact.
Directive: get the hearer to do something.
Informative: give information about facts.
Interrogative: get information from others.
Expressive: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.
Evocative: create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, soothe, worry or please)
Performative: language is used to do things, to perform actions.
3. Hymes? (1974) SPEAKING
Eight factors
Hymes uses the word SPEAKING as an acronym for the various factors he deems to be relevant.
Setting and Scene (S)
Participants (P)
Ends (E)
Act sequence (A)
Key (K)
Instrumentalities (I) 语式
Norms of interaction and interpretation (N)
Genre (G)
4. Norms governing speech
First, there are norms governing the quantity of speech that people produce, varying from very little to very much. (Examples) Another kind of norm controls the number of people who talk at once in a conversation. (Examples) Other norms refer to the information which participants in a conversation give each other. (Examples)
Finally, there are very specific norms which may vary from society to society. (Examples)
Examples of norms of quantityvarying from very little to very much：
1) Peter Gardener (1966)
Place: Souther India
People: Puliya
Situation: no agriculture and industry
Norm: Talk little
2) James Fox (1974)
Place: Roti, a small island in eastern Indonesia
People: Rotinese
Situation: Lack of talk is an indication of distress.
Norm: Talk very much
Norms of the number of people who talk at once in a conversation：
Common principle is that only one person should speak.
Karl Reisman (1974)
Place: Antigua安提瓜岛, in the West Indies
People: Antiguan
Situation: There is no regular requirment for two or more voices not to be going at the same time.
Norm: almost anarchic; no limit on the number of interruptions
Norms of the information：
Elinor Keenan (1977)
Madagascar: Uninformative
Example: A: Where is your mother? B: She is ether in the house or at the market.
The way one answers the telephone：
In England
people commonly answer the phone by reciting their telephone number.
Telephone operators in offices are trained to answer by identif ying their employer: ?English Department. Good morning!‘
The Intercom calls are answered with ?Yes‘ rather than ‘Hello‘.
Asking ?Is X there?‘ is interpreted as asking to speak to X.
There are national differences in these rules.
5. The structure of conversation
The structure of speech
Some technical terms:
conversational interchange, turn-taking, turn-holders, floor, adjacency pairs
The conversational interchange is the basic unit of the spoken language where two or more speakers take turns to speak. Turn-taking: rules for determining who speaks when in a conversational interchange.
Turn-holders: ways of signaling that the speaker intends to continue after a break, intended to keep the floor.
Floor: the right to talk at any given moment in a conversation.
Adjacency pairs: a type of utterence by one speaker which requires a particular type of utterance by another.
1) Entries and exits
Greetings and farewells
What?s the function of greetings and farewells?
Erving Goffman suggests that a greeting shows that the relation which existed at the end of the last is still unchanged in spite of the separation. A farewell is needed in order to sum up the effect of the encounter and show that the participants may expect of another when they next meet.
Others think greetings and farewells often show power and solidarity relations.
They frequently reflect the time of day or a public festival.
The characteristics of greetings：
The length of a greeting is generally proportional to the length of time since the last meeting and to the importance of the relationship.
Some predict that longer greetings will be used when people are less certain of their relations, and therefore need more reassurance.
They vary from culture to culture.
2) Turn-taking structure
“No gap, no overlap‖ rule for conversational turn-taking. (middle-class white Americans)
One particular type of turn-taking structure is characterised by adjacency pairs.
A sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g., question-answer. The most obvious adjacency pair is a sequence of question followed by answer, but there are many others, such as greeting+greeting, complaint+apology, summons+answer, invitation+acceptance and so on. Telephone conversational interchange：
Caller: (dials; phone rings) summons
Other: Hello? Answer
Caller: Hello, this is Joe. Is that Bill? Identification
Other: Yes Identity statement
Caller: The meeting is still on? Message
Other: Yes. I‘ll see you there. Acknowledgment
Caller: Ok. Bye Close
In a classroom, teachers claim the right to control turn-taking. The teacher speaks more or less when he or she wants, and grants permission to students to talk. In a parliament or other public meeting, a chairperson is given the authority to determine who can speak and for how long. In trials, there are clear rules on who speaks first, who has the last word, who may ask questions, and who must answer them.
In informal conversations and informal meetings, the issue of turn-taking is often quite complex, depending on power and status. Who has the floor (the right to talk at any given moment) varies according to rules of the social group. Once someone has the floor, it is possible to try to interrupt, but a speaker can ignore this.
The silence sometimes leaves the floor open, but there are turn-holders-ways of signaling that the speaker intends to continue after a break-like ?umm … ‘ or avoidance of a final intonation pattern.
The normal conversational interchanges starts with a formal set of greeting, including enquires after the health of the parties and their families, comments on the weather or some other neutral subjects, and finally a mention that there is some commercial purpose to the event. In other words, they require that the topic be broached only after a social exchange.
3) Topic-based structure
Some kinds of discourse are hierarchical, in the sense that a given text should be analysable into successively smaller units on the basis of topic.
Some ?drift‘ gradually from one subject to another.
Some have a much looser kind of structure.
In the words of Harvey Sacks, one of the founders of Conversation Analysis:
A general feature for the topical organization is movement form topic to topic, not by a topic-close followed by a topic-beginning, but by a stepwise move, which involves linking up whatever is being introduced to what has just been talked about.
4) Encyclopedic structure
It gives form to what we have been referring to as ?the current topic‘. If the current topic is holiday, we know there are various ?subtopics‘ which are generally condiered relevant, such as accommodation, weather, activities and travel, each of which can be further subdivided –for example, the activity might include sight-seeing, swimming …
6.Non-verbal behavior in interaction
1)Relation-markers:
Physical distance between the people concerned, the proxemic.
Facial expression.
It would be a safe hypothesis that physical distance is proportional to social distance in all cultures, so that people who feel close in spirit will put themselves relatively near to each other when interacting. At one end of the scale are courting couples, and at the other end impersonal and formal occasions where speakers may be long distances from their addressees. What varies from culture to culture is the distance which is thought appropriate for a particular degree of solidarity. (Example: Hudson 137)
We give out social signals with our mouths (smiling, showing disgust), our eyes (eye-contact) and our eye-brows (frowning, showing surprise). These signals are particularly interesting and important because some of them seem to be universal.
2)Structure-markers
?Entries‘ and ?exits‘: hand-shaking, which in some cultures is replaced by nose-rubbing or supplemented by kissing or embracing, according to the relation between the participants.
Q: What are the role of hand-shaking?
turn-taking: eye-movements
Q: How do speakers signal that they are ready to stop and let the other person start?
The research has shown that we normally look at the other person's eyes for much longer periods when we are listening than when speaking, so when we are about to speaking(and start listening) we look up at the other person's eyes, in anticipation of our next role as listener. Conversely, the other person looks down when about to start speaking, in anticipation of the change of role.
3) Content-markers
The Head movements to indicate'yes' or'no'.
Many other gestures also help to mark content (McNeill 1992). People may count on their fingers
Gesture language
Different gestures but same meaning.
Same gesture but different meanings.
How to express the meaning ―smart, crazy, stupid, ok, good luck, I‘m full. ‖?
What does the gesture mean?
V-gesture turn around their rings constantly
turn around their rings constantly:to show nervousness or uneasiness in English speaking countries. But in the mainland of China, they will be regarded they are showing off richness.
Americans often t ouch their temples to express somebody‘s cleverness. But this action means there is something wrong with one‘s mind or one is stupid to Chinese.
Chinese are often surprised to see Americans lay their hands on their necks when they are full. Because it is an suicide action to Chinese, who used to express fullness by patting their stomachs.
Unique gestures
There are many gestures only existing in China. In Chinese culture, to express respect, people must take something that can be hold with one hand to their guests with two hands.
And when others pour tea or wine for them, they must hold the cup with both hands to express ―Thank you‖ or tap the tabletop with forefinger to indicate ―It‘s enough‖.
II. Language and Politeness
Definition
Politeness formulas
Politeness rules
Definition
Politeness is the recognition of the listener and his or her rights in the situation.
Politeness formulas
The Expressing one's communicative purpose in a roundabout way is perceived as more polite than saying directly what one wants.
Add formulas like'Please' and 'if you would be so kind'.
Compliment ('I do like your new car!' or 'Congratulations').
The most common kinds of politeness formulas are involved with greetings.
Politeness rules：
1）Gricean Maxims and Politeness
They are the maxims of quality, quantity, relevance and manner.
Relevance: speakers' contributions should relate clearly to the purpose of the exchange.
Quality: speakers should be truthful. They should not say what they think is false, or make statements for which they have no evidence.
Quantity: a contribution should be as informative as is required for the conversation to proceed. It should be neither too little, nor too much.
Manner: speakers' contributions should be perspicuous: clear, orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and ambiguity.
2) Lakoff (1977b) proposes her own three rules of politeness:
Formality: don’t imposer / remain aloof；
Hesitancy: give the addressee his options;
Equality or camaraderie: act as though you and the addressee were equal/make him feel good.
3) Leech's maxims : Leech defines politeness as forms of behaviour that establish and maintain comity.
Tact maxim: minimise cost to other; maximise benefit to other.
Ex: Could I interrupt you for a second? If I could just clarify this then.
Generosity maxim: minimise benefit to self; maximise cost to self.
Ex: You relax and let me do the dishes. You must come and have dinner with us.
Approbation maxim: minimise dispraise of other; maximise praise of other. Ex: John, I know you're a genius - would you know how to solve this math problem here?
Modesty maxim: minimise praise of self; maximise dispraise of self. Ex: Oh, I'm so stupid - I didn't make a note of our lecture! Did you?
Agreement maxim: minimise disagreement between self and other; maximise agreement between self and other. Sympathy maxim: minimise antipathy between self and other; maximise sympathy between self and other. Ex: I was sorry to hear about your father.
Example：A hostess said:
You must have some of this cake.
You may have some of this cake.
4) Brown and Levinson‘s face wants
One is ?negative face‘, the rights to territories, freedom of action and freedom from imposition; essentially the want that your actions be not impede by others.
The other is ?positive face‘, the positive consistent self-image that people have and want to be appreciated and approved of by at least some other people.
Face-threatening Acts (FTA)：
Such acts may threaten the hearer‘s negative face, like a request which means that the recipient of the request is being impeded in pursuing what he or she wants to do. Others threaten hearers‘ positive face: for instance, a contradiction or expression of disagreement. Even saying something irrevere nt or taboo threatens the hearer‘s positive face. Face-threatening acts can threaten the speaker‘s face as well as the hearer‘s.
Brown 和Levinson（1987）将危及言说者面子的言语行为称为“损害面子行为”（FTA）。受损的既可能是说话人的面子，也可能是受话人的面子；既可能是积极面子，亦可能是消极面子。因此，Brown 和Levinson（1987）将FTA 细分为以下四组：
(1) 损害受话人消极面子的言语行为，包括命令、请求、建议、警告、恭维等。
(2) 损害受话人积极面子的言语行为，如反对、嘲讽、抱怨、谴责、争执等。
(3) 损害说话人消极面子的言语行为，包括感激、申辩、接受提议、允诺等。
(4) 损害说话人积极面子的言语行为，包括道歉、自谦、推诿、忏悔等。
Brown 和Levinson（1987）认为，说话人会视FTA 对受话人的面子的损害大小相应选择以下五种策略：
直言（bald-on-record），即说话人不做任何修饰，直抒胸臆；
积极礼貌（positive politeness），虽然也直言相告，但视受话人的积极面子调整话语；
消极礼貌（negative politeness），虽然也直言相告，但视受话人的消极面子调整话语；
婉言（off-record），即说话人不以直接生硬的方式，而以委婉但一听就明白的方式表白意图；
回避（non-performance），即避而不谈、转述其它。
Example (Stalpers, J. 2005)
Purpose: to analyse a type of discourse marker —metalinguistic expression used for indicating the opening of a topic in business talk
discourse marker: well, ok, and, etc.
The use of metalinguistic expressions is one type of marked topic change.
The use of such expressions is the preferred way of initiating a topic change. Their use should not be seen as a strategy of dominance, but as a bald-on-record strategy, that is, a strategy that aims at maximally efficient communication. Preference organisation of topic change
Results：
The analysis of metalinguistic expressions used for topic opening in business talk shows that topic changes carried out with their help are a common phenomenon. These marked topic changes probably indicate that topic jumps are not at all uncommon. In business talk, interlocutors are not constrained by the fear of seeming awkward in making a topic jump, nor by the fear of not getting their topic into the discussion, as is the case for casual conversation.
Terms of address
Definition
Terms of address: second-person pronouns, or names, or titles, used when speaking to someone.
Honorific：An honorific is a word or expression that conveys esteem or respect when used in addressing or referring to a person.敬语
Pronominal choice between tu and vous：
The T(tu) form is sometimes described as the ‘familiar’form and the V(vous) form as the ‘polite’one. (thou/you)（你/您）Thus, a servant would use V to a master who would reply with T. V could also be used between equals.
V/V: The upper classes use V forms with each other to show mutual respect and politeness.
T/T: The lower classes used mutual T.
T/V: The upper classes addressed the lower classes with T but received V.
There developed over time a tendency to switch from V-V use to T-T use, as a sign of intimacy. The French verb tutoyer, to use T to someone, refers to this change of familiarity.
权势与同等语义在代词对称系统中的表现
代词对称所含的权势语义,在语言的实际使用中反映出说话人双方的社会地位、身份等方面的不同，是不可互换的；代词对称系统中V与T两种形式的非互换性原则及其选择，是由权势关系所决定的；
由于社会成员之间关系的异同并非完全同权势有关联，所以代词对称系统又有了等同的语义表现。
The use of address terms in English：
Brown and Ford‘s study (1961) reports that the asymmetric use of title last name and first name (TLN/FN) indicated inequality in power, that mutual TLN indicated inequality and unfamiliarity, and that mutual FN indicated equality and familiarity. The switch from mutual TLN to FN is also usually intiated by the more powerful member of the relationship. English offers a range of address terms, ranging from Title Alone (Sir, Your Majesty, Madam, Constable) through Title+Last Name (Mr Jones, Dr Smith, Lord Clark, Miss Jones, Mrs Jones, perhaps Ms Jones) to First Name to Multiple Names (including Nicknames).
What factors govern the choice of address terms?
Address by title alone is the least intimate form of address in that titles usually designate ranks or occupations, as in Colonel, doctor, or Waiter.
The asymmetric use of names and address terms is often a clear indicator of a power differential. (non-reciprocal rule非互换性原则）
The non-reciprocal pattern is governed by two dimentions: age and occupational status. Age is less important than occupation status for determining address form.
There was a natural progression from mutual TLN to nonreciprocal FLN/FN to mutual FN.
The progression might more or less rapidly, but one thing that will not happen is for either progression to move backwards. Once a speaker has begun using FN, for example, he will never use TLN again with the same addressee, with two exception. (The use the address form system to express anger or reproof, use multiple names. )
All in all, factors govern the choice of address terms are the particular occasion; the social status or rank of the other; sex; age; family relationship; occupational hierarchy; transactional status (i.e., a service encounter, or a doctor-patient relationship, or one of priest-penitent); race; or degree of intimacy.
英语代词对称形式缺省与语言自偿机制
古代英语（13世纪）：thou是以上对下的卑称；you是以下对上的尊称。
对称形式缺省：19世纪以后
语言自偿机制：
1）thou-you对立形式可用title+first name代替
2）敬语称谓词：（16世纪）Your Majesty, Your Honor…（Bloomfield，1933)
3）代词置换：用we代替you
分析以下对话。对话发生在美国街头，是关于白人警察对黑人医生的盘问（Ervin-Tripp, 1972)。
“What‘s your name, boy?‖, the policeman asked…
―Dr. Poussaint. I‘m a physician…‖
―What‘s your first name, boy?...‖
―Alvin.‖
The use of address terms in China：
中国古代:
寡人、朕---帝王的自称
老爷、大人---达官显贵的代名词
草民、小人---老百姓在以下对上语境中的自称
‘同志’、‘先生’、‘小姐’、‘小三儿’的使用：
20世纪40到80年代初：
80年代末期—90年代：
90年代—21世纪初：
21世纪开始以来：
语言称代系统研究的意义：
语言称代形式所体现的语义选择,反映出言语行为的社会化过程。同时，这种过程的研究还揭示出语言形式是如何通过社会因素和语境的制约，体现和生成社会意义的。这一过程涉及多重社会文化要素：
1）social status 2) cultural tradition
3) ideological tendency 4) religious belief
5) class stratification 6) ethnic background
7) age and sex 8) professional type
9) emotional variation 10) idiosyncratic style
Johnson said: ―Language is man. Speech I see thee.‖
Chapter 3 Varieties and Variation
Definition and technical terms
Variety of language
Variation studies
Regional dialects
Social dialects
Dialect atlases (maps) and isoglosses
1.Basic vocabulary
variation 变异
vatiety 变体
variant 变素
idiolect 个人方言
dialect 方言
dialectology 方言学
dialect leveling 方言整平
regional dialect 区域性方言
accent口音
dialect atlas 方言地图
isogloss 等语线，同言线
African American English (AAE);
African American Vernacular English (AA VE); Ebonics 黑人英语, 非裔美国人所说的英语方言
2. Variety of language
It refers to different manifestations of a language. It is a set of linguistic items with similar social distribution.
Variety includes languages, dialects and registers.
语言变体是“带有类似社会分布的一组语言项目”。
3. Language variation
Language use varies in many dimensions. Three major dimensions are the following:
Regional: dialect variation.
Social: sociolect or class dialect variation.
Functional: register or functional style variation.
4. The concept of dialect
变异是指语言运用上的变化和差异,即由于社会因素,包括不同的地理位置、人类群体以及群体间的人际交往等导致的语言行为的变异。它是通过使用各种不同的语言变体表现出来的。
语言的变异可以根据讲话人来自的不同地域、社区分为地域性语言变体(regional varieties)和社会语言变体(social varieties), 而语言内在的变化则被称为语言性变异(linguistic variation)。
Reasons for studying dialects：
A biblical story:
Over t hree thousand years ago, the sh versus s pronunciation of shibboleth in the Hebrew word for ?ear of corn‘ was used to detect impostors from true allies among the fleeing Ephraimites who attempted to disguise themselves as Gileadites. As indicated in the Biblical account, the social consequences of the dialect difference were quite severe:
And whenever a suivivor of Ephraim said, ?let me cross over,‘ the men of Gilead asked him, ?Are you an Ephraimite?‘ if he replied, ?No,‖ they said, ?All right, say Shibboleth.‘ If he said, ?Sibboleth,‘ because he could not pronounce the word correctly, they seized him and killed him at the fords of the Jordan.
Definitions：
It is a variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class.
In popular usage, the word "dialect" is sometimes used to refer to a regional language, especially one that is unwritten or not standardized.
A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect.
Other speech varieties include: standard languages, which are standardized for public performance (for example, a written standard); jargons, which are characterized by differences in lexicon; slang; pidgins or argots.
The particular speech patterns used by an individual are termed an idiolect.
What is standard dialect?：
Standard dialect is the variety of language which usually used in print, normally taught in school and to non-native speakers learning a language. It is also the variety which is normally spoken by educated people and used in news broadcasts and other similar situations.
Examples：1. A: How is Bob?
B: Bob worries a lot anymore.
Q: What do you think B meant? (a) Bod doesn‘t worry a lot anymore; (b) Bob still worries a lot; (c) Bob worries a lot nowadays; (d) other:______.
2. A: Is she married?
B: She BIN married. (BIN is emphatic, heavily stressed).
Q: What do you think B meant? (a) She‘s been married before but isn‘t now; (b) She‘s married now and has been for a
long time; (c) other:____.
1. Among spea kers of Mary‘s Midwestern dialect, the positive anymore in Example 1 means ―nowadays‖, indicating that
a situation that did not exist in the past now does. (Regional variation)
2. For speakers of AA VE, the stressed BIN has the interpretation of item (b), but speakers unfamiliar with AA VE typically give item (a) as their answer. (Social variation)
5. Regional dialects and isoglosses（同言线）
As opposed to a national dialect, a regional dialect is spoken in one particular area of a country. In the USA, regional dialects include New York, New Jersey and Southern English, and in Britain, Cockney, Liverpool English and Newcastle English.
地域性语言变体(regional varieties)地理方言,也称横向方言, 是由于地域阻隔造成的不同差异而形成的。
在英语世界中,按地域的不同,英语可被分为:英国英语(British English)、美国英语(American English)、加拿大英语(Canadian English)、澳大利亚英语(Australian English)、新西兰英语(New Zealand English)、南非英语(South African English)和香港英语(Hong Kong English)。
英国方言：
Yorkshire is the largest county in England. Located in the north of England its eastern boundary is coastal and overlooks the North Sea.
Mark Twain‘s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
SCENE: Huck Finn runs into Jim, an escaped slave. Jim thinks he has seen a ghost because Huck was supposedly dead. Huck is telling the story.
He [Jim] bounced up and stared at me [Huck] wild. Then he drops down on his knees, and puts his hands together and says:
―Doan‘ hurt me—don‘t! I hain‘t ever done no harm to a ghos‘. I awluz liked dead people, en done all I could for ?em. You go en git in de river agin whah you b‘longs, en doan‘ do nuffn to Ole Jim, ?at ?us awluz yo‘ fren‘.‖Well, I warn‘t long making him understand I warn‘t dead. I was ever so glad to see Jim. I warn‘t lonesome, now.
I told him I warn‘t afraid of him telling the people where I was. I talked along, but he only set there and looked at me; never said nothing. Then I says:
―It‘s good daylight. Le‘s get breakfast. Make up your camp fire good.‖
―What‘s de use er makin‘ up de camp fire to cook strawbries en sich truck? But you a gun, hain‘t yo u? Den we kin git sumfn better den strawbries.‖
―Strawberries and such truck,‖ I says. ―Is that what you live on?‖
―I couldn‘t git nuffn else,‖ he says.
―Why, how long you been on the island, Jim?‖
―I come heah de night arter you‘s killed.‖
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is among the first in major American literature to be written in the vernacular, characterized by local color regionalism.
Chinese English
萝卜青菜，各有所爱。
[误] Some prefer radish but others prefer cabbage.
[正] Tastes differ.
Chinese dialect
Traditional Chinese classification lists seven groups, comprising:
Gan(Jiangxinese)
Guan (Mandarin or Beifanghua)
Kejia (Hakka)
Min (including the Hokkien and Taiwanese variants)
Wu(including the Shanghainese variant)
Xiang(Hunanese)
Yue(including the Cantonese and Taishanese variants)
7.Social dialect
A social dialect is a variety of a language spoken by a particular group based on social characteristics other than geography.
社会语言变异(social variation)社会方言,也称纵向语言,是由社会特征形成的。影响社会语言学变量的重要因素是阶层分化(class stratification)和语体分化(style stratification)。社会语言变异源自社会群体,与各种社会因素有关,如社会阶层、宗教信仰和种族。
Example 1. New York City study (1966)
Labov wanted to test his theory with a bigger population New York City
Incidence of final and post-vocalic /r/
While most American accents are rhotic, New York (and Boston) have distinctive non-rhotic accent
Post-Depression, such urban accents lost prestige, and rhotic midwest accent emerged as standard
Labov showed that rhotic use of /r/ reflected social class and aspiration, and was more widespread in younger speakers Method：-Not practical to interview speakers extensively, as on Martha‘s Vineyard
-Instead, needed to quickly elicit possible /r/ pronunciations in both spontaneous and careful speech
Walked around 3 NYC department stores, asking the location of departments he knew were on the fourth floor
By pretending not to hear, he got each informant to pronounce the two words twice, once spontaneously, and once carefully
-3 stores catering for distinct social groups:
Saks (upper), Macy‘s (middle), S. Klein (lower)
-Informants were shop workers at different grades, giving a further possible stratification
Results：
Use of [r] corresponded to higher class of store
Furthermore, use of [r] increases in careful speech
Similar finding with rank of employee (management, sales, shelf-stackers)
Table: Attitudes towards the use of non-prevocalic /r/: upper middle class in New York City
Age %/r/ used
8~19 48
20~39 34
40+ 9
Example 2.
What happens if we wish to negate the following sentence: I can eat anything.
There are two possibilities in the standard variety of English:
I can‘t eat an ything.
I can eat nothing.
There are other varieties of English, where there is a third possibility – where we can negate both elements:
I can‘t eat nothing.
A survey was taken in Detroit, and it was found that there was a clear relationship between employment of double negation and social class:
UMC: 2
LMC: 11
UWC: 38
LWC: 70
Example 3. V erbs without –s for the Third Person Singular Present Form
Norwich Detroit
MMC 0% UMC 1%
LMC 2 LMC 10
UWC 70 UWC 57
MWC 87 LWC 71
LWC 97
She like him very much.
He don‘t know a lot, do he?
It go ever so fast.
美国黑人英语(Afro-/American vernacular English, AA VE)
Some people use AA VE as a way to ?stereotype‘ African Americans.
It is systematic and rule-governed.
It is a variety of English as in Singapore English, Indian English, Scottish English, etc…
Two views on how AA VE developed:
Dialect of English spoken in British Isles
Creole language used during times of slavery, i.e. English with various West African languages
Most now agree it is probably a combination of both.
AA VE Phonetic features:
Phonological process: diphthongs are reduced to monophthongs word-finally or before voiced consonants
now /naow/ →/na/
side /said/ →/sad/
time /thaim/ →/tham/
Consonant cluster reduction:
cold cuts /khol kh?ts/
best kind /bεs khaynd/
Syntatic features:
Multiple negation
(1) I didn‘t have no lunch.
(2) I don‘t never have no lunch.
Habitual ?be‘ (expresses ?always‘ or ?usually‘)
(3) The coffee always be cold.
(4) She be late everyday.
(5) The coffee be cold right now.
Speaker A Speaker B
I did it yesterday. I done it yesterday.
He hasn‘t got it.He ain‘t got it.
It was she that said it. It was her what said it
Idiolect
A person?s dialect of an individual speaker. (factors: region, social status, gender, age; reflected in: voice quality, pitch, speech tempo, rhythm)
8.Linguistic variation
语言性变异(linguistic variation)是指来自语言内部的变异,主要表现在四个层面上：
(1)语音变异(phonetic and phonological)。众所周知,英国英语标准语(received pronunication, RP)最显著的语音特征
是字母ａ在单词中的发音为/ａ:/,如fast, grass, path; 而在美国普通话(general American English, GAE)中,字母ａ在单词中的发音为/ /,如fast, grass, path;字母ｏ在单词中的发音为/ａ/(不圆唇),如hot, pot。
(2)词汇变异(lexical)。社会语言学家认为,词汇反映着社会的发展,很多不同的词汇被用于不同的语言变体中。如英国人使用car park(停车场), programme studies(课程),而美国人则使用parking lot, curriculum;加拿大人可能会用些美国人不熟悉的英国英语词汇,如球鞋runners(CnE), sneakers(AmE)。
(3)词型变异(morphological)。不同英语变体的拼写形式亦有所差异,如:
英国英语:centre, honour, traveller;美国英语:center, honor, traveler;
澳大利亚人用truck(AmE),而不用lorry(BrE)。
加拿大人经常会把很多英语词汇混合在法语中使用, le smoked beef, le break drum等等。
(4)语法变异(grammatical)。
Do you have a dictionary?(AmE)或Have you a dictionary?(BrE);
它以前怎样?What was it like?(威尔士方言)或What like was it?(苏格兰方言);
你想洗衣服吗?Do you want your clothes washed?(英格兰南部方言)或Do you want your clothes washing? (英格兰中、北部方言)
Style and register
Styles are varieties of language used by an individual appropriate to a level of formality.
Martin Joos suggests five degrees of formality.
The Frozen style.冷冻文体Very formal, used in kinds of formal ceremony. Used in law, historical literature, international conferences.
The Formal style.正式文体Used in written English, in speech. The characteristics are long sentences, complex sentences, passive voices, inverted sentences, parallelism.
The consultative style. 商议文体It is the everyday getting-things-done language and between formal and informal. When you talk to strangers, go shopping, travel, you can use the style.
The casual style. 随意文体It is used in relaxed conversation between friends. Use ellipses.
The intimate style 亲密文体used between intimate friends, relatives or lovers. Besides lots of ellipses, there are slang. Labov (1970) examined the speech patterns of New Yorkers. He collected data and classified as (1) casual speech (i.e the relaxed speech found in the street and in bars), (2) careful speech ( eg: the speech found in interviews), (3) reading, (4) word lists, and (5) minimal pairs.
Features of casual speech：
Pauses.
Fillers:ers/erms.
Back-channel behavior.
Markers of sympathetic circularity.
Repetitions.
False starts and self corrections.
Stylistic variation
How do stylistic differences emerge?
The attention that speakers and writers take with their expression.
Audience design. Adjusting one‘s speech to be similar to that of a real or imagined listener.
Accommodation. Adjusting one‘s speech to be more like that of our interlocutor.
Giles’Speech Accommodation Theory 语言调节理论(1973)
Speech Accommodation theory identifies three principal types of variation. Convergence occurs when speakers adjust their normal speech to make it more similar to their interlocutor‘s speech or to a stereotype of it. Divergence occurs when the opposite takes place---speakers seek to make their speech dissimilar from that of their addressee. Speech maintenance occurs when speakers do not make any changes.
言语适应理论主要用于解释言语风格变化中的言语趋同(convergence)、言语趋异(divergence)和语言保持(language maintenance)等交际策略的心理动机和情感因素等的影响。
言语趋同指在言语交际过程中,交际一方改变自己原有的言语习惯或语体,以更接近说话对象的言语或语体。它可表现在发音、语速、停顿、语码等方面。一般来说,言语趋同追求的是获得对方的赞同、接受、喜欢或好感,增进理解和交际效果以及相互间的吸引力等。
言语趋异指交际中的一方使自己的言语或语体变得与说话对象的言语或语体不同。言语趋异主要是为了保持说话人自己的社会身份特征和群体特征。
其理论基础是社会心理学中的相似吸引原则、社会交换原则、归因原则和群体特征原则。
相似吸引原则指在交际中说话人(addresser)的话语与受话人(addressee)的话语越相似,对受话人越具吸引力、越容易理解。
社会交换原则指说话人在采取某一会话策略时权衡利弊得失,希望利大于弊,因为言语趋同有可能使说话人的社会身份特征受到威胁和损失。
归因原则指人们对他人的言语行为一般都要追究其动机和原因。群体特征指当交谈的双方分属两个不同的群体或社团时,说话人更多的是被视为其群体的代表,或者说具有类典型性(protypicality)。
适应的本质特征
三个本质特征。
1.主观性。(subjectivity)
2.非对称性。(power)
3.以受话者为中心。（audience design)
2. Register
Registers are sets of language items associated with discrete occupational or social groups.
Jargon:Speech used by a marked group of people such as trade or occupation.
Cant: Thieves‘ amd underworld jargons.
Slang:A kind of jargon marked by its rejection of formal rules.
Taboo: An inhibition or ban resulting from social custom or emotional aversion.
The characteristics of slang：
Special kinds of intimate or in-group speech.
Fresh but ephemeral.
Claim solidarity relations.
Reject the power dimensions.
Associate with peer group and gang speech.
Make free use of taboo expressions.
In short, Slang thus serves social functions, setting and proclaiming social boundaries and permitting speakers to assert or claim membership of identity or solidarity groups. Slang is a feature of the speech of the young and the powerless and
it has dynamic nature.
Cant：red rum - 谋杀(murder) 。
set - 帮派分支。
set tripping - 帮派内斗。
smoke - 杀人。
soldier - 没有案底的帮派分子。
thug - 身无长物的人，也可以称为“棍”。
up north trip - 被送往监狱。
语域理论
语域（Register）是语言使用的场合或领域的总称。英国语言学家韩礼德（Halliday）将语域定义为，语言变体，可以按照使用的情况划分为语域。语言使用的领域的种类很多，例如：新闻广播、演说语言、广告语言、课堂用语、办公用语、家常谈话、与幼童谈话、与外国人谈话、口头自述等。在不同的领域使用的语言会有不同的语体。语域的三个社会变量：语场（field），语旨（tenor）和语式（mode）。具有某种具体用途的语言变体，它与社会或区域（因说话者的不同而异）相对。使语言行为适应于某一特定活动类型、正式程度等的一种倾向。语域是由多种情境特征---特别是指语篇语场、语篇方式和语篇基调---相联系的语言特征构成的。语域是语篇针对特定的交际场合,为达到某一交际目的而产生的一种功能变体,它是多种参数----语篇语场、方式和基调---的综合体现，不只是一种单纯的语篇方式变体。
What?s th e difference between register and dialect?：
Register refers to variety according to use, in contrast with dialects, defined as varieties according to user. Your dialect shows who (or what) you are, whilst your register shows what you are doing.
语言演变理论
反映裂变的谱系树模式
(the family tree model);
反映聚变的波浪/波形理论
(the wave theory) ;
反映相互关系的社会关系网分析
（social network analysis)
1) The family tree model is a model of language change described by an analogy with the concept of family tree. In this scientific metaphor, the family members are languages, the family is a language family and the birth kinships of people are genetic relationships between languages. A language can therefore be a parent or mother language or a daughter language (fathers and sons are not in the metaphor).
2) The wave theory took the view to space, they study on pervasion and influence between different languages. They emphasize the orderly heterogeneity of language.
谱系树说和波浪说是两个对立的理论模型，前者着眼于语言在时间上的有规律的发展，使语言间呈现出生物系族那样的异同关系，可以对有共同来源的语言进行历史比较研究；后者着眼于语言在空间上的扩散，强调语言间的相互影响和对语言演变规律的干扰。
这两个理论模型与其说是对立，不如说是互补，可以各自弥补对方的一些弱点。
3) Social network analysis
Milroy, L. 1980; Milroy and Margraine, 1980
Definition: Social network analysis (SNA) is the methodical analysis of social networks. Social network analysis views social relationships in terms of network theory, consisting of nodes (representing individual actors within the network) and ties (which represent relationships between the individuals, such as friendship, kinship, organizational position, etc.) Two aspects of social networks are important: density (密度）and multiplexity（复合度）.
Density: high and low density
Multiplexity refers to more than one basis for a tie among individuals.
Functions of social network：
The strong network ties within a community have the effect of reinforcing the norms of that community, including speech norms.
The closer an individual‘s network ties are with his local community, the closer his language approximates to localized vernacular norms.
Working-class communities quite typically have strong network structures. (why?)
Middle-class sections tend to have weaker, more open networks and as a result would not have the means to enforce speech norms. (Why?)
Diglossia
bilingualism
Code-switching
Diglossia: In a bilingual community, in which two languages or dialects are used differently according to different social situations.
Bidialectalism refers to the phenomenon whereby someone can communicate in more than two dialects of the same language,e.g.Cantonese and Putonghua for a Chinese speaker.
Three features of diglossia:
--In the same language, used in the same community, there are two distinct varieties. One is regarded as high (H) and the other low (L).
--Each is used for distinct functions.
--No one uses the high (H) in everyday conversation.
In the following example it is easy to tell which variety you will use given the social situations:
Telling a joke
Interviewing for a job
Giving a speech for a charity event
Giving a speech for a friend for his/her birthday
Church
Cafeteria
定义：
双言制是指一种相对稳定的语言状态。除了一种语言的主要方言之外(可能包括一种标准语或数种地区标语) , 还存在一种异质、高度规范化的高级变体(通常其语法更为复杂) 。该变体是受社会尊重的文学典籍的载体, 用于大多数书面及正式演讲等场合,主要通过正规的学校教育习得, 社团中没有任何人用它来进行日常会话。( Ferguson, 1959) 根据这一定义, 高级变体(简称H 体) 和低级变体(简称L 体) 属同一种语言。
特点：1) 功能。双言制中不同变体的根本差别体现在它们的功能差异上, 由此使它和双语区分开来。H体与L 体用于不同的目的。如果有人在L体的领域中使用H体, 或在H体的领域中使用L体, 那么社团中操本族语的人会感到奇怪(甚至好笑、愤怒) 。
2) 声誉。在许多研究过的双言制中, 人们对H体的评价较L 体高得多。H 体为“伟大”的文学、正统的宗教典籍、古典诗歌、公共演说以及盛大场合的用语, L 体则被认为声望较低, 是蹩脚、粗俗、低级的。
3) 文学传统。在多数双言制语言中, 文学作品均用H体写成, L体不用做书面语, 仅用于“方言”诗、广告或“低级”有限的领域。在一些传统文学作品中(如莎士比亚的戏剧) , 用L体表示剧中人物粗俗、滑稽、缺乏教养。
4) 习得。L 体为母语和家庭语言, 先于H体习得, 而H体要通过学校教育才能获得。
5) 标准化。H体具有严格的标准, 并有由本族语语法学家撰写的语法、字典和规范的课文, L体则没有传统意义上的标准化。
6) 稳定性。双言制通常很稳定, 能存在数百甚至数千年。有时, L 体会扩大使用领域并取代H体, 但只有当H体为精英们的母语时, 它才取代L体。
7) 语法。H体的时态系统、性别系统、一致性和句法均比L体复杂。
8) 词汇。往往有一定程度的共享, 但通常有差异。H体中有的词汇L体中没有, 反之亦然。
9) 语音。两种系统不同。一种为H体和L体共享的、相同的语音音素, 但H体的语素更复杂,
或者H体是L体语库的一个特殊子集。另一种是H体中有对比语音而L体中没有, 因此L体可能会从H体中借用音素来替代缺失的对比语音。
双言制中两种变体的使用领域往往有着严格的界线, 不可逾越。因些, 在正式场合不使用H体而用L体会被认为十分荒唐, 反之亦然。
例如：鲁迅笔下的孔乙己就是因为在非正式场合(咸亨酒店)用H体(文言文) 讲话而遭到人们的嘲笑。
更有甚者, 违反双言制规范有时会导致严重的后果。William Tyndale由于把圣经从拉丁语(H)译成英语(L) 而遭焚尸。
Bilingualism:It refers to the phenomenon of competence and communication in two languages. A bilingual individual is someone who has the ability to communicate in two languages alternately. E.g., English and French in Canada.
What?s the difference between diglossia and bilingualism?
双语现象是一种社会现象，不指个人使用双语的现象。个人双语只是社会双语现象的具体体现。
双语现象和双语制是不同的两个概念。双语制指一种以法律形式规定两种语言或多种语言并用的制度。从实际看，双语制和一个社会的双语程度没有必然的联系。
产生的社会原因：①使用不同语言的人杂居。②外语教育。
Multilingualism
(The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, Chapter 18)：
What is multilingualism?
It is the ability to speak more than two languages.
Multilingualism involving balanced, nativelike command of all the languages in the repertoire is rather uncommon.
The difference in competence in the various languages such as greetings, and basic conversational skills all the way to excellent command of the grammar and vocabulary and specialized register and styles.
台湾：官方早期独尊国语且压抑其他语言，故目前成为族群间通用语。其次广泛使用的有台湾话（闽南语分支）与客家话。
香港：官方语言是英文和中文，而粤语就是使用最普遍的语言。在一般的中学和小学，都设有普通话科。
澳门：官方语言是汉语和葡萄牙语。澳门人主要使用粤语，也有部分居民使用普通话。汉语是所有学校的必修课程，而葡萄牙语主要在一些政府开办的学校内教授。
新加坡：英语、华语（即汉语普通话）、马来语和泰米尔语都是官方语言，其中英语为不同族群之间交流的共同语，
马来西亚：马来西亚的国语为马来语，但是英语、华语、泰米尔语也通用。大部分的槟城华人都会两种以上的语言。
加拿大：官方语言是英语和法语。
3. Code-switching and code-mixing
Code-switching: Changing from language to language in the midst of an utterance.
Code-mixing: It emphasizes hybridization.
The purpose of code-switching：
For a bilingual, shifting is for convenience,
It is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.
Code-switching is regarded as a controllable strategy. It plays a symbolic role such as a form of political expression, to resist some other power, or to gain power, or to express solidarity.
The purpose of code-mixing seems to be to symbolize a somewhat ambiguous situation for which neither language on its
own would be quite right.
To get the right effect the speakers balance the two langauges against each other as a kind of linguistic cocktail--a few words of one language, then a few words of the other, then back to the first for a few more words and so on. The changes generally take place more or less randomly as far as subject-matter is concerned.
What might cause a speaker to switch from variety X of a language A rather than variety Y?
Code-switching occurs where speakers are aware of the two varieties being distinct and are able to keep them apart, although they may not do so habitually and may not be conscious of every switch they make.
Situational CS: It is tied to changes in the conversational situation, eg.,topics.
由于改变话题、参与者等情景因素而引起的情景型语码转换。
Metaphorical CS: Speakers can switch codes actively and without the intention of changing the conversational situation. In these cases they do not follow a situational change, but make metaphorical use of their competence in the social meaning of content. 为改变说话的语气、重点或角色关系而发生的喻意型语码转换。
下面是发生在人才市场大学英语教师招聘者与求职者之间的一段对话：
招聘者：您好
求职者：您好请问您这里英语教师是不是已经招聘满了。
招聘者：还没有。如果您感兴趣, 请谈谈您自己的情况, 好吗？
求职者：好。我于年本科毕业于江苏教育学
院, 年起在北京师范大学读研究生??
招聘者：Would you please explain why you want to work in our university?
求职者：? ?
Kinds of code-switching：
--Situational code-switching
--Metaphorical code-switching
--Intra-sentential code-switching
--Intersentential switching
Six types of metaphorical codeswitches：
--Quotations
--Addressee specification
--Interjections
--Reiteration
--Message qualification
--Personalization vs. objectivization (e.g. degree of speaker involvement)
Intra-sentential code-switching：Bilinguals often switch between their two languages in the middle of a conversation. These code-switches can take place between or within sentences, involving phrases or words or even parts of words. The switching of words is the beginning of borrowing, which occurs when the new word becomes more or less integrated into the second language.
“Hi，Johnny，公司最近lay-off人没有？”
“快了，快了，从day one开始，我就知道这家公司有problem，像是限制使用conference call，you know，到处都是crisis，我真不知道我还能survive多久？”
“这种事，worry也没有用，我们是on the same boat, sooner or later，我这家公司也会announce，在美国工作就是这样，没有job security，反正这种事，you know，who know？”