Chapter 8 Language in Use
Teaching objectives:
Enable the students to have a better understanding of pragmatics and pragmatic theories. Teaching Focus:
The difference between pragmatics and semantics
1.Speech act theory
2.The cooperative principle and its four maxims
Teaching Methods and Strategies:
Ss?s practice and T?s comments; PBL; seminar
Teaching Procedures
1. Speech Act Theory
2. The Theory of Conversatinal Implicature
3. Post-Gricean Development
?（T）The cooperative principle, an important pragmatic principle proposed by Grice, aims to explain how we mean more than we say.
?（T）A sentence is a grammatical unit and an utterance is a pragmatic notion.
?（T）According to Searle…s classification of speech acts, request, order, suggest and advise all belong to the same one general class because they are all intended by the speaker to get the hearer to do sth.
Multiple choice
1.An illocutionary act is identical with __
? A.sentence meaning b.the speaker,s intention
? C.lg understanding d.the speaker,s competence
2.the indirect speech act was developed by
? A.John Austin B.Levinson C.John Lyons D.John Searle
Definition
?Pragmatics is generally the study of natural language understanding, and specifically the study of how context influences the interpretation of meanings. In another word it is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.
?In 1937,the American philosopher Charles William Morris introduced the word “Pragmatics” into literature.
?莫里斯（C.Morris）和卡耐基（R.carnap）在1938年《符号基础理论》中提出符号三分说：
?句法学（符号关系学）Syntactics 是研究符号与符号之间的关系；语义学semantics 是研究符号与符号所指对象的关系；语用学pragmatics则是研究符号与符号解释者的关系。
符号三分说
Syntactics: the formal relation of signs to one another.
Semantics: the relations of signs to the objects to which the signs are applicable. Pragmatics: the relation of signs to interpreters.
Semantics & Pragmatics
?Both are concerned with study of meaning.
?没有第一层次的研究，很难进行第二层次的研究
?语用意义不能脱离语言本身因有的内在意义
?语义学是对语言能力(competence)的研究
?语用学是对语言行为(performance)的研究
?语言行为是语言能力的具体体现actual realization Chomsky
Semantics & Pragmatics
?Peter bought a car.
?It was Peter who bought a car.
?It was a car that Peter bought.
?What peter bought was a car.
?句法学：说明这些句子是同一深层经过不同转换的结果
?语义学：这些句子都是同义的。
?语用学：这些句子都是不同的。
恭喜你
?语音学家:分析其中每个字的发音以及整个句子的语调。
?句法学家:指出这是一个无主语的祈使句，有一个动词加一个代词组成。
?语义学家:这句话的意思：向某个人表示祝贺。
?语用学家:将结合具体语境，考虑说话人是谁，“你”又是谁，说话人在怎样的情况下向“你”道喜，他是真的道喜，还是挖苦嘲讽，甚至是泄愤？
?Pragmatics may also be defined as the study of language in actual use.
?Meaning in pragmatics is different from the meaning we studied in semantics mostly in the sense that pragmatic meaning depends more on context.
Sentence Meaning It is the abstract context-independent entity called semantic proposition.
Utterance Meaning It is context-dependent. It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.
（C）____ is the study of the relationship between symbols and their interpreters.
A. Syntax B .Semantics
C. Pragmatics
D. Sociolinguistics
58. ____ is concerned with the study of the actual use of language in communication.
A. sociolinguistics
B. semantics
C. pragmatics
D. synchronic linguistics
?Answer: B
82. Once the notion of ____ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.
A. meaning
B. context
C. form
D. content
?Answer: B
Speech act theory
?The first major theory in the study of language in use.
?Originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin.
?How to Do Things with Words (1962)《怎样用词做事》
?Performantive & Constative
?The theory of Illocutionary Act
Performative & Constative
?If the uttering of the sentences is a part of the doing of an action, the sentences are called performatives. And verbs like name are called performative verbs.
?I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.
?I promise to finish it in time.
?I apologize.
?言有所为包括完成一个动作如结婚、命名、遗赠、打赌或实施某一行为如许诺、警告、道歉、欢迎等。
?In contrast, constatives are descriptions of what the speaker is doing at the moment of speaking.
?同济大学Illustrate the difference between constative and performative utterance.
?(2) Searl对言外行为的分类
?1）阐述类（representatives），swear, state, assert, claim, guess, hypothesize.
?2）指令类(directives)，beg, request, advise, invite, suggest, insist, order, demand.
?3）承诺类(commissives)，promise, undertake, vow.
?4）表达类(expressives)，apologize, congratulate, thank, sympathize, condole.
?5）宣告类(declarations), name, declare, appoint.
?东南大学2002
?What are the five general types of illocutionary speech acts John Searle has specified?
Give examples to each of them.
Felicity conditions 合适条件
?There are conditions for performatives to meet to be appropriate or felicitous. Austin suggested the following conditions:
? A. (i) There must be a relevant conventional procedure,
?(ii) The relevant participants and circumstance must be appropriate.
? B. The procedure must be executed (i) correctly and (ii) completely.
? C. (i) The relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelings and intentions,
?(ii) must follow it up with actions as specified.
?Example:
?the case of a ship-launching ceremony; the case of bequeathing one?s watch; the case of betting
?Features of typical performatives:
?Use first person singular subject, simple present tense, indicative mood, active voice and performative verbs
53. The sentence “ I apologize!” belongs to the category of _____ according to the speech
act theory.
A. expressive
B. performative
C. representative
D. constative
?Answer: B
19. The _ D ___ function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because
it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.
A. performative
B.phatic
C.recreational
D.emotive
81. The function of the sentence “Lovely weather, isn?t it?” is _____
A. informative
B. phatic
C. performative
D. recreational
Answer: B
Functions of Language
–informative （信息功能）
–interpersonal function （人际功能）
–Performative (施为功能，该概念来自于Austin & Searle 的言语行为理论speech act theory)。
–Emotive function（感情功能）
–Phatic communion （交互性功能：如礼节性的交谈ritual exchanges, 俚语slangs, jokes, 行话jargons等。通常是用来填充谈话内容空缺的情况，如英
国人谈论天气。该术语来源于人类语言学家Malinowski马林诺夫斯基。）–Recreational function （娱乐性功能，a baby?s babbling or a chanter?s chanting）
–Metalingual function （元语言功能，用语言来谈论语言)
a theory of the Illocutionary act
?An Locutionary Act means that when we speak, we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds with a certain meaning.
?An Illocutionary Act is using a sentence to perform a function.
? A Perlocutionary Act is the result or effects that are produced by meanings of saying something.
100. John Austin proposed ____ in the late 1950s.
A. Speech Act Theory
B. 7 types of meaning
C. Cooperative Principle
D. Predication analysis
?Answer: A
149.The first major theory in the study of language in use in called ____.
A. illocutionary theory
B. Speech Act Theory
C. conversational implicature
D. the Q and R-principle
?Answer: B
60. ____refers to the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.
A. Locutionary act
B. illocutionary act
C. perlocutionary act
D. speech act
Answer: A
the theory of conversational implicature
?the Cooperative Principle
?characteristics of implicature
Conversational implicature
?Proposed by another Oxford philosopher Herebrt Paul Grice.
?Logic and Conversation《逻辑与形式》
?在我们所说的话和我们说话的用意之间常有一定的距离，这种话语的用意就是“会话含义”（Conversational implicature）
?A: Can you tell me the time?
?B: Well, the mail has already come.
?A: Are you going to John’s birthday party?
?B: I’ve heard Mary is going.
the Cooperative Principle
?Quantity Maxim
?Quality Maxim
?Relation Maxim
?Manner Maxim
Quantity Maxim
make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange).
Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
?A: Where does X live?
?B: Somewhere in the suburbs of the city.
?Dear Sir,
?Mr. X’s command of English is excellent and his attendance at tutorials has been regular, yours, etc.
Quality Maxim:
?Try to make your conversation one that is true.
?Do not say what you believe to be false.
?Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
?Life is a journey.
?Life is a box of chocolate.
?He is a fox.
?He has a heart of stone.
?Relation Maxim
?Be relevant
?A:Can you answer the telephone?
?B:I’m in the bath.
?A:The hostess is an awful bore, don’t think?
B:The roses are lovely, aren’t they?
?Manner Maxim
?Be perspicuous
?avoid obscurity of expressions.
?Avoid ambiguity.
?Be brief.
?Be orderly.
?A: Let’s get the kids something.
?B: Okay, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.
?Miss X pro duced a series of sounds that correspond closely with the score of “Home, Sweet Home.”
1. There are ____ maxims under the cooperative principle.
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
Answer: C
2. The maxim of ____ requires that a participation’s contributio n be relevant to the
conversation.
A. quantity
B. quality
C. manner
D. relation
?Answer: D
3. The maxim of quality requires: do not say what you believe to be ____.
A. false
B. true
C. indirect
D. insufficient
?Answer: A
4. Grice introduces four categories of maxims, which one means we should be clear in our meaning?
A. Quantity Maxim
B. Manner Maxim
C. Quality Maxim
D. Relation Maxim
?Answer: B
How to explain the following example with the cooperative principle?
?A: Can you answer the telephone?
? B.i am in the bath.
?Consider the following exchange:
?A:Tom is an excellent linguist.Don′t you think?
?B:He is a good cook.
?WHAT maxim does B violate in the exchange?and what do you think would be the possible implicature of B?
?Using what you know about Grice′s cooperative principle and its four maxims to analyze the following short exchange.(20 points)
?同事甲：小张昨晚去哪儿了？
?同事乙：今天早上我看见一辆白色富康停在小林家门口。
?Xiao Zhang drove to Xiao Lin′s last night. Maxim of relation or relevance
?Can you think of a situation in which B utterance in the following is relevant?
?A: I do think Mrs.Jenkins is an old windbag,don′t you?
?B: Huh, lovely weather for March, isn′t it?
?At a genteel tea party.
? A has committed a social gaffe(出丑）.
Conversational implicatures
?People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.
?H. P. Grice
?William James lectures at Harvard in 1967
?Logic and Conversation in 1975
?Annie: Was the dessert any good?
?Mark: Annie, Cherry pie is cherry pie.
characteristics of implicature
?1) Calculability: the fact that speakers try to convey conversational implicatures and hearers are able to understand them suggests that implicatures are calculable.
?你长得真爱国啊！
2) cancellability:
?Also known as DEFEASIBILITY（可废除性）.
?The presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the
conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts. So if any of them changes, the implicature will also change.
?可取消性一般由两个因素引起：一是说话人在原先的话语上附加一个分句来表明（或暗示）自己要取消（或废除）原来说话的语用含义；二是话语在特定的语境中表明（或暗示）说话人意欲取消（或废除）该话语中的语用含义。
?A) 通过附加一个分句来取消含义的例子：
a. John has three cows.
b. John has only three cows and no more.
c. John has three cows, if not more.
d. John has at least three cows.
?B) 话语的语用含义在特定的语境中可被取消的例子：
?School staff member: Has John got 50 credits?
?Teacher: Yes, he has got 50 credits all right.
?A: Do you want some coffee?
?B1: Coffee would keep me awake.
?B2: Coffee would keep me awake. I want to stay up.
?In each of the following sentences, the second part cancels some information by the first part. However, this seems to result in quite acceptable utterance in group (1) and in very awkward in group (2).explain why.
?Group (1)
? A.老张有三个孩子，其实还不止三个。
? B.我只喜欢黄色和蓝色，不过试试红色也未尝不可。
? C.约翰的普通话说得还可以，确切的说是非常棒。
?Group (2)
? A.我特后悔选修了这门课，其实我没有选修这门课。
? B.她这次考试又不及格，不过她上次及格了。
C.我在乡下日子过得很苦，说真的，我没在乡下呆过。
Answer
?In each sentence in group (1), the information cancelled by the second part is the implicature of the first part. This is possible because of the cancel ability of implicatures.the presence of a conversational implicature relies on a number of factors: the conventional meaning of words used, the CP, the linguistic and situational contexts etc.if any of them changes, the implicature will also change.
?By contrast, the two parts in group (2) are inconsistent with each other in their sense relationship, that is, if X is true, Y is false,; also, if Y is true, X is false.
?3) Non-detachability: it means that a conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form.
?如果话语在特定的语境中产生了语用含义，则无论使用什么样的同义结构，含义始终存在。假如大家都知道Jack is an idiot,但偏要嘲笑说Jack is a genius，含义为“杰克非常愚蠢。”改说任何一种同义结构，含义不变：
?A: Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
B: There’ll be an exam tomorrow.
I’ll take an exam tomorrow.
Isn’t there an exam tomorrow?
?4) Non-conventionality非规约性
?Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It varies with context.
?会话含义是通过合作原则中各项准则，通过话语的字面意义，结合语境推导出来的。
先有字面意义，才有语用含义。含义不是字面意义，也不是字面意义的一部分。字面意义在话语中是不变的，而语用含义却可能各式各样，随着语境的变化，含义也可能变化或消失。
?It’s cold here.
A1：下午踢球去吧！
A2：老王住院了？B：上午还在换草皮。
A3: 足球场安装了一个新门柱。
?Explain the relationship between cooperative principle and conversational implicature.
?Pragamatically account fo the difference between (1) What do you mean by X? AND (2) What does X mean?
?Explain with examples the reasons why utterance meaning is context-dependent.
? A professor wrote a reference letter for his past student X WHO is applying for a fellowship in philosophy:”Dear sir, Mr.X′s command of English is excellent, and his attendance at tutorials has been regular….”Make comments on this letter in terms of the theory of converational implicature.
?Movie scene:lovers walking by the lake.
?Boy: You look beautiful when donot wear glasses.
?Girl(angrily): then I must be ugly with my glasses on.
?No matter how the boy explained, it was in vain. Explain the reasons why the conversation became such a mess.
Post-Gricean developments
?Relevance theory
?the Q- and R-principles
Relevance theory
?Dan Sperber and Deidre Wilson argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.
?Communication should be seen as an act of making clear one?s intension to express something, and this act is called an ostensive act.
Relevance Theory 关联理论
?语用学者除了研究“说话人意义”之外，更转向研究“话语的理解”问题。
?“话语的理解”的学者热衷于从认知的角度看待自然语言交际。
?与交际、认知有关的关联理论是近年来给西方语言学界带来较大影响的认知语用理论。
?这种理论体系不以规则为基础（rule- based），也不以准则为基础（maxim-based），而是以几个十分简单的看法作为依据。
?The theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition(关联性：交际与认知).
?They argue that all Gricean maxims should be reduced to a single principle of relevance, which is defined as:
?Every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.
?每一个明示交际行动都传递一种假定：该行动本身具备最佳关联性。
?Two key notions in it:
?Ostensive communication & presumption of optimal relevance
?1) Ostensive communication:
?Communication is not simply a matter of encoding and decoding, it also involves inference. They maintain that inference has only to do with the hearer. From the speaker?s side, communication shou ld be seen as an act of making clear one?s intention to express something. This is called ostensive act. A complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inferential(明示-推理).
?明示-推理交际是交际过程的两个方面。
?从交际者的角度看，交际是一种明示过程。所谓“明示”，就是示意，明白无误地示意。交际时，说话人用明白无误的明说表达出自己的意图；
?而从交际对象的角度看，交际又是一种推理的过程。这里的所谓“推理”，指听话人从说话人用明示手段提供的信息中推断出说话人暗含的意图。
?说话人话语的明示过程实际上提出了一个供听话人推理的认知环境。例如：
?A: Do you like rugby(橄榄球运动）?
?B: I am a New Zealander.
?2) Presumption of optimal relevance
?交际双方之所以能配合默契，主要由于有一个最佳的认知模式---关联性。要认知，就要找关联，要找关联，就要思辨、推理。
?Three definitions of relevance:
? 1. An assumption is relevant in a context if and only if it has some contextual effect in the context.
?当且仅当一个设想在一种语境中具有语境效应时，这个设想在这个语境中才具有关联性。
?A: Come and have a drink this evening.
B: I?m afr aid I have to go to a meeting
?But relevance is a comparative concept. Some assumptions may be more relevant than others. They have improved on the definition by adopting an extent-condition(程度条件) format:
?Extent condition 1:
?An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that its contextual effects in this context are large.
?如果一个设想在一个语境中的语境效应大，那么这个设想在这个语境中就具有关联性。
?Extent condition 2:
?An assumption is relevant in a context to the extent that the effort required to process it in this context is small.
?如果一个设想在一个语境中所需的处理努力小，那么这个设想在这个语境中就具有关联性。
? 2. An assumption is relevant to an individual at a given time if and only if it is relevant in one or more of the contexts available to that individual at that time.
?当且仅当一个设想在某一时刻，在某人可及的一种或多种语境中具有关联性时，这个设想才在当时与那个个体相关联。
? 3. An assumption is relevant to an individual if and only if one or more of the assumptions it makes manifest is relevant to him.
?当且仅当某个现象显映的一个或多个设想与某个体相关时，这个现象才与该个体有关联。
?Presumption of optimal relevance means:
? 1. The set of assumptions {I} which the communicator intends to make manifest to the addressee is relevant enough to make it worth the addressee?s while to process the ostensive stimulus.
?发话者意欲向听话者显映的设想集，具有足够的关联性，使听话人值得花时间去处理该明示性刺激信号。
? 2. The ostensive stimulus is the most relevant one the communicator could have used to communicate {I}.
?这一明示刺激信号，是发话者传递设想集{I}时所能运用的关联性最大的信号。
?Every utterance comes with a presumption of the best balance of effort against effect.
?On the one hand, the effects achievable will never be less than is needed to make it worth processing.
?On the other hand, the effort required will never be more than is needed to achieve these effects. In comparison to the effects achieved, the effort needed is always the smallest.
?Of all the interpretations of the stimulus which confirm the presumption, it is the first interpretation to occur to the addressee that is the one the communicator intended to convey.
? E.g. George has a cat.
?The first interpretation is George has a big domestic cat. But it may also be used to mean George has a tiger, a lion, a jaguar（美洲豹）etc. But this will not be the most relevant on account of the increased processing effort involved. The first interpretation consistent with the principle of relevance is always the best hypothesis.
?最佳的关联性来自最好的语境效果；人们对话语和语境假设的思辨、推理越清楚，人们在思辨和推理过程中无须付出太多的努力，就能取得好的语境效果，从而正确理解话语，使交际获得成功。
Questions
? 1. Define the following terms.
?1) performative 2) constative 3) locutionary act
?4) illocutionary act 5) perlocutionary act 6) cooperative principle
?7) conversational implicature
? 2. Which of these utterances contain “performative verbs” and how did you decide?
?1) I apologize.
?2) He said he was sorry.
?3) I bet you 20￥.
?4) I drive a Mercedes.
? 3. If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answers “Yes” but does not actually
do it, what would you be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.
? 4. How do you understand Grice?s CP and its maxims? Give an example to the violation of each of its maxims?
? 5. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the ?illocutionary force in each of the utterances.
?[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes some popcorn.]
?Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.
?Daughter: I need to get the [violin] stand.
?Father: Is it under the popcorn?
the Q- and R-principles
?These two principles were developed by Laurence Horn. The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim of Grice?s quantity and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims.
?The Q-principle (hearer-based)
?Make your contribution sufficient.
?Say as much as you can.
?The R-principle:
?Make your contribution necessary.
?Say no more than you must.
1. The Q-principle is _____.
A. hearer-based
B. speaker-based
C. both the hearer and the speaker based
D. context-based
?Answer: A
2. The first major theory in the study of language in use in called ____.
? A. illocutionary theory
? B. Speech Act Theory
? C. conversational implicature
? D. the Q and R-principle
?Answer: B
3. “We can do things with words” is the main idea of ____.
? A. the speech act theory
? B. the cooperative principles
? C. the polite principles
? D. pragmatics
?Answer: A
语言学笔记 陈银2014/2/28 Teaching Goal of This Course ?To get a scientific view on language; ?To understand some basic theories on linguistics; ?To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……; ?To prepare for the future research work. Teaching Plan Introduction: ?18-week academic term (including a 2-week holiday, one week revision ) ?Each week: 2-hour teaching ?Main teaching material 《语言学教程》第四版胡壮麟北京大学出版社 ?Auxiliary teaching materials 《语言学概论》蓝纯外语教学与研究出版社 PPT & handouts Distribution of Grades ?10 % Attendance ?10 % Classroom Behavior ?10 % Assignment and oral presentation ?70 % Examination ?The final examination paper will cover all the materials used and all works done during class time and after class time. Requirements: ?Attendance is a “must”for every student. ?Complete all the tasks required. ?Self-discipline is necessary. ?Be attentive and interactive in classroom discussion and presentation. ?Self-study is desirable. ?Preview and review the lessons or do some further reading. Group Work Group work requirements: 1.Oral English (30%) 2.PPT design (30%) 3.Key points coverage (40%)
英语专业八级语言学辅导材料 Section 1 What is Linguistics? https://www.doczj.com/doc/869099322.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal sysmbols used for human _____. A. contact B. communication C. relation D. community 2. Language is _______. A. instinctive B. non-instincitve C. static D. genetically transmitted 3. A linguist regards the changes in language and languages use as ______. A. unnatural B. something to be feared C. natural D. abnormal 4. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A. tree B. crash C. typewriter D. bang 5. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ____. A. interrogative B. directive C. informative D. performative 6. _____ is a grammatical description of a language specially designed as an aid to teaching that language to native or foreign learners. A. Descriptive grammar B. Prescriptive grammar C. Pedagogical grammar D. Universal grammar 7. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be sage and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform? A. Interpersonal. B. Emotive. C. Performative. D. Recreatioal. 8. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrirs caused by time and place, due to this featue of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation? A. Transferability. B. Duality. C. Displacement. D. Arbitrariness. 9. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play accoridng to the functiona of language? —A nice day, isn’t it? —Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive. B. Phatic. C. Performative. D. Interpersonal. 10. Which branch of lingusitcs studies the similarities and differences among languages? A. Diachronic linguistics. B. Synchronic linguistics. C. Prescriptive linguistics. D. comparative linguistics. 11. _____ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the
Language and Society 13073080 刘颖 Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between the language and society, between the use of language and the social structures in which the users of the language live.There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them are that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is used to established and maintain social relationships. Another indication is that the users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environment of a society. As a social phenomenon, language is closely related the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a language form is entirely social. In sociolinguistic studies, speakers are regarded as member of social groups. The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community. The term speech community, or linguistic community, is widely used by sociolinguistics to refer to a community based on language. Within a speech community there exist various social groups. Speechvariety, or linguistic variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistics studies three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, and registers. The study of the relationship between the language and society can be approached in two ways. We can look at society as a whole and consider how it reflects the social differentiations. The other approach is to look at society from the point of view of individual members of the society. The former is sometimes refers to as micro-sociolinguistics or the sociology of language, and the latter a micro-sociolinguistics or sociolinguistics proper. The notion of a language is not monolithic and there exist types or varieties of the same language. Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers. The striking variation of age is well illustrated by children language as it develops, regarding all levels of language from phonology to vocabulary and syntax. Age divisions are 2, 5 and 12. Variation in language use is also associated with the sex of individual speakers. Sex-preferred differentiation in terms of speech varieties of males and females exists in all natural languages across the world. Women in many countries are more status-conscious than men, and therefore more aware of the social significance of linguistic variables. Language reflects obvious sex prejudice. The use of sexist language does not mean that it is the language that is sexist but rather the social attitude connoted in the language is sexist. The meanings of some English words really echo the real traditional roles of men and women in history. As social attitude towards women change in recent years, linguistic changes in many languages are taking place that reflect the feminist movement and the growing awareness that language and language use mirror social attitudes and reinforce stereotypes and bias. The change can be sensed in the morphological variation. Linguistic forms associating sexist prejudice are always intentionally avoided in communication. Gender varieties are caused by society rather than by evolution.
语言学笔记 陈银2014/3/8 Lecture 2 Pretest ?Define the following terms: ? 1. design features ? 2. arbitrariness ? 3. duality ? 4. creativity ? 5. displacement ? 6. language Answers ? 1. design features:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.(从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。) ? 2. arbitrariness：the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.(语言符号和这些符号所指的实体间不存在任何物质的联系。) ? 3. duality：the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (eg. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters) 语言的结构组织可分为两个抽象的层面：有意义的单元（如词语）和无意义的片段（如语音.字母）? 4.creativity：also called productivity, refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those which he has never heard before, but which are appropriate to the speaking situation.(亦称“能产性，指人们可以说出（或构造）也可以懂得无穷多的语句，哪怕是从未听说过的句子（只要语境条件充分）。”) ? 5.displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speakers immediate situation. (语言能够指称说话人即时情景以外的语境。) ? https://www.doczj.com/doc/869099322.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类用于交际的有声符号系统。) What’s the property of language? ?Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat ?Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with. ?Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare ?V ocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form. ?Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess, e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.
英语专八人文语言学测试题 1. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language? A language is a system B language is symbolic C Animal also have language D language is arbitrary 2. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human loanguage is __________. A arbitrary B non-arbitrary C logical D non-productive 3. Which of the foloowing terms best describes the “-ate” in the word “affectionate”? A derivational morpheme B infectional morpheme C free morpheme D prefix 4. Which of the foloowing terms best describes the pair of words kill and dill? A minimal pair B phonemic contrast C closed class words D bound morphemes 5. What is the basic lexical relation between piece and peace? A synonymy B antonymy C homonymy D polysemy 6. /p/ is different from /b/ in ______. A the manner of articulation B the shape of the lips C the vibration of the vocal cords D the place of articulation 7. Of all the speech organs, the ____ is / are the most flexible. A mouth B lips C tongue D vocal cords 8. The phonological features of the consonant /t/ are ______. A voiced stop B voiceless stop C voiced fricative D voiceless fricative 9. The branch of linguistics that studies show context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ________. A semantics B pragmatics C sociaolinguistics D psycholinguistics 10. The utterance “We’ve already eaten ten tons.” Obviously violates the maxim of ______. A quality B quantity C relation D manner 11. All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded-lips, i.e. rounded, except _____. A // 12. The semantic relationship between the two sentences “Mary’s son is an engineer.” And “Mary has a son.” is _______. A entailment B presupposition C synonymy D inconsistency 13. Which of the following sentences is a commissive? A The eqarth is round. B I now prinounce you husband and wife. C I’m really sorry! D I’ll be here tomorrow 14. Semantic feature analysis attempts to account for the _____ of a word according to the presence or abence of a specific semantic feature in the word. A conceptual meaning B social meaning C connotative meaning D affective meaning 15. ____ act is the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the basis of its literal meaning. A Speech B Locutionary C Illocutionary D Perlocutionary 16. _____is a group of people using a given language or dialect. They use the same kind of language or dialect which is highly strtified in terms of social division. A Speech community B Individual dialect C Regional dialect D Social dialect 17. The situation where two very different varieties of the same language are used side by side for two different sets of functions is termed as _______.
Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts. F 2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers. F 3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. T 4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations. T 5. The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. T 6. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. F 7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects. F 8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. F 9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. F 10. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. F 11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. F 12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. T 13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. F 14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds. F 15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages. F 16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. T 17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn’t. F 18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing. F 19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. T 20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting. F II. Fill in each of the blanks below with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c___ community _____. 22. Speech v_____ variety ____ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. 23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a d_____ dialectal _____ variety of a language. 24. Language standardization is also called language p___ planning ____. 25. Social variation gives rise to s__ sociolects _______ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc. 26. S_____ Stylistic __ variation in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum
TEM-8翻译必备，英语专业的顶起来哦~作者：邱妍 （1）把握大局：grasp the overall situation (2) 摆谱儿：put on airs;keep up appearances(3)白手起家:start from scratc h (4)拜年：pay New Year call (5)班门弄斧：teach one's grand ma to suck eggs (5)保质期：guarantee period(6)报销：apply for reimbursement(7)爆冷门：produce an unexpected answer(8)曝光：make public(9)奔小康：strive for a relatively comforta ble life(10)闭门羹：given cold-shoulder（11）比上不足，比下有余：fall short of the best,but be better than the best(12)逼上梁山：be driven to drastic alternatives(13)变相涨价：dis guised inflation(14)边远贫困地区：outlying poverty-stricken areas(15)边缘知识人：Marginal intellectuals(16)表面文章：Lip service;surface formality(17) 博导：Ph.D supervisor(18)补 发拖欠的养脑筋：Clear up pension payments in arrears(19)不眠之夜：white night(20)菜鸟：green hand(21)产品科技含量techn oligical element of a product(22)长江三角洲：Yangtze River de lta(23)长江中下游：the middle and lower reaches of Changjian g River(24)超前消费:pre-mature consumption(25)城镇居民最低 生活保障：a minimum standard of living for residents(26)城镇职工医疗保险制度：the system of medical insurance for urban w orkers(27)重复建设：buiding redundant project;duplication of similar projects(28)充值卡：rechargeable card(29)春运：pas senger transport around the Chinese lunar new year(30)打破僵局：break the deadlock/stalemate(31)电脑盲：computer illiter ate(32)点球：penalty kick(33)电视会议：video conference(34)电视直销：TV home shopping(35)定向培训：training for specifi c posts(36)动感电影：multidimensional movie(37)豆腐渣工程：jerry-built projects(38)对...毫无顾忌：make no bones abou t(39)夺冠：take the crown(40)政治多元化：political pluralis m(41)服务行业：catering industry(42)复合型人才：inter-disci plinary talent(43)岗位培训：on-the-job training（44）高等教育自学考试：self-study higher education examination(45)高新技术产业开发区：high and new technological industrial develop ment zone(46)各大菜系：major styles of cooking(47)各行各 业：every walk of life(48)功夫不负有心人：Everything comes t o him who waits(49)各尽其能：let each person do his best(50)公益活动：public welfare activities(51)工薪阶层：state emplo yee;salaried person(52)过犹不及：going too far ia as bad as
8. Suprasegmental Features the phonological properties that occur in the sound units larger that one segment (phoneme), such as word sentence . They may include stress, tone, intonation, pause(juncture), etc. 1) Stree the pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables. In English we have three kinds of stress: Primary stress (marked with superscript) Secondary stress (marked with subcript) Unstress (unmarked) Stress can be divided into word stress and sentence stress. Word Stress German, Finnish and Hungarian--- the first syllable of a word French, Turkish and Polish---the last syllable. English 'answer a'bove mana'gerial incompre'hensive industrali'zatio n Word stress can distinguish meaning in English: 'import n describe the state im'port v describe the action present [p'reznt] adj being in the place in question present [pri'zent] v give, submit 'blackboard black'board White House white house English teacher English teacher Sick nurse 照看病人的护士sick nurse有病的护士 Sentence Stress the kind of stress that falls on certain word or words in a sentence. Sentence stress is not wholly random in English, there are some rules to follow: 1)Semantically important words usually have sentence stress. She 'studies from 'morning till 'night. 'John has 'gone to the 'school. 2) Rhythm may influence the placement of the stress in the sentence. She's 'fifteen years old. She's only fif'teen. He 'went away. John went 'away c) In certain syntactic structures, some words usually do not receive stress. Has he gone to town this morning? How do you do, Mr Smith? "Yes" he said. “Where are you going?” t he man asked Sentence stress also distinguish meaning in language: a) You may 'not go there