Positioning in Practice
Powpaka Samart
Sasin Journal of Management, vol.5, 1999, pp.79-97
市场定位策略
勃帕克斯玛特
萨辛管理学报，第五卷，1999，pp.79-97
市场定位策略
营销的战略性角色
对于拥有两个或两个以上战略经营单位的大公司来说，通常会有三个层次的战略，分别是：总体战略，战略的－企业－单位层面的（或企业层面的）战略，和营销战略。一个公司的战略在公司使命上提供了方向，它说明了公司的业务范围和相应的成长政策。一个战略经营单位说明了在一个行业里的竞争情况。最后，一个营销战略提供了一个带有独特市场细分的企业目标和对下一级战略的指导方针。
在企业层面，管理部门必须协调多个战略经营单位的活动。因此，有关该组织的业务范围和适当的资源部署，在其各部门或企业分配的决定是企业战略的主要焦点。试图开发和维护独特能力的公司往往会把重点放在创造卓越的财务、资金和人力资源，设计有效的组织结构和程序，以及寻求在该公司的各项业务的协同效应上。
在业务层面的战略，经理们注意力集中的焦点往往会在战略经营单位应该如何与其行业内其他经营单位的竞争上。一个商业战略的主要问题是如何实现和保持竞争优势。经营单位间的协同是要求整个产品市场和各职能部门发挥相应作用的。
一个营销策略的主要目的是有效地分配和协调营销活动和市场资源，以实现在一个特定的产品市场的目标。有关的营销战略范围的决定包括通过细分目标市场来追求和拓宽现有的产品线。在这个战略高度，企业通过有效整合多种符合目标细分市场上顾客需求的营销组合元素来寻求竞争优势和协同效应。
定位的战略性角色
基于上述讨论，很显然，营销策略由两部分组成：目标市场战略和营销组合战略。目标市场战略三个过程组成：市场细分，目标（或目标市场选择），市场定位等。营销组合战略指的是创造一个独特的产品，分销，促销和定价策略（4PS）的过程，旨在满足客户的需求和希望。目标市场战略和营销组合策略有密切的联系，有很强的相互依存关系。目标市场战略是用来制订营销组合策略方针。
市场细分是把一个市场当中具有相似需求和特点、可能会对特定产品和特定的营销程序产生相似回应的人们，分成不同的客户的子集的过程。目标或目标市场的选择是一个或多个，通过评估每个细分市场，寻求利益的相对吸引力，而且该公司业务的相对优势。最后，定位是设计产品和发展战略营销计划，共同在目标市场建立一个持久的竞争优势的过程。
目标市场定位战略的概念是众所周知的，尤其是被大多数消费品营销从业者在制定
市场营销组合策略有用作为非理论概念的方式。然而在实践中，营销人员往往绕过正式的定位，直接制定营销组合策略。这可能是由于这样的事实，这些经理们不知道如何获取感知图---表明这是一个客户原始需求的产品的位置。
本文的目的是展示营销从业者能够获得定位和营销组合策略制定的感知图的现实途径。具体来说，感知映射及其关系的定位总是被第一时间注意到。这是通过统计技术的讨论，可以遵循用于创建感知图。最后，通过因子分析定位过程的例子是证明。
感性定位：战略认同
优点：
定位追求的是特定的产品和目标市场需要直接的切合度，因此认为合适定位的概念必须定义相对于客户的需求和竞争的产品。这是最重要的战略概念之一，因为它与细分有关。定位反映了营销公司的精心努力，描绘出他们所提供的客户和利益，以区别于竞争者并从中脱颖而出。定位是一个产品=成功的关键。不仅仅是说产品传递给顾客需要，更为重要的是它比竞争更能带来好处。
有效的定位需要评估竞争产品所占据的位置，确定潜在的某些重要的方面，并选择在市场上选择一个一个合适的能使该组织的营销工作将产生最大影响的位置。定位为战略利益的重要工具是感性的地图。
顾客需求和知觉图：方法与程序
感知图代表主要客户需求的产品的位置。地图视觉感知维度总结了客户使用产品的感知和判断，并确定如何竞争力的产品放在这些方面上。在实践中，营销人员需要知道一些维数，这些方面的名字，一些更详细客户需要弥补的维数，竞争在哪里，并在为新产品或重新定位的理想位置。
一套有用的消费者行为模式已被拟订来把握市场上消费者态度对各种品牌的反映。Hauser和Urban(1977年），在一个新产品的背景下，描述产品属性的处理如压缩成较小的维数的总和，这被称作为Aevaluation标准。其中心思想是，在市场的品牌可以由一组分在一个多维空间的点组成。这个空间的坐标轴代表认为属性所特有的刺激。两种主要的分析方法，最常用的评价标准，建立派生感性地图decompositional方法，以多维尺度为基础，构图方法，基于因子分析（丽莲和科特勒1983年）。这些程序的每一个讨论在下面一节。
多个维度
多维尺度（MDS）是一个程序，其中一个产品的替代品减少了空间的反映知觉相似产品之间的异同，并通过跨产品的距离设置。
要使用多维尺度来创建感知图：
1.有客户根据其相对的相似性评估现有的产品，形成矩阵的平均距离为每个条目
代表之间的客户，要分析产品的相似或相异。
2.使用多维尺度来拟定多维图。
3.根据管理经验，由于刺激次数的限制，以及Astress情节选择尺寸适当的名额。
4.在增长图或者衰退图上某个相应的位置，对维度进行命名，以此来调和属性的比率。
多维尺度是一个强大的技术，但必须慎用。有几个问题需要考虑。第一个问题是有关所需人数的刺激（即产品）。 Klabir（1969）显示，至少有八个产品都需要创造一个良好的二维地图。格林，温德（1973）表明，维数应比产品数量的三分之一少。第二个问题是有关维度命名。分析师普遍使用产品类别的知识来解释好的产品=定位的维度。这个程序是任意的，涉及高度的创造力。最后一个问题是有关维数。没有什么理论来指导的维数的选择。然而，从MDS的应力测量获得的可以绘制对维数来确定边缘的应力变化是越来越小。
广泛使用如SAS和SPSS统计软件等简便的数据包包含多维尺度的方案。例如，在SPSS软件中，我们可以通过选择多维尺度得到规模，然后从统计菜单多维尺度分析。
因子分析
因子分析最初是用在努力查明弥补人类智力的。教育与心理研究人员并不认为每一个教育规则能测试测量智力的不同方面。事实上，对于某些对测试的测试成绩是高度相互关联，表明一个更基本的心理能力测试性能的基础。因子分析，试图说明在一些基本的智力因素的测试随后作为口头表达能力，定量能力，空间能力鉴定结果，这些相互关联。自那时以来，因子分析已应用到许多其他问题，是在执行市场营销产品的评估分析常用的技术。
基本因子分析模型假设一个产品的原始感性评级获隐变量或因素产生的少数，而在每个原始知觉差异变量的观察是占了部分由一系列因素的共同部分由和一个因素特定于该变量。在一个由感性因素分析图的构建，产品的位置/品牌研究可以得到平均为每个产品/品牌的受访者的因子得分。因子得分计算出来的因子得分系数，它描述作为原始评分因素分数矩阵的线性函数。
用因子分析来建立感知图：
1、曾经，有消费者把所有研究中的产品/品牌归功于一系列的属性。你可以使用李克特量表（锚尺度非常赞成并坚决不同意），或在你的语意差别量表问卷（双极形容词量表）。
2、用因子分析与旋转（如varimax rotation）分析数据。还要求所有的产品/品牌因子得分。
3、对所有的平均每/品牌产品的受访者因子得分。
4、使用每个产品/品牌为坐标来绘制的空间位置上的感性因素的平均分数。通常，
二维图是有意义的，容易理解。如果超过两个因素是提取/确定从产品的属性集，多个二维地图可能会生成。
5、使用因素负荷表，这是一个输出代表之间的属性表和该计算机算法确定的因素的相关性，来命名的因素。
6、Theideal线（占得分的因素在决定对品牌态度的相对重要性），可以鉴定出作为因变量和自变量因子得分多元回归函数的态度。
因子分析是一种非常强大的生产感知图和有用的技术。还有许多软件的PC包含此统计技术（如SPSS软件，SAS，BMDP）。
在这次会议上，我们学习了短暂的目标市场战略的概念（其中包括市场细分，目标和定位），战略品牌管理和定位的研究。然后我们经历了概念和定位研究数据分析的步骤
目标市场战略
目标市场战略是确定一个（或多个目标市场）的过程和它的（或他们）独特的定位。目标市场策略包括：（1）市场细分，（2）市场选择，（3）市场定位。
市场细分：市场细分是一个分割成几部分或几个同质异构的潜在市场的进程。换句话说，在一个潜在的市场客户可能有不同的偏好。因此，使用产品和产品计划并不是一个有效和高效的办法。为了有效和有效率，管理者需要根据顾客的喜好对潜在顾客进行整合，根据该公司的实力，用独特的服务来满足其中一个或多个组别细分市场。另一种看待市场细分的方式是测试市场是否存在同质偏好或者需求差异性。良好的市场细分结果应具有以下特征的部分：（1）实体性（即：每个细分市场的容量足够大）（2）可盈利/可辨识/可测性（即每个段可在人口或消费心理特征方面的描述）（3）无障碍性（即媒体消费和购物行为可以识别）（4）可区分性（即，每个段都有一个唯一的偏好问题）。
市场选择：定位或目标市场的选择是选择一个或多个细分市场是目标市场或目标市场的过程中。该细分市场是通过匹配的优势/本公司的服务能力与在每个分部利润潜力的部分选择。通用电气公司矩阵（市场的吸引力与业务地位）是一个目标的好工具。有四个定位战略，你可以使用：（1）集中或集中的定位策略（即选择一大段是你的目标市场）（2）多段或有区别的定位策略（即选择两个或两个以上的大型段与一个为他们每个人独特的定位你的目标市场）（3）质量目标的策略（即选择两个或两个以上部分或全部是只有一个，他们都是你的目标市场定位）（4）利基战略目标（即选择一个小市场，是你的目标市场）
市场定位：定位有两层含义。首先，定位是最重要的好处是被特定目标市场的客户所驱动的。其次，定位是通过营销组合策略（即4Ps）创造（以利益或利益而言）在客
户的心中品牌形象的过程。必须反映品牌形象的最重要的好处（县），目标客户想要的。要在目标市场定位你的品牌，首先要进行定位研究，以建立可在目标竞争品牌的感知地图）。
策略营销
正如您可能已经知道，任何企业的主要目标是使利润。另一方面，也有非营利性的或不以营利为目的的组织在社会上存在着。他们的主要目标是实现一个非盈利目的，或起到一定的作用，例如，香港红十字会希望获得足够的血液来帮助病人。这些非营利组织仍然需要赚钱或获取金钱。但他们不这样做为了赚钱，他们这么做是为了争取足够的资源来帮助他们实现他们的非利润目标。
为了实现其目标，企业和非营利组织需要有不同的人来执行不同的功能。他们通常把组织人谁执行相同的“部门”相同的功能。会计，财务，生产，研发，物流，营销和销售部门，通常在一个企业组织中存在的例子。
“什么是营销？”用美国营销协会（1985年）的定义，市场营销是“规划和构想，定价，分销，商品，服务和思想交流，促进建立或满足个人和组织目标的促销执行的过程。”在定义的基础上，这是很清楚的定义是一个业务功能倾向于对市场（或什么样的营销人）。从本质上讲，市场营销的功能是识别正确的目标市场（一消费者或企业客户组），创造、沟通，并提供本公司的产品（可以是货物，服务，理念，或货物，服务的结合，和想法）给所选择的客户。做营销策划和执行营销计划的都是什么样的人。这由产品策略，价格策略，分销策略和沟通策略组成。执行营销计划的人将创造机会或促进交流该组织与目标客户之间的交流。
当我们在市场营销由AMA的定义（2004年）看，你可以看到，市场营销，作为一种管理理念，要求每一个功能或部门整合到一起，以满足目标客户。目标客户是该公司的业务重点。（1）大家一起努力创造，交流和传递价值给客户（2）管理与客户的方式有利于公司及其利益相关者的关系。
然后，我们谈论的价值公式，以证明客户创造价值，从每一个公司的雇员综合努力来。
价值=质量/价格+关系
品质：品质代表了所有的客户购买你的产品得到的。因此，质量必须由您的客户来评判。有两种品质类型：（1）客观质量（即实际的质量，可在实验室测试根据该规范）（2）知觉或主观质量（即：以质量为“知觉”或“相信”的客户）。研发和生产人员，确保了公司产品的客观质量是可以接受的。质量标准，如全面质量管理，质量控制，国际标准化组织，措施等，以确保使用的客观质量。营销人用整合营销传播（IMC），以建
立在顾客心中的感知质量。重要的是有一个客观和感知质量之间的匹配。
价格：价格的决定因素之一是成本问题。今天，有两个主要来源可以降低成本：（1）全球采购(2）物流管理。全球采购的关注与两个连续决定：（1）制造或购买（即生产的产品由自己或分合同的其他人产生对你）（2）凡作出或哪里可以买到。适当的全球采购可以给公司带来一定的成本优势。物流是有关于战略转移，产品储存到公司内部的，流出企业。购买或到港物流的流动和原料储存，加工材料，零部件到公司的关注。生产支持内部物流的流动和公司内部半成品存储问题。最后，物流配送站或出站物流与成品从公司转移到客户的关注。物流的主要概念是：（1）提供所需的服务水平，包括内部和外部的客户（2）以最低的总成本。物流系统由3个周期的表现：（1）进货物流（或采购），（2）内部或内部物流（或制造支持），和（或物流）外向物流。一个良好的物流系统不仅为公司减少了成本，也为公司提供了竞争优势。换言之，一个良好的物流系统可以给公司提供适当的服务水平最低的总成本在持续的竞争优势。
在物流服务水平包括：
1、可用性
2、经营绩效：a.速度 b.湾一致性 c.灵活性 d.故障和恢复
3、可靠性
物流费用包括：
1、订单管理成本
2、库存管理成本
3、物料搬运成本
4、运输成本
5、仓储成本
关系：（1）与客户关系（即关系营销和客户关系管理或CRM）（2）与供应商和渠道成员（即:战略联盟/伙伴）关系。与客户和供应商的强烈关系/渠道成员都在为客户创造价值的过程很重要。
作为一个公司，采用其管理理念或公司定向营销将尝试在满足生存和成长的需要为重点的长期和希望（即，喜好更准确）通过在公司的每一个人综合努力。因此，一个营销导向的公司具有以下特点：
(1)长期的重点（即，利润和作为客户忠诚度/长期关系而增长）
(2)以客户为中心或以客户为导向（即，了解目标客户的需要/希望/问题及其替代品的现在和未来）
(3)竞争对手或客户的重点方向（即，了解各主要竞争对手的目标和战略，现在和将来）
(4)跨职能或跨部门协调（即每一位员工对对公司的成功/失败负责）
Positioning in Practice
Strategic Role of Marketing
For large firms that have two or more strategic business units (SBUs), there are generally three levels of strategy: corporate-level strategy, strategic-business-unit-level (or business-level) strategy, and marketing strategy. A corporate strategy provides direction on the company's mission, the kinds of businesses it should be in, and its growth policies. A business-level strategy addresses the way a strategic business unit will compete within its industry. Finally, a marketing strategy provides a plan for pursuing the company's objectives within a specific market segment. Note that the higher level of strategy provides both the objectives and guidelines for the lower level of strategy.
At corporate level, management must coordinate the activities of multiple strategic business units. Thus the decisions about the organization's scope and appropriate resource deployments/allocation across its various divisions or businesses are the primary focus of corporate strategy.Attempts to develop and maintain distinctive competencies tend to focus on generating superior financial, capital, and human resources; designing effective organizational structures and processes; and seeking synergy among the firm's various businesses.
At business-level strategy, managers focus on how the SBU will compete within its industry. A major issue addressed in business strategy is how to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. Synergy for the unit is sought across product-markets and across functional department within the unit.
The primary purpose of a marketing strategy is to effectively allocate and coordinate marketing resources and activities to accomplish the firm's objectives within a specific product-market. The decisions about the scope of a marketing strategy involve specifying the target market segment(s) to pursue and the breadth of the product line to offered. At this level of strategy, firms seek competitive advantage and synergy through a well-integrated program of marketing mix elements tailored to the needs and wants of customers in the target segment(s).
Strategic Role of Positioning
Based on the above discussion, it is clear that marketing strategy consists of two parts: target market strategy and marketing mix strategy. Target market strategy consists of three processes: market segmentation, targeting (or target market selection), and positioning. Marketing mix strategy refers to the process of creating a unique blend of
product, distribution, promotion, and pricing strategies (the four Ps) designed to satisfying the needs and wants of customers. Target market strategy and marketing mix strategy are closely linked and have a strong interdependence. The position of a product identified from the target market strategy serves as a guideline for formulating marketing mix strategy.
Market segmentation is the process by which a market is divided into distinct customer subsets of people with similar needs and characteristics that lead them to respond in similar ways to a particular product offerings and strategic marketing programs.Targeting or target market selection is the process of selecting a segment or segments to serve by evaluating the relative attractiveness of each segment, the benefit sought, and the firm's relative business strengths.Finally, positioning is the process of designing product offerings and developing strategic marketing programs which collectively create an enduring competitive advantage in the target market.
The concept of target market strategy especially positioning is well-known and widely accepted by most marketing practitioners especially consumer goods managers as useful Atheoretical concepts in formulating marketing mix strategy. In practice, however, marketers tend to bypass formal positioning and go directly to formulate marketing mix strategy. This may be due to the fact that these managers do not know how to obtain perceptual maps, which are maps that show the positions of products on a set of primary customer needs.
The objective of this paper is to demonstrate a practical way for marketing practitioners to obtain perceptual maps for positioning and marketing mix strategy formulation. Specifically, perceptual mapping and its relation to positioning are first discussed. This is followed by discussion of statistical techniques that can be used to create perceptual maps. Finally, a example of positioning process by factor analysis is demonstrated.
Perceptual Mapping: Identification of Strategic
Benefits
Positioning is the perceived fit between a particular product and the needs of the target market, and thus positioning concept must be defined relative to the customer’s needs and competitive offerings. It is one of the most important strategic concepts because it is concerned with differentiation. Positioning reflect the careful efforts of marketing firms to portray the benefits they offer customers and to differentiate themselves from competition. Positioning is critical for a product=s success. Not only must the product deliver the benefits the customer needs, but it must do so better than competition.
Effective positioning requires assessing the positions occupied by competing products, determining the important dimensions underlying these positions, and choosing a position in
the market where the organization’s marketing efforts will have the greatest impact.An essential tool for strategic benefit positioning is perceptual maps.
Customer Needs and Perceptual Mapping: Method and Procedures
Perceptual maps represent the positions of products on a set of primary customer needs. Perceptual maps visually summarized the dimensions that customers use to perceive and judge products and identify how competitive products are placed on those dimensions. In practice, marketers need to know the number of dimensions, the names of those dimensions, what more detailed customer needs make up the dimensions, where competition is positioned, and where the ideal position for a new product or for repositioning is.
A set of useful consumer behavior model has been developed to handle consumer attitudes toward various brands in a marketplace. Hauser and Urban (1977), in a new-product setting, describe the processing of product attributes as compression into smaller number of aggregate dimensions called Aevaluation criteria. The central idea is that the brands in a market can be represented as a set of points in a multidimensional space. The axes of this space represent the perceived attributes that characterize the stimuli. Two main analytical approaches most frequently used to derive evaluation criteria and build perceptual maps are decompositional methods, based on multidimensional scaling, and compositional methods, based on factor analysis (Lilien and Kotler 1983). Each of these procedures is discussed in the following section.
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a set of procedures in which a reduced space of product alternatives reflects perceived similarities and dissimilarities between products by the inter-product distances.
mensional scaling to create perceptual maps:
1.Have customers evaluate existing products according to their relative similarity and form an average proximity matrix whose entries represent the similarities or dissimilarities among the products for each group of customers you wish to analyze.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/7413114800.html,e multidimensional scaling to produce a map in 2, 3, ... dimensions.
3.Based on managerial judgments, limitations owing to the number of stimuli, and a plot of Astress select the appropriate number of dimensions.
4. Name the dimensions based on the relative position of the stimuli or a regression of the map coordinates on attribute ratings.
Multidimensional scaling is a powerful technique, but it must be used with caution. Several issues need to be considered. The first issue is concerned with the number of stimuli (i.e., products) needed. Klabir (1969) shows that at least eight products are needed to create a good two-dimensional map. Green and Wind (1973) suggest that the number of dimensions should be less than one-third of the number of products. The second issue is concerned with the naming of the dimensions. The analyst generally names the dimensions by using knowledge of the product category to explain best the products= positions. This procedure is arbitrary and involves a high degree of creativity. The final issue is concerned with the number of dimensions. There is little theory to guide the selection of the number of dimensions. However, the stress measure obtained from MDS can be plotted against the number of dimensions to determine when marginal changes in stress are becoming small.
Widely used, user-friendly statistical packages such as SAS and SPSS contain the programs for multidimensional scaling. For example, in SPSS, one can obtain a multidimensional scaling analysis from the statistics menu by choosing scale and then multidimensional scaling.
Factor Analysis
Factor analysis was originally developed in connection with efforts to identify the major factors making up human intelligence. Educational and psychological researchers did not believe that every test in an educational battery measured a different facet of intelligence. In fact, test scores for certain pairs of tests were highly inter correlated, indicating that a more basic mental ability underlies test performance. Factor analysis was developed to explain these intercorrelations in the test results of a few basic intelligence factors, subsequently identified as verbal ability, quantitative ability, and spatial ability. Since that time, factor analysis has been applied to many other problems and is a frequently used technique in performing product-evaluation analyses in marketing.
The basic factor-analysis model assumes that original perceptual ratings about a product are generated by a small number of latent variables, or factors, and that the variance observed in each original perceptual variable is accounted for partly by a set of common factors and partly by a factor specific to that variable. In the construction of a perceptual map by factor analysis, the positions of the products/brands studied can be obtained by averaging the factor scores of the respondents for each product/brand. Factor scores are calculated from the matrix of factor-score coefficients, which describes factor scores as a linear function of the original ratings.
To use factor analysis to create perceptual map:
1. Have consumers rate all the products/brands under studied, one at a time, on a set of product attributes. You can use Likert scales (scales anchored with strongly agree and strongly disagree) or semantic differential scales (scales with bipolar adjectives) in your questionnaire.
2. Analyze the data by factor analysis with rotation (e.g., with varimax rotation). Also request for factor scores for all the products/brands.
3. Average the factor scores over all the respondents for each product/brand.
4. Use the average factor scores for each product/brand as coordinates to plot the position on the perceptual space. Normally, two-dimensional maps are meaningful and easy to understand. If more than two factors are extracted/identified from the set of product attributes, more than one two-dimensional maps may be generated.
5. Use factor loading table, which is an output representing the correlations between the attribute scales and the factors that the computer algorithm identified, to name the factors.
6. Theideal line (representing the relative importance of the factor scores in determining attitude toward the brand) can be identified from the multiple regression function with attitude as the dependent variable and factor scores as the independent variables.
Factor analysis is a very powerful and useful technique for producing perceptual maps. There are also many software for PC that contains this statistical technique (e.g., SPSS, SAS, BMDP).
In this session, we briefly went through the concepts of target market strategy (which consists of market segmentation, targeting, and positioning), strategic brand management, and positioning research. Then we went through the concept and the steps in the data analysis for positioning research.
Target Market Strategy
Target market strategy is the process of identifying one (or more target markets) and its (or their) unique positioning(s). Target market strategy consists of (1) ma rket segmentation, (2) targeting, and (3) positioning.
Market Segmentation. Market segmentation is the process of segmenting a heterogeneous potential market into a few or several homogeneous segments. In other words, customers in a potential market may have different preferences. As such, it is not effective and efficient to teach all of them by one product and one plan. To be effective and efficient, a manager needs to group the potential customers into group according to their unique preferences and serves one or more of these groups according to the company's strength. The other way to look at market segmentation is that it is the process to test if the
potential market is homogeneous in terms of preferences. Good market segmentation should result in segments with the following characteristics: (1) substantiality ( i.e., each segment is large enough), (2) profilability/identifiability/measurability (i.e., each segment can be described in terms of demographic or psychographic characteristics), (3) accessibility (i.e., the media consumption and shopping behavior can be identified), and (4) differential responsiveness (i.e., each segment has a unique preference).
Targeting. Targeting or target market selection is the process of selecting one or more segments to be the target market or target markets. The segment(s) is(are) chosen by matching the strengths/ability of the company to serve the segment with the profit potential in each segment. GE Matrix (market attractiveness versus business position) is a good tool for targeting.There are four targeting strategies that you can use: (1) concentrated or focused targeting strategy (i.e., selecting one large segment to be your target market), (2) multi-segment or differentiated targeting strategy (i.e., selecting two or more large segments to be your target markets with a unique positioning for each of them), (3) mass targeting strategy (i.e., selecting two or more or all segments to be your target market with only one positioning for all of them), and (4) niche targeting strategy (i.e., selecting one small market to be your target market).
Positioning. Positioning has two meanings. First, positioning is the most important benefit or benefits desired by the customers in a particular target market. Second, positioning is the process of creating brand image (in terms of benefit or benefits) in the customer's mind through marketing mix strategy (the 4Ps). The brand image must reflect the most important benefit(s) that the target customers want. To position your brand in a target market, you first conduct positioning research to create a perceptual map of competing brands in the target
The following note is provided by Prof.Powpaka Samart
What Is Marketing?
STRATEGIC MARKETING
As you may already know, the main objective of any business is to make profit. On the other hand, there are also non-profit or not-for-profit organizations that exist in the society. Their main objective is to achieve a non-profit objective or to serve a certain cause, e.g., HK Red Cross wants to obtain enough blood to help the patients. These non-profit organizations still need to make money or obtain money. But they do not do it for profit; they do it in order to secure enough resources to help them achieve their non-profit objectives.
To achieve their objectives, businesses and non-profit organizations need to have different people to perform different functions. They normally organize people who perform the same function into the same "departments". Accounting, finance, production, R&D, logistics, marketing, and sales are examples of departments that normally exist in a business organization.
"What is marketing?" Using American Marketing Association's (1985) definition, marketing is "the process of planning and execution of the conception, pricing, distribution, and promotion of goods, services, and ideas to create or facilitate exchanges that satisfy both individual and organizational objectives." Based on the definition, it is quite clear that the definition is inclined toward marketing as a business function (or what marketing people do). In essence, the function of marketing is about identifying the right target market (a group of consumers or business customers) and creating, communicating, and delivering the company's products (which can be goods, services, ideas, or combination of goods, services, and ideas) to the chosen customers. What marketing people do is to plan and execute the marketing plan, which consists of product strategy, pricing strategy, distribution strategy, and communica tion strategy. The execution of the marketing plan will create or facilitate the exchange or transaction between the target customers and the organization.
Then we look into the definition of marketing by AMA in 2004. Marketing is "an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders." It is clear from the definition that marketing includes both marketing as a business function (an organizational function) and as a management philosophy/orientation (a set or cross-functional or cross-departmental processes for [a] creating, communicating, and delivering value to the target customer and [b] to manage relationship with customers in ways that benefit the stakeholders). Marketing as a management philosophy requires an integrated effort of every members of the organization to provide superior "value" to the customer and to build, enhance, and maintain "relationship" with (profitable) target customers.
When we look at the definition of marketing by AMA (2004), you can see that marketing, as a management philosophy, requires the integration of every function or department to work together to satisfy the target customers. The target customer is the focus of the company's operations. Everybody in the company (1) works together to create, communicate, and deliver value to the customer and (2) manages the relationship with customers in ways that benefits the company and its stakeholders.
We then discussed about the formula of value to demonstrate that customer value creation comes from the integrated effort of every employee of the firm.
Value = quality/price + relationships
Quality: Quality represents everything that customers get from buying your product. As such, quality must be defined by your customers. There are two types of quality: (1) objective quality (i.e., actual quality as can be tested in the lab according to the specification) and (2) perceived or subjective quality (i.e., quality as "perceived" or "believed" by the customers). R&D and production staffs make sure that the objective quality of the company's products is acceptable. Quality standards and measures such as TQM, QC, ISO, etc are used to ensure objective quality. Marketing people use integrated marketing communication (IMC) to build perceived quality in the mind of the customers. It is important that there is a match between objective and perceived quality.
Price: One of the determinants of price is cost. Today, there are two major sources of cost reduction: (1) global sourcing and (2) logistics management. Global sourcing concerns with two consecutive decisions: (1) to make or to buy (i.e., to manufacture the products by yourself or to sub-contract other people to produce for you), and (2) where to make or where to buy. Proper global sourcing can give cost advantage to the firm. Logistics concerns with the strategic movement and storage of products into the firm, inside the firm, and out of the firm. Purchasing or inbound logistics concerns with the movement and storage of raw materials, processed materials, and component parts into the firm. Manufacturing support of intra logistics concerns with the movement and storage of semi-finished products inside the firm. Finally, physical distribution or outbound logistics concerns with the movement of finished products from the firm to its customers. The main concept of logistics is (1) to provide the desired service level to both internal and external customers and (2) at the lowest total cost. A logistics system consists of 3 performance cycle: (1) inbound logistics (or purchasing), (2) intra or inside logistics (or manufacturing support), and outbound logistics (or physical distribution). A good logistics system not only reduces the cost for the company but also provides competitive advantage for the company. In other words, a good logistics system can give a company sustainable competitive advantage by providing appropriate level of service at the lowest total cost.
The service level in logistics consists of:
1. Availability
2. Operational performance
a. Speed
b. Consistency
c. Flexibility
d. Malfunction and recovery
3. Reliability
The costs in logistics include:
1. Order management costs
2. Inventory management costs
3. Material handling costs
4. Transportation costs
5. Warehousing costs
Relationships: There are two types of relationships: (1) relationship with your customers (i.e., relationship marketing and customer relationship management or CRM) and (2) relationships with suppliers and channel members (i.e., strategic alliance/partnership). Strong relationships with both customers and suppliers/channel members are important in the value creation process for the customers.
A company that adopts marketing as its management philosophy or company orientation will try to survive and grow in long-term by focusing on satisfying the needs and wants (i.e., preferences to be more accurate) through the integrated effort of everybody in the firm. As such, a marketing-oriented company has the following characteristics:
* Long-term focus (i.e., profit and growth as a result of customer loyalty/long-lasting relationship)
* Customer focus or customer orientation (i.e., understanding the target customers' needs/wants/problems and their alternatives now and in the future)
* Competitor focus or customer orientation (i.e., understanding the major competitors' objectives and strategies now and in the future)
* Inter-functional or inter-departmental coordination (i.e., every employee takes full responsibility of the success/failure of the firm)
零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客，急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去，他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种，提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是，现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在，诸如卡尔文·克连，依佐和李维等全国性品牌，不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到，并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量，它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目，而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员，对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱，特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受，他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争，准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店，那里有宽敞的停车场，购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变，有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争，它们开始扩大店面，经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级，超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算，大量转向私人品牌，从而增加盈利。 现在，我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时，零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确：
附录A：外文文献（译文） 跨国公司财务 有重大国外经营业务的公司经常被称作跨国公司或多国企业。跨国公司必须考虑许多并不会对纯粹的国内企业产生直接影响的财务因素，其中包括外币汇率、各国不同的利率、国外经营所用的复杂会计方法、外国税率和外国政府的干涉等。 公司财务的基本原理仍然适用于跨国企业。与国内企业一样，它们进行的投资项目也必须为股东提供比成本更多的收益，也必须进行财务安排，用尽可能低的成本进行融资。净现值法则同时适用于国内经营和国外经营，但是，国外经营应用净现值法则时通常更加复杂。也许跨国财务中最复杂的是外汇问题。当跨国公司进行资本预算决策或融资决策时，外汇市场能为其提供信息和机会。外汇、利率和通货膨胀三者的相互关系构成了汇率基本理论。即：购买力平价理论、利率平价理论和预测理论。 跨国公司融资决策通常要在以下三种基本方法中加以选择，我们将讨论每种方法的优缺点。 (1) 把现金由国内输出用于国外经营业务； (2) 向投资所在国借贷； (3) 向第三国借贷。 1专业术语 学习财务的学生通常会听到一个单词总在耳边嗡嗡作响：全球化( g l o b a l i z a t i o n )。学习资金市场的全球化必须首先掌握一些新的术语，以下便是在跨国财务中，还有本章中最常用到的一些术语： (1) 美国存托证（American Depository Receipt,ADR）。它是在美国发行的一种代表外国股权的证券，它使得外国股票可在美国上市交易。外国公司运用以美元发行的ADR，来扩大潜在美国投资者群体。ADR以两种形式代表大约690家外国公司：一是在某个交易所挂牌交易的ADR，称为公司保荐形式；另一种是非保荐形式，这些ADR通常由投资银行持有并为其做市。这两种形式的ADR均可由个人投资和买卖，但报纸每天只报告保荐形式
市场营销策略 1 市场细分和目标市场策略 具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。然而，在大多数市场中，购买者的需求不一致。因此，对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差异为起点，这一过程被称为市场细分，它还包括将何种细分市场作为目标市场。 市场细分使公司能更加有效地利用其营销资源。而且，也使得小公司可以通过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参与竞争。市场细分的明显缺点是，其导致了比单一产品、单一大市场策略更高的生产和营销成本。但是，如果市场细分得当的话，更加符合消费者的需求，实际上将生产更高的效率。 确定目标市场有三种可供选择的策略，它们是统一市场、单一细分市场和多重细分市场。统一市场策略即采取一种营销组合用到一个整体的、无差异的市场中去。采取单一细分市场策略，公司仍然仅有一种营销组合，但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中。多重细分市场策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场，并且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合。 2 产品定位 管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌，并以恰当的方式将其与类似的品牌相区分，但这并不意味着该品牌就一定能够最后赢利。因此，管理者需要进行定位，即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。 市场营销人员可以从各种定位策略中加以选择。有时，他们决定对某一特定产品采用一种以上的策略。以下是几种主要的定位策略： 2.1与竞争者相关的定位 对一些产品来说，最佳的定位是直接针对竞争对手。该策略特别适用于已经具有固定的差别优势或试图强化这种优势的厂商。为排挤微处理器的竞争对手，Intel公司开展了一项活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品。公司甚至为电脑制造商出钱，让它们在自己的广告中带上“Intel Inside”标志。作为市场领导者，可口可乐公司推出新产品并实施其市场营销策略。同时，它密切注视百事可乐公司，以确保对主要竞争对手的任何一次巧妙、有效的营销举措采取相应的对策。 2.2 与产品类别和属性相关的定位 有时候，公司的定位策略有必要将自己的产品与其类别和属性相联系（或相区别）。一些公司尽力将其产品定位在期望的类别中，如“美国制造”。用一句某顾问的话来说，“当你说‘美国制造’的时候，有一种强烈的感情因素在吸引着你”。因此，一家名为Boston Preparatory的规模不大的运动服制造商正在运用这种定位策略，以期胜过那些并非所有产品都在美国制造的势力强大的竞争对手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。 2.3 通过价格和质量定位 某些生产者和零售商因其高质量和高价格而闻名。在零售行业，Saks Fifth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于该价格—质量策略的。折扣店Target Kmart则是定位于该策略的反面。我们不是说折扣商店忽视质量，而是说它们更加强调低廉的价格。Penny's公司努力—并且大多获得了成功—通过升级高级服装线和强调设计者的名字将其商店定位于价格—质量策略上。 “品牌”一词是个综合性的概念，它包含其他更狭义的理解。品牌即一个名称和（或）标志，用以识别一个销售者或销售集团的产品，并将之与竞争产品相区别。 品牌名称由能够发音的单词、字母和(或)数字组成。品牌标志是品牌的一部分，它以符号、图案或醒目的颜色、字体的形式出现。品牌标志通过视觉识别，但当人们仅仅读出品牌名称的时候，品牌标志并不能够被表达出来。Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名称。AT&T由醒目的线条构成的地球以及Ralph Lauren's Polo的马和骑手是品牌标志，而Green Giant（罐装冷冻菜蔬产品）和Arm&Hammer（面包苏打）既是品牌名称又是品牌标志。 商标是销售者已经采用并且受到法律保护的品牌。商标不仅包括品牌标志，如许多人所认为的那样，也包括品牌名称。1946年的The Lanham Art法案允许厂商向联邦政府注册商标，以保护它们免受其他厂商的使用或误
顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 原文来源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction 》自20世纪八十年代末以来, 顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额, 获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝随着时代的变迁, 社会物质财富的极大充裕, 顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代, 到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国, 随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代, 到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代, 各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价, 消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格, 而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位, 以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说, 今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品, 是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。 与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争, 也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争, 即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力, 这就是CSft略所要解决的问题。CS寸代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号, 而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标, 自己满意为经营理念, 而是以顾客满意, 赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主, 而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此, 营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上, 放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值, 顾客就基本满意；如果远远超越顾客的期望值, 且远远高于其他同行, 顾客才真正满意；如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意, 顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买, 还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务；忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品, 而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人, 而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样, 一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天, 其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查, 一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意, 其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明, 企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客, 利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客；而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐?佩 珀斯指出: 决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额, 而是在于顾客份额。 于是, 企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员, 定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定, 以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意” 目标的差距及其重点领域, 从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力, 不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品, 高水准的亲情般的服
Appendix： International Business Review 13 (2004) 383–400 Sources of export success in small and medium-sized enterprises: the impact of public programs Roberto Alvarez E Department of Economics, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile Abstract This paper analyzes differences in firm exporter performance for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Traditionally, it is argued that these firms face several disadvantages for competing in international markets. Few studies, however, exploit the fact that successful exporters exist within this group. Using data for Chilean firms, we study various explanations for differences between sporadic and permanent exporters. Our results suggest that greater effort in international business, process innovation, and the utilization of export promotion programs contribute positively to export performance in SMEs. In addition, we find that some forms of intervention are better than others: trade shows and trade missions do not affect the probability of exporting permanently, but exporter committees show a positive and significant impact. Key words: Export performance; Export promotion; Small- and medium-sized enterprises
文献出处: Dalman, M. Deniz, and Junhong Min. "Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect." International Journal of Marketing Studies 6.5 (2014): 63-72. 原文 Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect Dalman, M. Deniz & Junhong Min Abstract This research investigates that brand differentiation creating superior values can be achieved not only by adding meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes, which is called "trivial attribute effect." Two studies provided empirical evidences as following; first, trivial attribute effect creates a strong brand differentiation even after subjects realize that trivial attribute has no value. Second, trivial attribute effect is more pronounced in hedonic service category compared to the utilitarian category. Last, the amount of willingness to pay is higher when trivial attribute is presented and evaluated in joint evaluation mode than separate evaluation mode. Finally, we conclude with discussion and provide suggestions for further research. Keywords: brand differentiation, evaluation mode, service industry, trivial attribute Introduction Problem Definition Perhaps the most important factor for new product success is to create the meaningful brand differentiation that provides customers with superior values beyond what the competitors can offer in the same industry (Porter, 1985). Not surprisingly, more than 50 percent of annual sales in consumer product industries including automobiles, biotechnology, computer software, and pharmaceuticals are attributed to such meaningful brand differentiation by including new or noble attributes (Schilling &Hill, 1998). However, the brand differentiation that increases consumer preference is not only by introducing meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes. For
品牌营销战略参考文献和英文文献翻译 目录外文文献翻译..............................................................................................1 摘要..........................................................................................................1 1. 品牌战略内涵与其功能意义.......................................................................2 2. 我国企业品牌发展概况..............................................................................3 2.1 国内品牌与国外品牌相比存在着很大的差距............................................3 2.2 品牌发展缺乏整体规划. (4) 2.3 产品质量低下品牌个性不足缺乏创新和发展能力.....................................4 2.4 品牌发展策略存在误区. (4) 3. 企业品牌策略选择..................................................................................6 3.1 树立正确的品牌竞争意识着力提高品牌竞争能力......................................6 3.2 搞好品牌定位培养消费者品牌偏好与品牌忠诚.. (6) 3.3 遵循品牌设计规律注重品牌形
外文翻译 原文 Some Effects of the Multinational Coporations Material Source:Intereconomics Author:R.Krishnamurti,Geneva The arguments against the multinational corporations, in the terms in which they have been presented by INTERECO- NOMICS, are obviously designed to stimulate discussion and counterarguments. Therefore the generalisations in these arguments require to be given further precision, detailed qualification and balanced analysis. Multinational or international corporations follow a world-wide strategy in the interest of the head office and therefore without any ties to a country. This must necessarily lead to a conflict of interests with the host country. The nature and degree to which multinational corporations follow a world-wide strategy vary according to the particular sector or sectors in which the corporation operates, the size of the parent firm and the network of subsidiaries which it has built up in host countries. The degree of control also differs as between various decision-making areas. Broadly, the major decision-making areas are financial policies including capital expansion, export policy, pricing policy, production planning, research and development and personnel policy. The structure and the form of organization of, for example, a large US multinational corporation tends to vary from those of a relatively smaller US corporation or for that matter, of a smaller European Corporation. Nevertheless the large corporations, particularly those of the US and quite a number of the larger European corporations, follow global strategies. Integrated networks of production and market allocation arrangements form the essential elements of the world strategy of the corporation which is carried out by centralised decision-making. The extent of autonomy which any particular subsidiary may be permitted to exercise would depend on its own size, and the importance of the market or markets for which it caters. The Multinationals' Objectives In LDCs The activities of multinational in developing countries are governed by the
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails
Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment. Positioning the Product Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products. Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:
营销策略外文翻译文献 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)
译文: 营销策略 内容提要：为了组织的销售能是成功的，它需要根据一个营销策略计划来帮助保证其努力的目标和宗旨与市场的需要想吻合。营销策略审查市场以确定潜在顾客的需要，竞争者的战略和市场地位，并且尝试制定出一套能使组织在市场上获取或维护竞争优势的相关战略。有一些因素会对营销策略计划的发展造成冲击性的影响，它包括内部因素例如组织的财产、技能和组织文化，外在因素例如各种各样的市场驱动者、市场或产业运作方式、战略窗口和竞争的本质。一个优选的营销策略计划也需具备一套意外情况防备策略以应对市场治理及组织生产能力的不确定性。 关键词：竞争优势竞争策略市场地位市场份额营销销售计划组织文化营销策略 营销策略简述 无论组织的产品或服务多么好，除非它们的价值能被传达给潜在的顾客，否则组织依然无法实现它的使命。这种传达和交流是组织内市场营销功能的职责。根据美国市场协会，营销是“一个组织效能和一套创造过程、交流和传达产品价值给顾客、处理与顾客关系的有益于组织和它的利益共享者的方式”。营销作用包括相辅相成的两方面。营销策略在市场上审查市场来确定潜在顾客和竞争者本质的需要，并且试图开发
出在市场上将使组织获取或维护竞争优势的战略。操作的营销被建立在营销策略作用和贯彻各种各样的计划和策略(包括适当的混合营销的发展)吸引顾客和促进顾客忠实的基础之上的。 产品和服务营销的方法 有很多的方式能用来销售你的产品或服务包括做广告，直接响应、推销活动和宣传。然而，除非你能了解顾客、市场和产业的需要并且竞争的优势和劣势，否则这些方法是不太可能成功的。营销策略帮助一个组织尖化它的焦点和在市场顺利地竞争。营销策略与二个组分有关：目标市场和用最佳的方式传达你的产品价值或服务到那个市场。一个可实行的销售方针的发展取决于几个关键维度。首先，与组织之内的所有全球性战略一样，一个成功的销售方针需要由在组织之内的最高管理层签名。销售方针本质上也具有政治性的色彩：在组织之内的强有力的单位在最佳的销售方针也许不同意，并且协议也许需要谈判达成。销售方针也许受组织文化的也影响，并且那得假定这发生。例如，如果组织总是销售它的装饰物给商业主管，它也许就看不到组织之内的低层人员甚至是成人或少年的个人消费潜力。 实施战略销售计划发展的因素 存在一些能冲击战略销售计划发展的因素，这些因素首先包括组织已经拥有或它可能欣然获取的财产和技能。例如，如果组织拥有一个重大编程的部门，就为它能做和销售应用软件提供了可行性的条件。然而，如果这些人员已经在其他工作介入并且不能自由研究一个新的软件项目，并且组织没能力聘用另外的程序员，起始一条新的软件线是不妥当
外文翻译--公司的股权结构、公司治理和资本结构决策— —来自加纳的实证研究 本科毕业论文(设计) 文翻译外 原文: Ownership structure, corporate governance and capital structure decisions of firms Empirical evidence from Ghana 1. Introduction The relevance of capital structure to firm value remains fairly established following the seminal article by Modigliani and Miller, 1958 (Grabowski and Mueller, 1972; McCabe, 1979; Anderson and Reeb, 2003). Several theories including the pecking order theory, the free cash flow, the capital signaling, the trade-off, and market timing theories (windows of opportunities) and the fact that capital structure is voluntarily chosen by managers (Zwiebel, 1996) have been propounded to explain the choice of capital structure. Also, considerable research attention has been paid to the impact of agency costs on corporate financing since Jensen and Meckling (1976) published their paper. Crutchley and Hansen (1989) maintain that managers’ choice of stock ownership in the firm, the firm’s mixture of outside debt and equity financing, and dividends are
基于消费者分析的企业市场营销策略 本文首先分析了消费者行为的特点，消费心理以及影响消费者购买商品的个人因素，在此基础上结合现代企业的市场营销，探讨了具体的营销策略，即目标市场定位，产品组合与品牌策略、销售服务策略、国际化策略等方面。 引言:随着经济的不断发展，人们的生活逐渐转变，消费者心理与购买行为发生了根本性改变，消费者的变化对企业的市场营销策略必然产生重大的影响，研究与了解消费者的购买行为并根据其需求及行为特点设计与开发产品，确定目标市场，并根据此采取有针对性的营销策略，对现代企业来讲显得尤为重要。 一、现代消费者呈现的新特点和成因 经济的发展，消费者的收入不断增加，生活质量的日益提高，促使消费者在心理和购买行为上都发生了重大变化，出现了新的特点： 1、追求个性化的消费。现代的消费者更多的追求消费过程的人性化和产品的独特化，出现了“我的地盘我做主”，“我就是我”之类的标语。人们通过自己购买的商品去寻找、表达、确认自己特殊的感觉。 2、消费过程的变化。体现在消费者主动参与消费过程。消费者不再满足被动的接受销售主体单方面所确定的商品感念，而是开始主动介入商品的生产和营销活动，依靠自身的消费行为和观点展示对企业的营销活动进行积极干预，引导企业重视起消费者，选择的新趋势。 3、品牌消费行为的趋势明显。由于消费水平的提高，中高收入消费群的扩大，消费者不仅考虑产品或服务的功能，还追求其附加价值，追求其知名度。但消费者也追求品牌的质量和档次，强调物有所值，不会盲目的追求。 4、消费方式的多样化，随着科技和互联网的普及，消费者购物的选择空间越来越广阔，网上购物具有便利性和经济性，受到越来越多的人欢迎；各种新的生活方式和消费群体的出现，消费多元化的发展趋势越来越显著；多种零售业态的出现，人们的消费行为也随之类型化。 二、消费者个人特征因素，包括年龄、性别、文化程度以及家庭月收入 (1) 年龄。从理论上说, 年龄对生态消费行为的影响的指向并不明确。消费者年龄越大, 信息接受能力较差, 对生态消费的认知程度可能较低, 因而其选择生态消费的意愿可能越低; 也有的消费者年龄越大, 积累的经验越丰富, 社会责任感更
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 营销策略 内容提要：为了组织的销售能是成功的，它需要根据一个营销策略计划来帮助保证其努力的目标和宗旨与市场的需要想吻合。营销策略审查市场以确定潜在顾客的需要，竞争者的战略和市场地位，并且尝试制定出一套能使组织在市场上获取或维护竞争优势的相关战略。有一些因素会对营销策略计划的发展造成冲击性的影响，它包括内部因素例如组织的财产、技能和组织文化，外在因素例如各种各样的市场驱动者、市场或产业运作方式、战略窗口和竞争的本质。一个优选的营销策略计划也需具备一套意外情况防备策略以应对市场治理及组织生产能力的不确定性。 关键词：竞争优势竞争策略市场地位市场份额营销销售计划组织文化营销策略 营销策略简述 无论组织的产品或服务多么好，除非它们的价值能被传达给潜在的顾客，否则组织依然无法实现它的使命。这种传达和交流是组织内市场营销功能的职责。根据美国市场协会，营销是“一个组织效能和一套创造过程、交流和传达产品价值给顾客、处理与顾客关系的有益于组织和它的利益共享者的方式”。营销作用包括相辅相成的两方面。营销策略在市场上审查市场来确定潜在顾客和竞争者本质的需要，并且试图开发出在市场上将使组织获取或维护竞争优势的战略。操作的营销被建立在营销策略作用和贯彻各种各样的计划和策略(包括适当的混合营销的发展)吸引顾客和促进顾客忠实的基础之上的。 产品和服务营销的方法 有很多的方式能用来销售你的产品或服务包括做广告，直接响应、推销活动和宣传。然而，除非你能了解顾客、市场和产业的需要并且竞争的优势和劣势，否则这些方法是不太可能成功的。营销策略帮助一个组织尖化它的焦点和在市场顺利地竞争。营销策略与二个组分有关：目标市场和用最佳的方式传达你的产品价值或服务到那个市场。一个可实行的销售方针的发展取决于几个关键维度。首先，与组织之内的所有全球性战略一样，一个成功的销售方针需要由在组织之内的最高管理层
外文翻译 原文： Human Resource Management in Consulting Firms 8.1 The BDSU: Students Consult Companies The idea of Junior Enterprises was established in France during the 1960s. Its main purpose was to connect theory with practice. This gave and still gives highly motivated students the opportunity to use their theoretical knowledge by independen tly carrying out consulting projects and thus gaining professional experience. Since the concept was successfully established in Germany in the mid 1980s, an increasing number of newly founded Junior Enterprises was recorded. In 1992 the BDSU was formed as the German Confederation of Junior Enterprises to encourage the continuous cooperation and the knowledge transfer of the different academic initiatives. The BDSU already includes 29 German Junior Enterprises with approximately 1,600 students today. The initial idea and long-term tasks of the BDSU have been summarized into the following mission: The BDSU as the incorporation of the leading German Junior Enterprises creates surplus value by ·Guaranteeing continuous transposition of knowledge and experience as a platform, · demanding, encouraging and securing quality, · supporting the interaction between students and the economy as well as · arranging and developing a ctively the idea of “students consult companies”. The vision includes business objectives and guidelines and thus presents the course of the BDSU′s strategic and operative planning: ·The BDSU thrives to become Germany’s most recognized academic initiative. ·The membership in the BDSU stands for high graded, professional and innovative consulting performance. ·The established seal of quality of the BDSU serves for its members as a