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桥梁毕业设计文献翻译

桥梁毕业设计文献翻译
桥梁毕业设计文献翻译

附录一英文翻译

原文

AUTOMATIC DEFLECTION AND TEMPERATURE MONITORING OF

A BALANCED CANTILEVER CONCRETE BRIDGE

by Olivier BURDET, Ph.D.

Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland

Institute of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete SUMMARY

There is a need for reliable monitoring systems to follow the evolution of the behavior of structures over time.

Deflections and rotations are values that reflect the overall structure behavior. This paper presents an innovative approach to the measurement of long-term deformations of bridges by use of inclinometers. High precision electronic inclinometers can be used to follow effectively long-term rotations without disruption of the traffic. In addition to their accuracy, these instruments have proven to be sufficiently stable over time and reliable for field conditions. The Mentue bridges are twin 565 m long box-girder post-tensioned concrete highway bridges under construction in Switzerland. The bridges are built by the balanced cantilever method over a deep valley. The piers are 100 m high and the main span is 150 m. A centralized data acquisition system was installed in one bridge during its construction in 1997. Every minute, the system records the rotation and temperature at a number of measuring points. The simultaneous measurement of rotations and concrete temperature at several locations gives a clear idea of the movements induced by thermal conditions. The system will be used in combination with a hydrostatic leveling setup to follow the long-term behavior of the bridge. Preliminary results show that the system performs reliably and that the accuracy of the sensors is excellent.

Comparison of the evolution of rotations and temperature indicate that the structure responds to changes in air temperature rather quickly.

1.BACKGROUND

All over the world, the number of structures in service keeps increasing. With the development of traffic and the increased dependence on reliable transportation, it is becoming more and more necessary to foresee and anticipate the deterioration of structures. In particular,

for structures that are part of major transportation systems, rehabilitation works need to be carefully planned in order to minimize disruptions of traffic. Automatic monitoring of structures is thus rapidly developing.

Long-term monitoring of bridges is an important part of this overall effort to attempt to minimize both the impact and the cost of maintenance and rehabilitation work of major structures. By knowing the rate of deterioration of a given structure, the engineer is able to anticipate and adequately define the timing of required interventions. Conversely, interventions can be delayed until the condition of the structure requires them, without reducing the overall safety of the structure.

The paper presents an innovative approach to the measurement of long-term bridge deformations. The use of high precision inclinometers permits an effective, accurate and unobtrusive following of the long-term rotations. The measurements can be performed under traffic conditions. Simultaneous measurement of the temperature at several locations gives a clear idea of the movements induced by thermal conditions and those induced by creep and shrinkage. The system presented is operational since August 1997 in the Mentue bridge, currently under construction in Switzerland. The structure has a main span of 150 m and piers 100 m high.

2. LONG-TERM MONITORING OF BRIDGES

As part of its research and service activities within the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), IBAP - Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete has been involved in the monitoring of long-time deformations of bridges and other structures for over twenty-five years [1, 2, 3, 4]. In the past, IBAP has developed a system for the measurement of long-term deformations using hydrostatic leveling [5, 6]. This system has been in successful service in ten bridges in Switzerland for approximately ten years [5,7]. The system is robust, reliable and sufficiently accurate, but it requires human intervention for each measurement, and is not well suited for automatic data acquisition. One additional disadvantage of this system is that it is only easily applicable to box girder bridges with an accessible box.

Occasional continuous measurements over periods of 24 hours have shown that the amplitude of daily movements is significant, usually amounting to several millimeters over a couple of hours. This is exemplified in figure 1, where measurements of the twin Lutrive bridges, taken over a period of several years before and after they were strengthened by post-tensioning, are

shown along with measurements performed over a period of 24 hours. The scatter observed in the data is primarily caused by thermal effects on the bridges. In the case of these box-girder bridges built by the balanced cantilever method, with a main span of 143.5 m, the amplitude of deformations on a sunny day is of the same order of magnitude than the long term deformation over several years.

Instantaneous measurements, as those made by hydrostatic leveling, are not necessarily representative of the mean position of the bridge. This occurs because the position of the bridge at the time of the measurement is influenced by the temperature history over the past several hours and days. Even if every care was taken to perform the measurements early in the morning and at the same period every year, it took a relatively long time before it was realized that the retrofit performed on the Lutrive bridges in 1988 by additional post-tensioning [3, 7,11] had not had the same effect on both of them.

Figure 1: Long-term deflections of the Lutrive bridges, compared to deflections measured in a 24-hour period Automatic data acquisition, allowing frequent measurements to be performed at an acceptable cost, is thus highly desirable. A study of possible solutions including laser-based leveling, fiber optics sensors and GPS-positioning was performed, with the conclusion that, provided that their long-term stability can be demonstrated, current types of electronic inclinometers are suitable for automatic measurements of rotations in existing bridges [8].

3. MENTUE BRIDGES

The Mentue bridges are twin box-girder bridges that will carry the future A1 motorway from Lausanne to Bern. Each bridge, similar in design, has an overall length of approximately 565 m, and a width of 13.46 m, designed to carry two lanes of traffic and an emergency lane. The bridges cross a deep valley with steep sides (fig. 2). The balanced cantilever design results from a bridge competition. The 100 m high concrete piers were built using climbing formwork, after which the construction of the balanced cantilever started (fig. 3).

4. INCLINOMETERS

Starting in 1995, IBAP initiated a research project with the goal of investigating the feasibility of a measurement system using inclinometers. Preliminary results indicated that inclinometers offer several advantages for the automatic monitoring of structures. Table 1 summarizes the main properties of the inclinometers selected for this study.

One interesting property of measuring a structure’s rotations, is that, for a given ratio of maximum deflection to span length, the maximum rotation is essentially independent from its static system [8]. Since maximal allowable values of about 1/1,000 for long-term deflections under permanent loads are generally accepted values worldwide, developments made for box-girder bridges with long spans, as is the case for this research, are applicable to other bridges, for instance bridges with shorter spans and other types of cross-sections. This is significant because of the need to monitor smaller spans which constitute the majority of all bridges.

The selected inclinometers are of type Wyler Zerotronic ±1°[9]. Their accuracy is 1 microradian (μrad), which corresponds to a rotation of one millimeter per kilometer, a very small value. For an intermediate span of a continuous beam with a constant depth, a mid-span deflection of 1/20,000 would induce a maximum rotation of about 150 μrad, or 0.15 milliradians (mrad).

One potential problem with electronic instruments is that their measurements may drift over

time. To quantify and control this problem, a mechanical device was designed allowing the inclinometers to be precisely rotated of 180° in an horizontal plane (fig. 4). The drift of each inclinometer can be very simply obtained by comparing the values obtained in the initial and rotated position with previously obtained values. So far, it has been observed that the type of inclinometer used in this project is not very sensitive to drifting.

5. INSTRUMENTATION OF THE MENTUE BRIDGES

Because a number of bridges built by the balanced cantilever method have shown an unsatisfactory behavior in service [2, 7,10], it was decided to carefully monitor the evolution of the deformations of the Mentue bridges. These bridges were designed taking into consideration recent recommendations for the choice of the amount of posttensioning [7,10,13]. Monitoring starting during the construction in 1997 and will be pursued after the bridges are opened to traffic in 2001. Deflection monitoring includes topographic leveling by the highway authorities, an hydrostatic leveling system over the entire length of both bridges and a network of inclinometers in the main span of the North bridge. Data collection is

coordinated by the engineer of record, to facilitate comparison of measured values. The information gained from these observations will be used to further enhance the design criteria for that type of bridge, especially with regard to the amount of post-tensioning [7, 10, 11, 12, 13].

The automatic monitoring system is driven by a data acquisition program that gathers and stores the data. This system is able to control various types of sensors simultaneously, at the present time inclinometers and thermal sensors. The computer program driving all the instrumentation offers a flexible framework, allowing the later addition of new sensors or data acquisition systems. The use of the development environment LabView [14] allowed to leverage the large user base in the field of laboratory instrumentation and data analysis. The data acquisition system runs on a rather modest computer, with an Intel 486/66 Mhz processor, 16 MB of memory and a 500 MB hard disk, running Windows NT. All sensor data are gathered once per minute and stored in compressed form on the hard disk. The system is located in the box-girder on top of pier 3 (fig. 5). It can withstand severe weather conditions and will restart itself automatically after a power outage, which happened frequently during construction.

6. SENSORS

Figure 5(a) shows the location of the inclinometers in the main span of the North bridge. The sensors are placed at the axis of the supports (①an d⑤), at 1/4 and 3/4 (③an d④) of the span and at 1/8 of the span for②. In the cross section, the sensors are located on the North web, at a height corresponding to the center of gravity of the section (fig.5a). The sensors are all connected by a single RS-485 cable to the central data acquisition system located in the vicinity of inclinometer ①. Monitoring of the bridge started already during its construction. Inclinometers①,②and③were installed before the span was completed. The resulting measurement were difficult to interpret, however, because of the wide variations of angles induced by the various stages of this particular method of construction.

The deflected shape will be determined by integrating the measured rotations along the length of the bridge (fig.5b). Although this integration is in principle straightforward, it has been shown [8, 16] that the type of loading and possible measurement errors need to be carefully taken into account.

Thermal sensors were embedded in concrete so that temperature effects could be taken into account for the adjustment of the geometry of the formwork for subsequent casts. Figure 6 shows the layout of thermal sensors in the main span. The measurement sections are located at the same sections than the inclinometers (fig. 5). All sensors were placed in the formwork before concreting and were operational as soon as the formwork was removed, which was required for the needs of the construction. In each section, seven of the nine thermal sensor (indicated in solid black in fig. 6) are now automatically measured by the central data acquisition system.

7. RESULTS

Figure 7 shows the results of inclinometry measurements performed from the end of

September to the third week of November 1997. All inclinometers performed well during that period. Occasional interruptions of measurement, as observed for example in early October are due to interruption of power to the system during construction operations. The overall symmetry of results from inclinometers seem to indicate that the

instruments drift is not significant for that time period. The maximum amplitude of bridge deflection during the observed period, estimated on the basis of the inclinometers results, is around 40 mm. More accurate values will be computed when the method of determination of

deflections will have been further calibrated with other measurements. Several periods of increase, respectively decrease, of deflections over several days can be observed in the graph. This further illustrates the need for continuous deformation monitoring to account for such effects. The measurement period was .busy. in terms of construction, and included the following operations: the final concrete pours in that span, horizontal jacking of the bridge to compensate some pier eccentricities, as well as the stressing of the continuity post-tensioning, and the de-tensioning of the guy cables (fig. 3). As a consequence, the interpretation of these measurements is quite difficult. It is expected that further measurements, made after the completion of the bridge, will be simpler to interpret.

Figure 8 shows a detail of the measurements made in November, while figure.9 shows temperature measurements at the top and bottom of the section at mid-span made during that same period. It is clear that the measured deflections correspond to changes in the temperature. The temperature at the bottom of the section follows closely variations of the air temperature

(measured in the shade near the north web of the girder). On the other hand, the temperature at the top of the cross section is less subject to rapid variations. This may be due to the high elevation of the bridge above ground, and also to the fact that, during the measuring period, there was little direct sunshine on the deck. The temperature gradient between top and bottom of the cross section has a direct relationship with short-term variations. It does not, however, appear to be related to the general tendency to decrease in rotations observed in fig. 8.

8. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

Future developments will include algorithms to reconstruct deflections from measured rotations. To enhance the accuracy of the reconstruction of deflections, a 3D finite element model of the entire structure is in preparation [15]. This model will be used to identify the influence on rotations of various phenomena, such as creep of the piers and girder, differential settlements, horizontal and vertical temperature gradients or traffic loads.

Much work will be devoted to the interpretation of the data gathered in the Mentue bridge. The final part of the research project work will focus on two aspects: understanding the very complex behavior of the structure, and determining the most important parameters, to allow a simple and effective monitoring of the bridges deflections.

Finally, the research report will propose guidelines for determination of deflections from measured rotations and practical recommendations for the implementation of measurement systems using inclinometers. It is expected that within the coming year new sites will be equipped with inclinometers. Experiences made by using inclinometers to measure deflections during loading tests [16, 17] have shown that the method is very flexible and competitive with

other high-tech methods.

As an extension to the current research project, an innovative system for the measurement of bridge joint movement is being developed. This system integrates easily with the existing monitoring system, because it also uses inclinometers, although from a slightly different type.

9. CONCLUSIONS

An innovative measurement system for deformations of structures using high precision inclinometers has been developed. This system combines a high accuracy with a relatively simple implementation. Preliminary results are very encouraging and indicate that the use of inclinometers to monitor bridge deformations is a feasible and offers advantages. The system is reliable, does not obstruct construction work or traffic and is very easily installed. Simultaneous temperature measurements have confirmed the importance of temperature variations on the behavior of structural concrete bridges.

10. REFERENCES

[1] ANDREY D., Maintenance des ouvrages d’art: méthodologie de surveillance, PhD Dissertation Nr 679, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1987.

[2] BURDET O., Load Testing and Monitoring of Swiss Bridges, CEB Information Bulletin Nr 219, Safety and Performance Concepts, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1993.

[3] BURDET O., Critères pour le choix de la quantitéde précontrainte découlant de l.observation de ponts existants, CUST-COS 96, Clermont-Ferrand, France, 1996.

[4] HASSAN M., BURDET O., FAVRE R., Combination of Ultrasonic Measurements and Load Tests in Bridge Evaluation, 5th International Conference on Structural Faults and Repair, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, 1993.

[5] FAVRE R., CHARIF H., MARKEY I., Observation à long terme de la déformation des ponts, Mandat de Recherche de l’OFR 86/88, Final Report, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1990.

[6] FAVRE R., MARKEY I., Long-term Monitoring of Bridge Deformation, NATO Research Workshop, Bridge Evaluation, Repair and Rehabilitation, NATO ASI series E: vol. 187, pp. 85-100, Baltimore, USA, 1990.

[7] FAVRE R., BURDET O. et al., Enseignements tirés d’essais de charge et d’observations à long terme pour l’évaluation des ponts et le choix de la précontrainte, OFR Report, 83/90, Zürich, Switzerland, 1995.

[8] DAVERIO R., Mesures des déformations des ponts par un système d’inclinométrie,

Rapport de ma?trise EPFL-IBAP, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1995.

[9] WYLER AG., Technical specifications for Zerotronic Inclinometers, Winterthur, Switzerland, 1996.

[10] FAVRE R., MARKEY I., Generalization of the Load Balancing Method, 12th FIP Congress, Prestressed Concrete in Switzerland, pp. 32-37, Washington, USA, 1994.

[11] FAVRE R., BURDET O., CHARIF H., Critères pour le choix d’une précontrainte: application au cas d’un renforcement, "Colloque International Gestion des Ouvrages d’Art: Quelle Stratégie pour Maintenir et Adapter le Patrimoine, pp. 197-208, Paris, France, 1994. [12] FAVRE R., BURDET O., Wahl einer geeigneten Vorspannung, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 92/3, 67, Germany, 1997.

[13] FAVRE R., BURDET O., Choix d’une quantité appropriée de précontrain te, SIA D0 129, Zürich, Switzerland, 1996.

[14] NATIONAL INSTRUMENTS, LabView User.s Manual, Austin, USA, 1996.

[15] BOUBERGUIG A., ROSSIER S., FAVRE R. et al, Calcul non linéaire du béton arméet précontraint, Revue Fran?ais du Génie Civil, vol. 1 n° 3, Hermes, Paris, France, 1997. [16] FEST E., Système de mesure par inclinométrie: développement d’un algorithme de calcul des flèches, Mémoire de ma?trise de DEA, Lausanne / Paris, Switzerland / France, 1997.

[17] PERREGAUX N. et al., Vertical Displacement of Bridges using the SOFO System: a Fiber Optic Monitoring Method for Structures, 12th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, San Diego, USA, to be published,1998.

译文

平衡悬臂施工混凝土桥挠度和温度的自动监测

作者Olivier BURDET博士

瑞士联邦理工学院,洛桑,瑞士

钢筋和预应力混凝土研究所

概要:我们想要跟踪结构行为随时间的演化,需要一种可靠的监测系统。挠度和旋转两个参数反映了结构的整体行为。本文提出了一种测量桥梁长期变形的创新方法,即,使用倾角仪。高精密电子倾角仪可以有效地追踪桥梁的长期旋转而不需要中断交通。除了准确,这些仪器已被证明随着时间的推移是足够稳定,野外条下也非常可靠。

Mentue桥,长565m,双箱双室梁,后张法预应力混凝土公路桥梁,修建于瑞士。该桥由平衡悬臂法修建于一条深谷之上。墩高100m,主跨为150m。一个集中的数据采集系统于1997年修建该桥时安装在一梁上。每一分钟,系统记录了很多测量点的旋转量和温度值。在多个地点同时测量出的旋转量和混凝土温度给出了热条件引起的变动的清晰概念。该系统将与一水平装置结合使用,用以跟踪桥梁的长期行为。

初步结果表明该系统运行可靠,并且传感器的准确性非常优秀。

对旋转和温度的演变比较表明,结构对气温变化的反应相当快。

1. 背景

遍布世界,服役结构的数量在不断增加。随着交通的发展,我们日益依赖于可靠的交通运输,越来越有必要去预见和预测结构的恶化。特别是,对于主要运输系统的那部分结构,修复工程需要认真规划,以尽量减少交通中断。结构自动监测仪器从而迅速发展。

长期桥梁监测是这一全面努力的重要组成部分,以尝试减少对主要结构的影响和维修工程的费用。通过了解某一特定结构的恶化速度,工程师能够预见并充分界定所要求的处理措施的时机。相反,不降低结构的整体安全性,处理可以推迟到结构需要相应措施的时候。

本文提出了一种检测桥梁长期变形的创新方法。高精度倾角仪的使用允许我们可以对长期旋转进行有效、准确和无障碍跟踪。该测量设备可以在正常交通状况下运行。同一时间测量的、多个地点的温度给出了一个由热、蠕变和收缩导致的变形的清晰概念。提出该系统的可行性是1997年8月开始运营的修建于瑞士的Mentue桥。该桥主跨150m,墩高100m。

2. 桥梁的长期监测

作为其研究和瑞士联邦理工学院(洛桑联邦理工学院)服务活动的一部分,该桥梁和其他结构涉及到的钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土长期变形的监测已超过二十五年[1,2,3,4]。在过去,IBAP已经制定了一个长期变形测量的水准测量系统[5,6]。该系统已成功的服务于瑞士的十座桥梁约十年[5,7]。该系统强大,可靠和足够准确,但它要求每次测量要人为操作,并没有很好地适合于数据自动采集。该系统另外的一个缺点是,它只是较容易适用于可接触到的箱形梁桥。

偶尔超过24小时的连续测量表明,它日常变形幅度很大,通常一两个小时内几个毫米。这体现在图1中,那里的双箱双室梁Lutrive桥在他们被后张之前和尔后超过数年的测量显示了24小时内的测量结果。观察到的数据散射主要是由桥梁的热效应造成的。用平衡悬臂法建造、1435m主跨的箱形梁,在一个阳光明媚的日子变形幅度是与过去数年的长期变形属于同一量级的。

瞬时测量,如水准测量得出的结果,不一定代表了该桥的平均位置。这是因为在桥梁测量时的位置是受过去几个小时、几天气温的温度历史影响。即使周全的考虑影响监测测量结果的因素并且在每年的同一时期进行测量,也需要相对较长的时间,我们才能弄清楚Lutrive桥在1988年进行改造时额外桥梁后张[3,7,11]有没有产生与两者相同

的影响。

图1:Lutrive桥的长期挠度,与24小时内挠度自动采集的数据,使得我们可以在一个可接受的成本上进行方便地测量,因此非常可取。一个可能的解决方案研究,进行了包

括基于激光水准,光纤传感器和GPS定位,得出的结论是,只要可以确保它们的长期稳定性,当前类型的电子倾角仪,都适合于自动测量现有桥梁的旋转量[8]。

3. MENTUE道桥

Mentue桥是单箱双室箱梁桥,将衔接从洛桑到伯尔尼的未来A1高速公路。每片梁设计类似,拥有约565m的,整体长度和13.46m的宽度,设计承载两行车线和一个应急车道。桥梁跨越一两侧有陡峭山坡的深谷(图2)。平衡悬臂桥梁施工设计是与另一桥梁方案比选的结果。100m高的混凝土桥墩用爬模施工方法完成后,平衡悬臂施工启动(图

3)。

4. 倾角仪

从1995年开始,IBAP发起了一个研究项目,目的是调查利用倾角仪的测量系统的可行性。初步结果表明,倾角仪为结构提供自动监测提供了些许优点。表1总结了本研

究选择的

倾角仪的主要特性。

衡量结构转动的有趣属性是,对于一个给定的最大挠度跨度比,最大旋转基本上是独立于它的静态系统[8]。由于在永久荷载下,最大允许值约1 / 1000的长期挠度已经被全世界普遍接受,就像这项研究中大跨度箱梁桥取得发展,同样适用于其他桥梁,例如跨度较短桥梁和其他类型跨度区域。这是很重要的,因为需要检测那些小跨度梁,他们构成所有桥梁的

大部分结构。

表1 倾角仪的主要特性

选定的倾角仪类型:伟伦Zerotronic ± 1 °[9]。其准确度为 1 microradian (μrad),相当于一毫米每公里,是一个非常小的旋转值。对于一个通常高度连续梁的中跨, 1 / 20000的跨中挠度,将导致最大约150μrad的旋转,或0.15毫弧度(mrad)。

电子仪器潜在的一个问题是他们的测量结果可能随时间漂移。为量化和控制这个问题,设计了一种机械装置,允许倾角为180 °旋转正是在一水平面上(图4)。每个倾角仪的漂移可以通过比较获得的初始值和旋转位置与以前获得值简单地获得。到目前为止,我们观察到工程中使用的那种倾角仪的类型对漂流不是很敏感。

5.曼图桥的测试设备

一些采用平衡悬臂施工的桥梁,在实际使用中的状态并不理想[2,7,10],为了查清原因,对曼图桥的变形发展做精密监控。这些桥跨设计时考虑了最近的关于后期张拉量的建议[7,10,13]。监控从1997年建桥时开始,2001年通车后会继续跟踪监控。偏转

监控包含公路部门提供的地形水准、一个覆盖两跨整个跨度的流体静力学水准系统以及北桥主跨上的倾角仪网。为了便于比较测量值,工程师的记录数据要同步收集。观测的信息将用于改善设计标准,尤其是关于后张拉量[7,10,11,12,13]。

一个数据提取程序会驱动自动监控系统,并将数据存储。这个系统可以同步控制不同类型的传感器,目前控制着倾角仪和热传感器。这个电脑程序控制所有的测量设备,它提供了一个灵活的框架模式,允许后期增加新型传感器和数据收集系统。LabView的使用给予使用者实验室级别的设备和分析优势。数据收集系统可以在普通配置的电脑上运行,因特尔486/66兆赫的处理器、16兆内存、500兆硬盘、WindowsNT的系统。所有传感器的数据一分钟收集一次,之后以压缩格式存储在硬盘里。系统安置在3号墩上部的箱梁里(图5)。它能抵抗严峻的气候条件并且在电力供应后自动工作,断电在施工阶段频频发生。

6.传感器

图5(a)给出了北桥主跨上倾角仪的位置。①和⑤传感器安置在支撑轴上,③和④号分别在1/4和3/4跨,②号在1/8跨处。从横截面看,传感器安置在北腹板,高度与节目的重心对应(图5)。传感器通过单根RS-485电缆与位于①号倾角仪附近的数据中心相连。早在桥梁施工阶段就已经开始监控。①、②和③号倾角仪安装于桥跨合龙前。在这种特殊施工方法的不同施工阶段,角度的变化范范围较宽,因此测量的结果不是很

直观。

通过合成桥长方向测量的旋转,可以确定偏转的形式。尽管合成方法在原理上简明易懂,但必须仔细计入荷载类型和可能的测量误差[8,16]。

热传感器埋置在混凝土内,这样可以计入模板后来浇筑几何调整的温度作用。图6是热传感器在主跨中的布置图。与图5倾角仪测量不同,温度测量时针对同一个截面。根据施工的需要,传感器在浇筑前预置在模板内,在拆模后即可进行测量。在每个截面上,九个传感器中的七个(图6中的黑色)由中央数据集成系统自动控制测量。

7.检测结果

图7是倾角仪从1997年九月底导十一月的第三个星期的测量结果。所有倾角仪在这段时间内工作良好,其中测量间断的部分,如十月初,是因为在施工操作中系统暂时断电所致。结果整体的对称,见①和⑤、③和④,表面设备在那段时间里的偏动并不明显。根据倾角仪的测量结果,在观察阶段,桥的最大挠曲在40毫米左右。在以后其他测量结果的辅助下,更精确的数值可以计算出来。在图上可以看到在几天内偏差的几个上升阶段及对应的下降阶段。这意味着需要对变形持续的监测,以解释这现象。从施工的角度来说,测量阶段很繁忙,这个阶段进行着以下工作:混凝土的最后浇筑、实施千斤顶对桥的水平顶撑以补偿一些墩的离心以及张拉连续预应力筋和支索缆的留置(图3),因此,解读测量结果有一定的难度。将来的测量对解读测量结果会有很大的帮助。

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外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华

外文资料名称: Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处:Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件: 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文

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大部份太阳能炊具有某种形式的反光罩的集中太阳的能量。太阳轮使用不反光但集中太阳能通过创造蒸汽从相对较大的收集器区域,并将其用于一个较小的烹饪区。随着太阳能轮使用蒸汽作为传热媒介,它是一种间接的烹饪系统。这允许一个分裂的烹饪系统,其热太阳能集热器可以放置在某个距离(如在屋顶上)除了烹饪的地方(例如在厨房里)。厨师正在不接触阳光的并且可以用蒸汽,无论高低都方便,可接受的区域。 这使它成为一个非常方便的炊具为大量的食物。使用简单叠加可以蒸煮几样菜,可以煮熟的同时进行。那热气腾腾的过程是非常相似与传统蒸煮过程,应该容易得到各种文化的认可。 太阳所产生的蒸汽也可以被用来热量大的罐炖肉或汤通过引导蒸汽直接进入了液体在它凝聚和释放的热凝。这就引起我做一个温柔的风潮的食品烤干。 在其设计技术,利用太阳船的有效性标准疏散管太阳能集热器可降低成本。 配料系统 可以看出从素描以上基本的想法是很简单的。太阳能收集器里装满了水。因为它具有极高的效率和良好的保温玻璃管的撤离开始沸腾的水会暴露在阳光下时。蒸汽会被引导到蒸笼以灵活的、蒸汽抗性软管。 连续系统

最后更复杂的,因为它必须确信,玻璃管永远不会变干的。一滴滴喂料系统集成式换热器提供了一条连续的淡水来代替水流失为蒸汽。这也防止了重建的盐和污染的太阳能集热器。因为这个系统包含了大量的沸腾的水在玻璃管,它具有使绝对肯定,没有压力,建立该体系。 成本 为了保持成本低,Sun2Steam正在出售一转换工具包可以很容易地安装在一个标准的低成本太阳能集热器。此套将直接来自澳大利亚,而太阳能收集器可直接来源于一个低成本的供应商。 一个太阳能集热器和20管直径和57mm 1.8米长,在中国是可以买到的大约200美元。转换组件包括500万绝缘软管取决于汇率蒸汽将大约200美元。成本增加25%,装船的税负导致的总费用为500美元左右的太阳能船没有安装费用和培训。 这使得轮船进入上部成本支架太阳能炊具。然而所有的材料都要持久和完整的炊具应该很容易超过了一生的10年。炉子可以很容易地帮助准备食物为10人。这使人均成本的太阳能减少至约五十美元。 也有一些额外的好处。太阳轮能生产大约5升的高质量的蒸馏水一天所产生的凝汽。一个可选的转换器将允许生产超过100升的安全、pasteurised饮水每天。报告描述太阳能蒸笼在这里可以找到: 大多数高海拔的烹饪和烘烤的指示不推荐补偿,直到你到达约6000英尺的海拔高度。居住在该地区,并且现在我住在怀俄明,是正确的,我们的高度范围你真正开始注重细微的差别,所以我已经学会补偿烤时和烹饪。 水沸腾时会出现在较低的温度在这里——这是由于减少了空气压力。你不会真正注意到什么大的差异在4000英尺,甚至在6000英尺,唯一的真正的区别是面带最微小的更久一点做饭,和糙米试你的耐心一点超过正常(以接近一个小时做饭,而不是通常的40分钟)。糖果还可以要求较长的沸腾时期达到各种球类或裂缝阶段。最引人注目的差异在这个高度是烤面包。蛋糕是一个倾向于看起来更温柔,更容易摔跤在中间。面包做一些有趣的事情。 蛋糕混合料通常会表明你应该添加额外的勺面粉加入混合,如果你是在高海拔超过5-6000呎。你可能需要补偿甚至更多,如果你是比那更高一些。

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华北电力大学 毕业设计(论文)开题报告 学生姓名:宗均恺班级:建环13K2 所在院系:动力工程系 所在专业:建筑环境与能源应用工程 设计(论文)题目:石家庄某接待中心中央空调系统设计指导教师:刘志坚 2017年 3月 5 日 毕业设计(论文)开题报告

保定某中型商场暖通空调系统设计 1 选题背景及意义 暖通空调(HVAC)技术发展概况和前景[8] 建筑是人们生活与工作的场所。现代人类大约有五分之四的时间在建筑中度过。人们已经逐渐认识到,建筑对人类寿命、工作效率、产品质量起到极为重要的作用。人类在从穴居到居住现代环境的漫长发展道路上,始终不懈的改善室内环境,以满足人类自身生活、工作对环境的要求和生产、科学实验对环境的要求。人们对建筑的要求不只有挡风遮雨的功能,而且还应是一个温湿度怡人、空气清新、光照柔和、宁静舒适分环境。生产与科学是经验对环境提出了更为严苛的条件,如计算室或标准量具生产环境要求温度恒定,纺织车间要求湿度恒定,有些合成纤维的生产要求恒温恒湿,半导体期间、磁头、磁鼓生产要求对环境的灰尘有严格的控制,抗菌素生产与分装、大输液生产、无菌试

验动物饲养等要求无菌环境,等等。这些人类自身对环境的要求和生产、科学实验对环境的要求导致了建筑环境的控制计术的产生与发展,并且已形成了一门独立的学科。建筑按环境学指出,建筑环境由热湿环境、室内空气品质、室内光环境和声环境组成。采暖通风与空气调节是控制建筑热湿环境和室内空气品质的技术,同时也包含对系统本身所产生的噪声的控制。 随着时代的发展,人们对生产生活的建筑环境提出了越来越高的要求,同时由于能源紧缺,环境污染严重等问题也对建筑提出了节能减排的要求。等等这些问题就要求我们暖通人把握自身专业,顺应潮流发展,在未来利用所学成就自我成就暖通这个行业。 现代中大型接待中心的空调设计探讨 随着改革开放及经济建设的发展,我国商业建筑大量兴建,招待所、宾馆的数量也与日俱增。我国早期建起的招待所以及宾馆普遍存在着忽略室内环境品质或者夏季空调不足、能耗过大、室内空气品质差等问题。近年来,由于人们对居住品质的高要求以及旅游业的带动和宾馆产业的发展,大型宾馆,连锁旅店得到了迅速的发展,同时对宾馆环境提出了更高要求。 宾馆、酒店不同于商场等场所,它具有它自身的特点; 1)宾馆是由大厅和客房组成,由于大厅和多功能厅和客房的使用情况不同就对空调系统提出了不同的要求,要分别采用合适其特点的的系统和机组; 2)客房是个相对封闭的环境对新风要求比较高,需要不同于其他建筑的新风品质。 3)由于客房是居住环境以及宾馆品级,对室内温湿度要求比较严格。

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The Injection Molding The Introduction of Molds The mold is at the core of a plastic manufacturing process because its cavity gives a part its shape. This makes the mold at least as critical-and many cases more so-for the quality of the end product as, for example, the plasticiting unit or other components of the processing equipment. Mold Material Depending on the processing parameters for the various processing methods as well as the length of the production run, the number of finished products to be produced, molds for plastics processing must satisfy a great variety of requirements. It is therefore not surprising that molds can be made from a very broad spectrum of materials, including-from a technical standpoint-such exotic materials as paper matched and plaster. However, because most processes require high pressures, often combined with high temperatures, metals still represent by far the most important material group, with steel being the predominant metal. It is interesting in this regard that, in many cases, the selection of the mold material is not only a question of material properties and an optimum price-to-performance ratio but also that the methods used to produce the mold, and thus the entire design, can be influenced. A typical example can be seen in the choice between cast metal molds, with their very different cooling systems, compared to machined molds. In addition, the production technique can also have an effect; for instance, it is often reported that, for the sake of simplicity, a prototype mold is frequently machined from solid stock with the aid of the latest technology such as computer-aided (CAD) and computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). In contrast to the previously used methods based on the use of patterns, the use of CAD and CAM often represents the more economical solution today, not only because this production capability is available pin-house but also because with any other technique an order would have to be placed with an outside supplier. Overall, although high-grade materials are often used, as a rule standard materials are used in mold making. New, state-of-the art (high-performance) materials, such as ceramics, for instance, are almost completely absent. This may be related to the fact that their desirable characteristics, such as constant properties up to very high temperatures, are not required on molds, whereas their negative characteristics, e. g. low tensile strength and poor thermal conductivity, have a clearly related to ceramics, such as sintered material, is found in mild making only to a limited degree. This refers less to the modern materials and components

桥梁外文翻译

毕业设计/论文 外文文献翻译 院系城市建设学院 专业班级 姓名 原文出处 评分 指导教师 华中科技大学武昌分校 20 12 年3月1日

Study on nonlinear analysis of a redundant cable-stayed bridge 1.Abstract A comparison on nonlinear analysis of a highly redundant cable-stayed bridge is performed in the study. The initial shapes including geometry and prestress distribution of the bridge are determined by using a two-loop iteration method, it is an equilibrium iteration loop and a shape iteration loop. For the initial shape analysis a linear and a nonlinear computation procedure are set up. In the former all nonlinearities of cable-stayed bridges are disregarded, and the shape iteration is carried out without considering equilibrium. In the latter all nonlinearities of the bridges are taken into consideration and both the equilibrium and the shape iteration are carried out. Based on the convergent initial shapes determined by the different procedures, the natural frequencies and vibration modes are then examined in details. Numerical results show that a convergent initial shape can be found rapidly by the two-loop iteration method, a reasonable initial shape can be determined by using the linear computation procedure, and a lot of computation efforts can thus be saved. There are only small differences in geometry and prestress distribution between the results determined by linear and nonlinear computation procedures. However, for the analysis of natural frequency and vibration modes, significant differences in the fundamental frequencies and vibration modes will occur, and the nonlinearities of the cable-stayed bridge response appear only in the modes determined on basis of the initial shape found by the nonlinear computation. 2. Introduction Rapid progress in the analysis and construction of cable-stayed bridges has been made over the last three decades. The progress is mainly due to developments in the fields of computer technology, high strength steel cables, orthotropic steel decks and construction technology. Since the first modern cable-stayed bridge was built in Sweden in 1955, their popularity has rapidly been increasing all over the world. Because of its aesthetic appeal, economic grounds and ease of erection, the

毕业设计外文翻译

毕业设计(论文) 外文文献翻译 题目:A new constructing auxiliary function method for global optimization 学院: 专业名称: 学号: 学生姓名: 指导教师: 2014年2月14日

一个新的辅助函数的构造方法的全局优化 Jiang-She Zhang,Yong-Jun Wang https://www.doczj.com/doc/7d13026800.html,/10.1016/j.mcm.2007.08.007 非线性函数优化问题中具有许多局部极小,在他们的搜索空间中的应用,如工程设计,分子生物学是广泛的,和神经网络训练.虽然现有的传统的方法,如最速下降方法,牛顿法,拟牛顿方法,信赖域方法,共轭梯度法,收敛迅速,可以找到解决方案,为高精度的连续可微函数,这在很大程度上依赖于初始点和最终的全局解的质量很难保证.在全局优化中存在的困难阻碍了许多学科的进一步发展.因此,全局优化通常成为一个具有挑战性的计算任务的研究. 一般来说,设计一个全局优化算法是由两个原因造成的困难:一是如何确定所得到的最小是全球性的(当时全球最小的是事先不知道),和其他的是,如何从中获得一个更好的最小跳.对第一个问题,一个停止规则称为贝叶斯终止条件已被报道.许多最近提出的算法的目标是在处理第二个问题.一般来说,这些方法可以被类?主要分两大类,即:(一)确定的方法,及(ii)的随机方法.随机的方法是基于生物或统计物理学,它跳到当地的最低使用基于概率的方法.这些方法包括遗传算法(GA),模拟退火法(SA)和粒子群优化算法(PSO).虽然这些方法有其用途,它们往往收敛速度慢和寻找更高精度的解决方案是耗费时间.他们更容易实现和解决组合优化问题.然而,确定性方法如填充函数法,盾构法,等,收敛迅速,具有较高的精度,通常可以找到一个解决方案.这些方法往往依赖于修改目标函数的函数“少”或“低”局部极小,比原来的目标函数,并设计算法来减少该?ED功能逃离局部极小更好的发现. 引用确定性算法中,扩散方程法,有效能量的方法,和积分变换方法近似的原始目标函数的粗结构由一组平滑函数的极小的“少”.这些方法通过修改目标函数的原始目标函数的积分.这样的集成是实现太贵,和辅助功能的最终解决必须追溯到

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