The Collection of the Important Terms (1-34)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/7d5653962.html,monwealth：
It is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It has no special powers. And the nations are united because of economic reasons. Under the Commonwealth, the nations develop.
2 .The Chunnel：
In 1985 the British government and French government decided to build a channel tunnel, which is called “Chunnel”, under the Straits of Dover so that England and France could be joined together by road. The Chunnel was open to traffic in May 1994.
3. Cockney：
It refers to the person from the East of London. He is a Londoner who is born within the sound of Bow Bell. He has a special accent in his speech.
4.Eisteddfod：
Eisteddfod is the Welsh word for “sitting” National Eidteddfod is the most famous festival of music and verse in Wales. It takes place each August and lasts for about a week. The highlight of the festival is competition for the best epic poem about Wales written and read in Welsh. The winner is crowned Board, considered the supreme honour in Wales. In this way the Welsh people keep the Welsh language and culture alive.
5.Stonehenge：
It is a group of huge monuments of grant rock Slabs on salisbury plain in Southwest England built as long ago as the New Stone Age. It is generally believed that stonehenge served some sort of religious purposes.
6. Beaker Folk：
they were the people came to Britain from central Europe at about 2000BC. They were so called because they were fond of drinking and buried themselves in the bell-shaped beer container. They developed their own farming society.
7.The Celts：
The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. The first wave were the Gales, the second wave were the Brythons and the Belgae came about 150BC. The Celts were practised farmers. The Celtic tribes are ancestors of the Highland Scots, the Irish and the Welsh, And their languages are the ba sis of both Welsh and Gaelic. They religion was Druidism.
8. St. Augustine：
In 597,Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. That year, St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Augustine was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north.
9. Alfred the Great：
He was king of Wessex, one of the seven Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms. It was he who led the Anglo-Saxon to flight against the invading Danes and maintained peace for a long time. Alfred was not only a brave king at wartime, but also a wise king at peacetime. He encouraged education and introduced a legal system. He is known as “the father of the British navy”.
10.Danelaw：
It refers to the piece of land of England under the control of the Danish in the 9th century. The Danish and the Vikings capture York, an important center of Christianity. They could not conquer Alfred and had to stay in the north and east.
11.The danegeld ：
It was the tax collected in 10th century. When Viking invaded England, the
King Ethelred the Unready tried paying the invaders to stay away. The Dane received the money but grew greedier. This marked the decline of Anglo-Saxon kingdom.
12.Norman Conquest：
The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England.
13. Domesday Book：
It was the first survey of land in Britain under William to strengthen his
rule. It aimed at getting taxes. It was one of the important measures adopted by William I to establish the full feudal system in England. Today, it is kept in the Public Records Office in London.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/7d5653962.html,mon law：
It was an unwritten law common to people in Britain. It is also called “Case law ” since it was based on former judgments and customs. It appeared under Henry Ⅱand now it has become part of British law of sources.
15.Jury system：
It was a system replaced old English and Norman way of trial in Henry II’s day. At that time a jury was composed of twelve men and the jurors’ function was to act as witnesses not to hear evidences and give verdict. Now the jury decides the issue of guilt or innocence.
16.Geoffrey Chaucer：
He was an important English poet in the fourteenth century. His best known is The Canterbury Tales, which describes a group of pilgrims traveling to Canterbury to visit Thomas Becket’s tomb. Because he was the first important English poet to write in English. He has been known as the “Father of English Poetry”.
17.Magna Carta：
It was also called the barons’ Charter or the Great Charter in 1215.It has many clause but the important one was that only the Grand Council could decide to collect money or not. And it has long been regarded as the foundation of English liberties but its spirit was to limit the king’s power.
18.Hundred Years’ War：
It refers to the fight-and cease war between France and England that lasted for more than 120 years.(1337-457) The causes were partly territorial and partly economic. After three stages of the war was over, the English were driven out of France with onl y Calais in hand. The ending of the war is regarded as a blessing for both countries.
19.Black Death：
It was a disease or plague spread by rat fleas in 14th cen. It spread through Europe. Many people died and the population of England shrank. It caused labor shortage and other social problems.
20.War of Roses：
It was a barons’ war in 15th century in England. War of roses was so called because the warring sides used white & red roses as their families symbols. And the War lasted for decades/ many years. Many local nobles died and the feudal system got a heavy blow.
21.Tudor Dynasty:：
It refers to the dynasty established by Henry Tudor after the War of Roses. Five Tudor monarchs ruled England and Wales for just over two hundred years. In a short time span they achieve a great deal. Henry VIII’s and Elizabeth I are significant monarchies in English history.
22.The English Reformation：
It is a religious reform started in England during Henry VIII’’s rule. It was a gradual reform which lasted for years. As Henry became the Supreme Head of the Church of England, the Church of England was thought as a national church, especially after Bloody Mary, Protestantism and nationalism meant the same.
23.Blood Mary：
It is the nickname given to Mary I, the English Queen who succeeded to the throne after Henry VIII. She was a devout Catholic and had so many Protestants burnt to death that she is remembered less by her official title Mary I by her nickname Blood Mary.
24.The Armada：
It was the name for the Spanish fleet in the 16th century. As Mary Stuart of Scots was killed, the Spanish king sent his Armada to invade England. But it was defeated by the English at English Channel. Ever since then, England began to control the sea for many years and its Reformation survived. 25.Renaissance：
It was the revival of classical literature and artistic styles in European history. It was the transitional period between the Middle-Ages and modern times,. It was period of significant achievement and changes.
26.The English Renaissance：
It was the rebirth of classical literature and artistic styles in English history in 15th -17th century. It had its own characteristics. And many great minds were produced.
27.Elizabeth Drama：
It refers to the literature form appeared under Elizabeth I. It began to excel only in the last decade of the 16th century and reached its height in the first 15 years of the 17th century. Its finest exponents were Marlowe, Johnson and Shakespeare.
28.Shakespeare：
William Shakespeare was a dramatist and poet during the En glish Renaissance. He wrote many (37) plays, such as Merchant of Venice, Romeo and Juliet, and Hamlet , and Sonnets. He is generally regarded as the greatest writer in the English language
29.Gunpowder Plot：
It was a secret plan of the Roman Catholics to overthrow James 1. The Catholics planted barrels of gunpowder in the cellars of the House to kill James 1 but the plan failed. Now it is celebrated as a national holiday.
30.Pilgrim Fathers：
They were a small group of the first puritans who came to America in 1620 in a ship called Mayflower. They escaped religious persecution and wanted to practice their religion in other places. At last, they founded Britain’s first settlement in the New World.
31.The Civil Wars：
It refers to the wars between Charles I and parliament in the 17th century in England. The wars had two stages. After the wars were over, Charles I was beheaded and a Commonwealth was established. It is also called the Puritan Revolution and generally regarded as the beginning of modern wor ld history.
32.The Glorious Revolution：
It was a takeover or palace coup d’etate with no blood shed in 1688. When James II hoped to rule as a Catholic, the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. James II was forced to leave Britain. William and Mary who were the relatives of James II took power as joint monarchy.
33.The Bill of Rights of 1689：
It refers to the law accepted by William and Mary after the Glorious Revolution. It includes: no Roman Catholic can be a monarchy, parliament hav more powers than the Monarchy and free speech in parliament. It marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy in England.
34.Utilitarianism：
A theory in the early 19th century which wanted governments to help maj ority of people happy. And the governments must reform to be efficient & not to interfere people’s lives.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/7d5653962.html,issez faire：
It was an economic theory. Later, it became a radical idea of free trade of the economic policies of Britain in the 18th cen. Because they believe that the import and export duties interfered with the natural flow of trade.
36.The Enclosure Acts：
It was the policy in 18th century. Wealthier landowners were allowed to seize any land to which tenants prove no legal title and to divide it into enclosed fields. It became more frequent after the mid-40s and climaxed during the turn of the century .It had good as well as bad results.
37.The Industrial Revolution：
It refers to the use of machines in industry and the social and economi c changes in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th century. The real ‘ revolution’ happened in textiles. Britain was by 19th century the ‘ workshop of the world:”
38.The Chartist Movement；
A proletarian movement or campaign in the 19th century in Eng.It was to call for political changes. The People’s Charter was put forward during the movement. But it ended in a failure.
39.The Suffragettes：
It was the militant feminist movement led by Mrs. Pankhurst before the First World War. Women’s position in the society was gradually improved. Votes were granted to women over 30 as soon as the war was over and to all women in the same terms as men ten years later.
40.The Beatles：
It is the name of a band formed by four Liverpool boys in the sixties. They wro te their own music and words, using “ beat”, a new pop culture. They won the affection of people of all ages and social backgrounds.
41.British Disease：
It is the economic decline in Britain because of decades of balance of payment deficits. A lot of me asures were taken to cure it but all failed.
42.Keynesianism：
A theory of British economist Keynes. The main idea is to have full employment and low inflation. Though it was welcome in the 50s and 60s, later it was rejected by the western countries.
43.Thatcherism：
A theory by British Prime minister, Thatcher in the 80s. The main idea is to privatize and to control inflation. It also turned out to be a failure in “curing” British diseases;
44.Constitutional Monarchy：
A political system in Britain. The head of the State is a king or a queen. In practice, the Sovereign reign, but does not rule. It was established after the Glorious Revolution.
45.Civil List：
The money given to the monarchy. An annual grant to cover the expenditure/cost of the monar chy.3/4 of it goes to the Royal Household. And the rest to meet the need for public duties.
46.Privy Purse：
The revenue/income of the Duchy of Lancaster. It is used to cover the monarchy’s private expenditure. And taxes should be paid.
47.Shadow cabinet：
It refers to the group of the official Opposition in the British parliament. The party wins the second largest number of seats form it. The aim of it are to improve the party’s public image by actively join the policy-making the parliament so as to win the next general election.
48.Parliament：
It is the legislative branch in Britain. The term “parliament” originally meant a meeting for parley or discussion. It appeared in 1265. It consists of the Sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
49.Civil Service：
It is the dept. to hire govt. servants. Civil servants have to pass examinations. And Civil Service grades them.
50.The Open Structure：
It is the system of filling the senior levels of government posts with civil servants in Britain. There are common grades throughout the Civil Service 1 to7 , which cover grades from Permanent Secretary level to Principal level. Within the unified grades each post is filled by the person best qualified.
51.Either way offences：
They are the crimes in Britain. The crimes can be either serious or minor depend on the consequences/ results. And they are tried at two courts: the magistrate & crown court..
52.JPS：
It is the short form of the justices of the peace. They are also called lay magistrates and appointed on behalf of the Crown by the Lord Chancellor. The oldest appeared in the 14th cen.
53.Welfare system：
It is a system of govt. The govt. give money support to its citizens through its health centers and other facilities. In Britain, it is funded out of national insurance contribution and taxes.
54..NHS：
It is short form of National Health Service in Britain. It came into being in 1948. It is a largely free service. And its money mainly comes from general taxes.
55.GP：
It is the short form of a general practitioner in Britain. Sometimes he is known as a“ family doctor”since he may visit patients’ houses. He treats patients but doesnot prepare medicine. He is
self-employed and have contracts with the NHS.
56.The social security system：
It is the system to secure a basic standard o living for people needed money support in Britain. Large amount of money goes to the system and benefits are contributory and non-contributory ones. In this way , social stability is reached.
57..Contributory benefits：
They are the kinds of benefits people receive through the social security system in Britain. They are so called because people have to pay when they are at work before they receive/gain. They include retirement pension etc. The principle is to be mutually benefited.
58.Church of England：
It is one of the two most important churches of Britain. It has strong connection/relation with politics. ex. the Crown is its head. It has two provinces. And only Parliament can make changes to it./ its form
59.The Salvation Army：
It is the organization of the Methodist Church in Britain. William Booth is the founder and within Britain it is second only to the Government as a provider of social services. It is served by hundreds of officers and runs many worship centers.
60.Christmas：
It is the greatest of Christian festivals to celebrate the birth of Christ on December 25th every year. Though it becomes too over-commercialized as to such a sacred holiday, still a great deal of genuine Christmas spirit remains. During the day, common people observe the custom of giving gifts and the habit of spending it with the family.
61.Easter：
It is the chief/main Christian festival on the first Sunday after the first full moon. It is to celebrate the rebirth of Christ. Easter eggs are eaten during the season. It is also closely associated with the coming of spring.
62.Public school：
It refers to the independent schools for older pupils which are long-established and have gained a reputation for their high academic standards. The schools are single sex and expensive. Most of the members of the British Establishment were educated at a public school.
63.The Open University：
It refers to a non-residential university based in Buckinghamshire. It is so called bec ause it is “ open”to all to become students. Founding in 1969, it offers degrees and other courses for adult students of all ages in Britain and the other member countries of the European Union.
64.Pantomime：
It is a kind of play based on a traditional fairy tale and performed at Christmas time. It is developed out of dumb show with many forms such as dancing. Dan Leno was the one of the great pantomime actors.
After the First World War. it began to decline.
65.Great Famine：
It referred to the period of time in the 1840s when the Irish suffered starvation/ hunger nationwide in Ireland. Crop (potato etc.) failures were main factors, along with some other reasons. The population declined sharply and large emigration started.(42)
66.James Joyce：
He is the most well-known Irish writer of the modern period in Ireland. He lived most of the time on the Continent but his writing is centered on Dublin. He introduced the stream of consciousness technique. His masterpiece is Ulysses.
67.The Continental Divide：
It refers to the Rockies, the backbone of the North American continent. The tops of the Rocky Mountain chain form the imaginary north-sou th line known as the Continental Divide. It separates the major river systems of the United States.
68.The Mississippi：
It is a continental river system in the United States. Its proper rises in the lake region and flows south to the Gulf of Mexico. Added in the length of its chief headstream, it is one of the longest rivers in the world. It is so important in American life that it has been called “father of waters”or “old man river”.
69.Hispanics：
It refers to the Spanish –speaking population which is a large, diverse and rapidly gro wing one in the United States. Three major Hispanic groups historically have had the greatest influence on the American, such as Mexican- American, or Chicanos, the Puerto Rican and the Cuban-American. Many Hispanics are in lower-paying jobs because of their low education.
70.Amerigo V espucci：
He was a navigator who proved that the land which was discovered by Columbus was not India, but a new continent. Therefore, the land was named America after
71.Puritan：
They were the people who wanted to purify the Church of England in Britain in the 17th cen .In order to escape the religion persecution, they went in large number to Ame to practice their religion. The Puritan tradition were helpful to the development of capitalism in Ame.
72.The Boston Tea Party：
It refers to the group of local Boston people in the 18th cen. They dressed as Indians boarded the ships carrying boxes of tea and threw them into the sea to show their anger. This encouraged the American in opposing the British policies.
73.Lexing ton Shot：
It is the incident happened before the War of Independence. The British soldiers were sent to seize the military supplies of the militia. They were stopped by the militia at Lexing ton. Both exchanged fires. The War of Independence had began. 74.The Articles of Confederation：
It was the first written constitution in the world drafted after the Ame. War of Independence. It had its revolutionary sides but there were serious weakness in it. Then, another constitution replaced it.
75.Great Compromise：
It was the agreement reached by the large and small states in Ame .in the 18th cen. They agreed that powers should be shared among the states. That pave the way to the new constitutional system.
76.The Bill of Rights：
In 1789, James Madison introduced in the House of Representatives a series of amendments which later were draft ed into twelve proposed amendments and sent to the states for ratification. Ten of them were ratified in 1791 and the first ten amendments to the constitution were called the Bills of Rights because they were to insure individual liberties.
77.Manifest Destiny：
It was the policy of the Ame. Govt. in 19th cen. It included that Ame. Must be founded, an d Ame m ust expand and Americanism must be spread.(they could do whatever they wanted.) This has been Ame. Govt. policy.
78.The Emancipation Proclamation：
After the Civil war began, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation to win more support at home and abroad. It granted freedom to all slaves in areas still controlled by the Confederacy.
79.Progressivism：
It was a movement in the early 20th century in America, started by some reform-minded younger generation who wanted the government to reform in all areas or aspects of social life.
80.Intolerance：
It was a kind of nationalism in America durin g the 1920s. Different ideas were not allowed to exist. A lot of people were wrongly persecuted. The typical one was the Red Scare
81.Great Depression：
It was the economic crisis/disaster in the1930s in America. It broke out from the stock market and quickly spread over the world. American economy suffered great setback.
82.New Deal：
It was the policies of American govt. during the Great Depression. It was put forward by President Roosevelt. It helped America overcome the economic crisis
83.Containment policy：
It was the policy of American govt. to st op the soviet expansion. Kennan first had the idea after the War. Later Truman govt. used it as American policy in 1949 and this is the start of cold war.
84.Marshall Plan：
It was an economic policy of American govt. after the W orld War Ⅱ. The policy was put forward by the Secretary of State, Marshall. It aimed at giving the West economic aids. As a result, their economy recovered.
85.Berlin Blockade：
It was a military action (or encirclement) by the Soviet Union right after the War to stop the Western influence over other part of Berlin. But it turned out a failure because of American heavy airlift of goods to Berlin. And it pushed people to the Western sides
86.McCarthyism：
It was an anti-Communist hysteria or movement in the early 50s,depened or worsened by McCarthy’s false claim or statements that Communists existed in the State Department. And a lot of people were unfair treated
87.The Little Rock incident ：
Since Arkansas governor sent state troops to keep black stu. Out of all white Central High, the President had to send U.S. troops to give protection to the black stu. Going to the school.
88.Montgomery bus boycott ：
Rosa Parks, a middle-aged black worker was arrested and fined ten dollars just because she refused to give up her seat .then a-year-long black boycott of the bus company led by Martin Luther King, Jr. started
89.Cuba missile crisis：
A military crisis took place between the two super powers, the Soviet and the U.S. in the early 60s.Because the Soviet built a missile base in Cuba, the U.S. even decided to start a nuclear war to stop. At last the Soviet backed do wn.
90.Counter-cultural movement：
It was a movement in the 1960s in America which was caused by the anti-war movement. It aimed at rejecting/refusing all the social standards at that time. Almost a generation of America were affected/influenced.
91.Watergate Scandal：
It was a disgraceful event in the 70s.in order to win the election, President Nixon sent 5 men to sneak into the office of Democratic National Committee at the Watergate and the men were arrested. But the President’s efforts to cover the scandal failed and he was the first president resigned.
92.Stagnation：
It was the economic slowdo wn in Ame. In the 1970s. During the time, America suffered stagnation and inflation at the same time. Thus, it was called stagnation.
93.Checks and Balance：
It was the theory about the powers-sharing of a nation. The powers should be shared among three branches: executive, judicial and legislative. And they can check each other. Thus the balance can be reached.
94.Direct primaries：
It is a way of voting in America. Party members vote directly the person to presidency. The result is not controlled by the party leaders.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/7d5653962.html,munity Univ.：
It is the unv. In Ame. It appeared in the early 20th cen. It opens to all and has developed very fast because of its lower pay and free of entrance exams. It is one of the most important American innovation/invention.
96.Rock and roll：
A form of pop with fixed beat and tune. It can be traced back to mid-1950s’blues. And 1960s saw its fast development.
97.Jazz：
A black music appeared in the early 20th cen.. It is good for dancing singing or parties’background m usic. It mixed the European & African music; and every piece has basic rhythm and other mixtures;
98.Lost Generation：
It refers to the writers and artists after the War. They did not believe their govt. again and felt lost. Most of them left t heir country. Hemingway was the spokesman of them.
99.Mummer Parade：
It is the way to celebrate the New Year’Day in (Philadelphia) Ame. People dressed in f unny clothes and masks march through streets in the parade. And it often lasts all day long.
100.Thanksgiving：
It is a typical Ame. Holiday. It was first celebrated by Pilgrim Fathers for the blessing they enjoyed. From 1864 on, people celebrate it every year. And it became a national day in 1941.
101.Canadian Shield：
It is a semicircular/horseshoe area in Canada. It was once thought to be a wasteland / it is not suitable to live, but it is rich in mineral products.
102.Newfoundland：
One of the provinces of Canada, was found by John Cabot in the late 15th century. It is the world’s great fishing groun ds.
103.BNA：
It is the British North American Act. It laid the foundation for Canadian Constitution and bilin gualism. Un der it, Canada as a nation came into being.
104.Inuit：
Inuit are native people of Canada from Asia in prehistoric times. The word Inuit means “the people”in their language. Most of them stopped to move around and have settled down.
105.“White Australian”policy：
It refers to the immigrant policy introduced in 1901. Non-white immigrants must take dictation examinations. Its aim was to turn it into a pure white Australia. It was a cornerstone of the new nation’s policy.
106.Bilingualism：
A practice/ language policy in Canada that English and French are the two official languages.
107.Multiculturalism：
It is a cultural policy in Canada & Australia. The term was coined/invented in Canada in the late 1960s and was in official
use in Australia by 1973. Under the policy, other cultures are allowed to exist. Now Australian & Canadian culture is the combination of other cultures.
108.Group of Seven：
It refers to the first seven artists of Canada in the 20th century. They looked at Canada with fresh eyes and used rich colors. And they were the first to express a pictorial nationalism and a Canadian Impressionism.
109.The Canada Council：
It is the Canadian Govt.’s funding agency. It was setup in the 1950s.It aims at promoting Canadian culture.
110.Marsupials：
Marsupials are animals whose babies are raised in a bag of skin called a pouch on the mother’s belly. Such as Kangaroo. They lay eggs and suckle their young.
111. Urban sprawl：
Urban sprawl is used to describe a city along Australian eastern coast that has grown over a large area of land. Because people like to have large houses.
112. The Great Dividing：
The Great Dividing is the main watershed of Australia in the eastern coast south. Th e Eastern Highlands runs from the north to the south and divide the eastern coast from the rest of the country.
113.James Cook：
An English navigator and explorer, put Australia and New Zealand on a map for the first time and so is called the discoverer of Australia.
114.Dreaming：
Dreaming was a creative period believed by the Aboriginal. Everything was created during the time. Life was thus continuous and unchangin g
115.Totemism：
Totemism was a belief in totem of the Aboriginal. The totem might be an animal or plant etc. People with the same totem could not marry.
116.Eureka Stockade：
It :was a revolt in the 1850s in Australia. The armed miners wanted free from highly-paid license for mining. And the revolt was put do wn. But reforms were thus int roduced
117.Anzacs：
It was the short form of the name for Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during the First World War. They fought bravely at Gallipoli. Many of them died.
118.The Gallipoli Campaign：
It was a series of battles happened at Gallipoli during the First World War in Turk. Many Australian & New Zealand soldiers died but they were defeated. But Australia and New Zealand became famous ever since.
119.Federalism：
It is a system of government in Australia. The powers of the nation are shared between the central government and the state government. It is a compromise between the two levels of governments.
120.Responsible govt.：
It is a system of government in Australia. The executive powers are shared among the ministries whose members m ust be the Members of Parliament. All the ministries are responsible to Parliament. But Governor-general in Australia has certain power in the government.
121.Double Dissolution：
It is the right of the Governor-general in Australia. If the Houses cannot pass a law for the second times, he can order the Houses to stop working at the request of the Prime Minister. Then a general election will be hold to avoid the deadlock.
122.A constitutional convention：
A code of political behavior in Australia. Govt. make decision according to the convention. Now it becomes the basics for a government.
123.The Makaratta Treaty：
It was a treaty / an agreement suggested by Australian Prime Minister in the 1980s: Aborigines could take back their land. Makaratta means “the end of a dispute and the start of normal relation”. But the treaty hasn’t been signed by the Australian government.
124.Mabo Judgement：
It was a verdict/ decision of the Australian High Court in the 1990s. It decided the Aborigines had the right s to their land. Mabo was one who died for the Land Movement. The decision has been thought as a landmark.
125.Kiwi：
It is a bird which is active at night but cannot fly in New Zealand. It is a national symbol and New Zealanders call themselves Kiwis.
126.The Treaty of Waitangi 1840：
It was an agreement between the chiefs of the Maori people and the British Crown for the interests of the settlers. The Treaty included three articles. The anniversary of the signing is celebrated as a national holiday.
127.Maoritanga：
It is Maori-culture, the Maori way of life and view of the world. It is a combination of the western culture and Maoris. And it has become a part of other New Zealanders.
128.Marae：
It is the meeting house and the land around it .And it is the center of Maori community life. It is symbol of unity and the life is governed.
129 The Lollards 罗拉德派
Followers of John Wyclif in England and Scotland in the 14th and 15th centuries. They advocated the equality of men before God. They played an important role in the mental preparations for the Peasant Uprising of 1381.
130. The Petition of Right民权请愿书
It was also known as the second Magna Carta in British history. King Charles I was forced to accept it at his third Parliament in 1628. It limited the king’s power and protected the rights of Parliament.
131. Irish Republican Army ( IRA)
An illegal terrorist organization based in the Republic of Ireland, which is dedicated to the union of all Ireland as one country under one government by the means of violence and terrorism.It announced cease fire an d to down arms on July 28. 2005.
名词解释 伤痕文学 在七八十年代，“文革”是中国人无法回避的事件，也是作家思考表达的焦点。由此产生了伤痕文学，无情地揭露了文革造成的社会问题，极力伸张人道精神，努力恢复人在文学创作中的主体地位。伤痕文学是新时期最先出现的文学创作潮流。 反思文学 反思文学是略晚于伤痕文学出现的一种文学思潮。它是伤痕文学在社会内容上的扩展和深化。它把个人命运与社会历史道路的曲折过程联系起来，深刻揭示建国以后社会发展的经验和教训。 改革文学 改革文学是以社会政治经济的改革为题材的作品。因为长期存在的弊端和不能忍受的落后状况，使人们在反思的同时迫切要求实行改革。所以改革文学是新时期改革开放的必然产物，是与“伤痕文学”和“反思文学”相继出现的文学现象。 元小说“元小说”就是有意暴露叙事行为或者虚构性的小说。由于马原的小说 而引起注意。 全景式报告文学是在中长篇报告文学或系列报告文学的基础上发展而成的。 犹如某一专题的小型百科全书，以其视野开阔、信息量大、现象剖析渗透等特点引起读者重视。以钱刚、李延国的作品为代表 文化散文源于贾平凹在1992年首次提出的大散文。这类散文多以对历史文化 的反思和对人类生命意义的求索为主要内容。以文化氛围的宏大和思想意蕴的恣肆为特征。呈现出深邃、阳刚、博大、沉雄的气概。以余秋雨、马丽华为代表。 新写实小说新写实小说产生于20世纪80年代中期，产生与作者作家自发的写 作，明确提出来自1989年《钟山》杂志的卷首语。其创作特点是：特别注重现实生活原生形态的还原，真诚直面现实、直面人生。代表作家有方方、池莉、苏童、刘恒等。 新历史小说最早可追溯到80年代中后期，以新历史主义为其主要历史观的 文学形式。是先锋小说或新写实小说中诸多现代主义或后现代主义观念在关于历史的文学叙述中的投射。代表作家苏童、刘震云、叶兆言 朦胧诗派又称“新诗潮”诗歌。因其在艺术形式上采用总体象征的手法，具有 不透明性和多义性。以舒婷、北岛、顾城、梁小斌、杨炼、江河、食指、芒克、多多等为代表。朦胧诗孕育于文革中的地下文学，1980年前后，朦胧诗迅速成为一股诗歌潮流，产生巨大影响 新潮小说又称先锋小说，出现于80年代前期。其创作的核心观念是表现自我，
第一章语文课程与教学的发展沿革 一、古代语文教育教学的内容 原始社会没有严格意义的课程，但语文教育教学的内容已经存在。 奴隶社会有专门的学校和课程：六艺 封建社会以儒家经典为主，基本特点是：先教蒙学读物，集中识字；再学“五经”“四书”，传道明理； 以文选为补充读物和写作范本。 蒙学教材： 1、综合类：《史籀篇》、《仓颉篇》、《急就篇》、《三字经》、《百家姓》、《千字文》等 2、伦理类： 程端蒙的《性理字训》“天理流行，赋予万物，是之为命。人所禀受，莫非至善，是之谓性。” 清代李毓秀《弟子规》“弟子入则孝，出则弟，谨而信，泛爱信，而亲仁。行有余力，则以学文。” 文学教材： 《昭明文选》，宋代谢仿得《文章规范》，清代吴楚材、吴调侯《古文观止》，孙洙《唐诗三百首》等。 3、历史类： 宋代王令《十七史蒙求》；胡寅《续千字文》；朱熹《小学》 4、诗歌类：《千家诗》 5、名物常识类：《幼学琼林》，《龙文鞭影》 6、工具类：《字学举隅》，《文字蒙求》 二、古代语文教育的主要经验 （一）识字教学（二）阅读教学（三）写作教学 1、集中识字，为读写打基础1、熟读、精思、博览1、注重基本功的培养 2、韵文化，便于朗读和记诵2、注重方法习惯的培养：评点法、出入法2、多读、多写、多改 3、注重思想伦理道德的教育3、从模仿入手 4、联系日常生活4、先放后收 5、激发儿童的兴趣 科举制度： 起于隋朝的人才选拔和官吏任用制度。 唐朝科举分两类： 常科：秀才、明经、进士、明书、明法、明算。每年定期举行。 制科：皇帝主持，根据需要临时下令举行。 唐朝进士极盛时每年不超过50人，平常10到20人。进士及第还要经过吏部考试才能授官。 宋代极盛时每年有四五百人，平时也有上百人，进士及第就可授官。 考试内容和方式： 唐朝到宋朝初年：口试、贴经、墨义、策问、诗赋。宋以后主要考经义。 经义：以五经中的文句为题，作文阐明义理。到了元代，则从四书中出题，答案需从朱熹的《四书章句集注》，不得任意发挥。明代中期以后要求文章必须采用八股文的形式。字数和格式有严格的规定。分为“破题、承题、起讲、入手、起股、中股、后股、束股”550字、650字后改为700字。 第二节近现代语文教育 一、中国现代语文教育的兴起时期——语文单独设科（1901——1910） 1904年癸卯学制，标志语文学科的诞生。标志着中国的语文教育由传统向现代的演进，也标志着现代语文教学的兴起。 二、中国现代语文教育体系的形成时期——国语、国文课程标准纲要的制定（1911——1926） 辛亥革命后，中华民国临时政府颁布《普通教育暂行课程标准》，废止小学读经科，将各类学校的“中国文字”、“中国文学”课程更名为“国文”。并且明确了国文课的教学目标：“国文的要旨在于通解普通的语言文字，能自由发表思想；并使略解高深文字，涵养文学之兴趣，兼以启发德志。”为促进了语文教育的发展奠定了基础。三、1920年，北洋政府教育部通令全国，将小学、初中的“国文”改为“国语”，废止旧的国文教科书，采用语体文教科书，自此，文言文一统天下的局面被打破，现代白话文取得了合法的地位，开始占领语文教科书的阵地。第三节当代语文教育 一、语文学科名称的确立 1949年叶圣陶主持华北人民政府教科书编审工作，将新中国实施听说读写教育的学科正式定名为“语文”。这不
建筑名词解释,(虽然都学过,但是实际用的时候都忘了,留着以后用的着) 1、什么是相对标高？答：地面到假定水准面的铅垂距离. 什么是绝对标高? 答:地面点到大地水准面的铅垂距离. 2、什么是定位轴线？答：定位轴线是用来确定建筑物主要结构或构件的位 置及其标志尺寸的线。 3、什么是横向、纵向？什么是横向轴线、纵向轴线？答：（1）、横向， 指建筑物的宽度方向。（2）、纵向，指建筑物的长度方向。 4、什么是框架结构？答：框架结构指由柱子、纵向梁、横向梁、楼板等构 成的骨架作为承重结构，墙体是围护结构。 5、什么是建筑密度？答：建筑密度是项目总占地基地面积与总用地面积的 比值。一般用百分数表示。 6、什么是过梁？其作用是什么？答：过梁是门窗洞口上方的横梁，其作用 是承受门窗洞口上部的荷载，并把它传到门窗两侧的墙上，以免门窗框被压坏或变形。过梁的长度一般为门窗洞口的跨度加500mm。 7、什么是绿地率（绿化率）？答：绿地率是项目绿地总面积与总用地面积 的比值。一般用百分数表示。 8、什么是日照间距？答：日照间距，就是前后两栋建筑之间，根据日照 时间要求所确定的距离。日照间距的计算，一般以冬至这一天正午正南方向房屋底层窗台以上墙面，能被太阳照到的高度为依据。 9、建筑物与构筑物有何区别？答：凡供人们在其中生产、生活或其他活动 的房屋或场所都叫做建筑物，如公寓、厂房、学校等；而人们不在其中生产或生活的建筑，则叫做构筑物，如烟囱、水塔、桥梁等。 10、什么是建筑“三大材”？答：建筑“三大材”指的是钢材、水泥、木材。 11、建筑安装工程费由哪三部分组成？答：建筑安装工程费由人工费、材 料费、机械费三部分组成。 12、什么是标志尺寸、构造尺寸、实际尺寸？答：（1）、标志尺寸是用 以标注建筑物定位轴线之间（开间、进深）的距离大小，以及建筑制品、建筑构配件、有关设备位置的界限之间的尺寸。标志尺寸应符合模数制的规定。（2）、构造尺寸是建筑制品、建筑构配件的设计尺寸。构造尺寸小于或大于标志尺寸。一般情况下，构造尺寸加上预留的缝隙尺寸或减去必要的
中国现当代文学三十年名词解释精华 《新青年》:中国现代文学史、文化思想上最重要的刊物。1915年创刊于上海，原名《青年杂志》，陈独秀主编。"五四"前后以《新青年》为主要阵地，同时进行了新文化运动和文学改革运动。创刊号发表的《敬告青年》提出了民主、科学的反封建思想的革命主张，1917年初发表了胡适的《文学改良刍议》、陈独秀的《文学革命论》，正式掀起文学革命。1918年5月，现代文学史上第一篇白话小说《狂人日记》发表于其上。该刊还广泛译介外国文学。1920年9月，它成为上海共产主义小组机关刊物，1926年终刊。 文学改良刍议:1917年发表于《新青年》，是倡导文学革命的第一篇理论文章，对文学革命在理论上作出了重要贡献。提出文学改良应从"八事"入手:须言之有物、不摹仿古人、须讲求文法、不作无病呻吟、务去滥调套语、不用典、不讲对仗、不避俗字俗语。文章宣扬的是一种反拟古主义的现实主义文学思想，从不同角度针贬了旧文坛的复古主义和形式主义流弊，粗浅的触及了文学内容与形式的关系、文学的时代性与社会性以及语言变革等问题，初步阐明了新文学的要求和推行白话文的立场。 文学革命论:1917年2月发表于《新青年》，表明了更坚定的文学革命的立场，明确提出"三大主义"作为新文学的征战目标。推倒雕琢的、阿谀的贵族文学，建设平易的、抒情的平民文学；推倒陈腐的、铺张的古典文学，建设新鲜的、立诚的写实文学；推倒迂晦的、艰涩的山林文学，建设明了的、通俗的社会文学。从内容到形式对封建旧文学持批判否定态度，主张以革新文学作为革新政治、改造社会之途。 "人的文学":1918年12月，《新青年》刊登了周作人的《人的文学》，对当时的文学革命影响很大。周作人从个性解放的要求出发，充分肯定人道主义，强调一种"利己而利他，利他即是利己"的"理想生活"，提出以"人道主义为本，对于人生诸问题，加以记录研究的文字，便谓之人的文学"，认为新文学即人的文学，应充分表现"灵肉一致"的人性。这深深影响了五四时期表现个性解放主题的创作，"人的文学"成为五四时期文学的一个中心概念。在《平民文学》中，周作人进一步阐述"人的文学"的主张，强调文学须应用于人生上，提出"普遍"与"真挚"的原则，并申明"以真为主，以美即在其中"的文学观念，这对五四时期尤其是为人生派的创作影响很大。
一、名词解释 1.第一次文代会：1949年7月2日，在北京召开了第一次中华全国文学艺术工作者代表大会，来自解放区和国统区的文学艺术工作者出席会议。开幕式上，毛泽东、周恩来、朱德等先后讲话。最后，大会通过了《中华全国文学艺术界联合会章程》，确定了文艺为人民服务并首先是为工农兵服务的总方向，成立了中华全国文艺学术界的联合会，选举郭沫若为主席，茅盾、周扬为副主席，会后又成立了全国文联下属的各个协会，完成了文艺工作者、作家的组织化。这个大会揭开了中国文学艺术发展史新的一页，是中国当代文学历史的伟大开端。 2.1958年“两结合”创作方法：1958年3月，毛泽东提出“两结合”（革命现实主义与革命浪漫主义相结合）的创作方法，“内容应是现实主义和浪漫主义的对立统一”；第三次文代会认为“两结合”的创作方法应是我国社会主义文学“最好的创作方法”，“不只适用于文艺创作，也适用于文艺批评。” 3.社会主义现实主义：社会主义现实主义是文学创作的方法之一，作为苏联文学与苏联文学批评的基本方法，要求艺术家从现实的革命发展中真实地、历史地和具体地去描写现实。同时，艺术描写的真实性和历史具体性必须与用社会主义精神从思想上改造和教育劳动人民的任务结合起来。社会主义现实主义保证艺术创作有特殊的可能性去发挥创造的主动性，去选择各式各样的形式、风格和体裁。 4.第二次文代会：1953年9月23日至10月6日，中国文学艺术工作者第二次代表大会召开，将中华全国文学艺术界联合会更名为中国文学艺术界联合会，主席郭沫若。会议期间，毛泽东、刘少奇、周恩来、朱德、陈云等党和国家领导人接见会议代表。第二次文代会对建国四年来的文艺工作做出了总结；确立社会主义现实主义为未来中国文艺创作和文艺批评的最高准则。 5.百花文学：1956年和1957年上半年，文学思想和创作出现了一些重要的变革。这在当时的"社会主义阵营"中，是带有普遍性的现象。在中国，毛泽东在1956年5月提出的"百花齐放、百家争鸣"的口号，给潜在于各个领域的强大的变革要求以推动和支持。文学界遂出现了突破僵化教条的、类似于当时苏联文学的那种"解冻"，在1956年和1957年上半年，各地文学刊物纷纷发表在思想、艺术上得探索性作品，它们或者在题材、主题上有新意，或者提供了新的观点和表达方式。文学界将这些文学作品称之为“百花文学”。王蒙《组织部新来的青年人》、宗璞《红豆》、郭小川《一个和八个》、《在桥梁工地上》等 6.《红豆》：《红豆》通过写1949年某教会大学的大学生江玫与齐虹由于生活态度和政治立场的分歧而导致的爱情悲剧。讲述了一个在时代巨变面前的知识分子选择自己的人生道路的故事，表现了知识分子在人生十字路口进行选择的艰难和选择成功的欢乐。思想和艺术贡献：知识分子的主题；人物塑造没有观念化的痕迹；诗意化的意境和散文化的笔法；倒叙的手法。 7.历史剧：以历史人物或事件为题材的戏剧。不论何种戏剧形式或剧种，都可以运用历史人物和事件来展示情节，创作故事。在历史剧的创作中，有两种不同的倾向：一种强调历史的真实性，要求言必有据，事皆可证，这样就容易妨碍作者的创造性，戏剧效果不强；一种是只取一点历史因由，随意创造，这样又缺乏历史真实感。五六十年代历史剧的创作，涉及话剧、京剧、昆曲等多种戏剧样式。以话剧而言，数量约在20部之间。它们的作者主要是老一代的剧作家，如郭沫若、田汉、曹禺等。这些作家在处理他们所不熟悉的现实生活题材时，往往生硬而捉襟见肘；比较而言，“历史”使他们获得更多的想象空间。
语文中的名词解释:什么是实词和虚词 一、实词 实词是有实在意义的词，可以独立充当句子成分，一般可以单独回答问题。每一个实词都可以详细解说其词义。现代汉语实词一般名词、动词、形容词、数词、量词、代词六类。也有人认为代词属于虚词，但多数学者认可代词为实词，因为代词虽然很难解释独立语义，但毕竟其指代内容是明确的。无论在现代汉语中还是在文言文中，实词都占有绝对多的数量，因为语言的基本作用是表意，离开有实际意义的实词，这一作用将很难达到。 （一）名词：是表示人、事物或抽象概念名称的词。如：书本、桌子、儿童、雷锋、思维、政治等。 （二）动词：是表示人或事物的动作、存现及发展趋势的词。如：走、跑、思考、学习、有、存在、能、可以等。 （三）形容词：表示人或事物的性质、状态的词，汉语中的形容词可以修饰名词，也可以修饰动词，与英语不同。如：老、好、漂亮、干净、纯洁、飞快。 （四）数词：表示数目的词。如：一、十、第八、每等。 （五）量词：表示人或事物及动作的计量单位的词。量词一般与数词连用构成数量短语。如：个、件、幢、下、次、趟等。 （六）代词：用来指代人、事物、状态、过程的词。如：你、他们、这、彼等。 二、虚词
虚词是没有实在意义的词，一般不能单独充当句子成分（副词例外），不能单独回答问题（少数副词除外）。其存在的价值在于帮助构成句子的语法结构，表示某种语法关系。汉语的虚词主要有六种：副词、助词、连词、介词、叹词、拟声词。无论在现代汉语中，还是在文言文中，虚词的数量都相对较少，但作用却很大。 （一）副词：在句中表示动作、行为、性质、状态的程度、范围、时间、趋向等的词。如：很、非常、一律、也、将来等。在虚词中，副词是唯一能独立作句子成分的词，并且有少数副词（比如“不、没有、也许、大概”等）也可以单独回答问题，具有一定的实词特点。（注：汉语的副词与英语不同，在英语中，修饰动词或形容词的词都是副词，但在汉语中副词可以修饰动词和形容词，形容词同样也可以修饰动词和形容词。） （二）助词：在句中起辅助作用的词。现代汉语中的助词主要有：“的”、“地”、“得”、“着”、“了”、“过”。文言文中助词比较复杂，常见的有“之”、“者”等。 （三）连词：在句中起连接作用的词，连词往往标示词、短语、句子、句群、语段之间的逻辑关系。如：虽然、但是、因此、无论等。连词常常成对搭配使用或与副词搭配使用，如：“因为……所以……”、“即使……也……”、“只有……才……”等。 （四）介词：表示动作对象、时间等的引介关系的词。介词在汉语中比较复杂。如：在、从、对于、关于等。 （五）叹词：表示感叹或惊奇、惊喜、疑虑等语气的词。如：啊、唉、
『台基』建筑名词解释 台基 就是建筑物的底座。四面以砖石砌成，内多填土，地 面铺以砖石。 须弥座xūmízu?原为佛象底座。由印度传入中国後，被用作尊贵建筑的底座。它的组成为圭角、下枋、下枭、束腰、上枭、上枋等。 如故宫三大殿的台基就是简约式的须弥座。 踏跺 tàdu? 就是用来登上台基的阶级。 龙尾道 在坡道较长的情况下，会用平、坡相间形式建造的阶 榜。 慢道较为平缓的阶梯或斜道。 礓碴 jiāngchá是将砖石打侧，以其梭角所砌成的斜道，给人和马车登上台基。形状就像洗衣板。 辇道 niǎndào 有斜度的路，方便马车通行。於唐宋时期，设置於踏跺之间。後来，辇道被加上水、云、龙等雕刻，渐渐演变成今天的「御路」。 陛石bìshí用作铺设御路的石块。 如故宫保和殿北面御路的大石雕。 角石 用于宋式台基的角位，常雕刻有龙、凤、狮子等装饰。 清代台基是不用角石设计。 螭首螭是传说中有角的龙。突出的螭首雕刻设置在台基外
chīshǒu部。除美观外，它用作为排走雨水的出水口。 如天坛祈年殿的龙、凤、云三种形式的螭首。『柱』建筑名词解释 柱zhù就是建筑物的底座。四面以砖石砌成，内多填土，地面则铺以砖石。 柱础是垫著木柱的石墩。 鼓镜是指柱础凸出于地面的部份。 覆盆唐宋时期，常用的鼓镜设计，像倒转的碗。 鼓蹬 因南方天气潮湿，所以柱础都设计成较高身的鼓状石 墩，称之为鼓蹬。 檐柱yánzhù建筑物最外的一列柱子，用来支撑屋檐的重量。通常建筑物有前後两列檐柱。 中柱 位处建筑物中轴线上的柱子，用作支撑屋脊的。但中 柱不包括在山墙之内的柱子。 山柱设在山墙内，顶著屋脊的柱子。 角柱位处山墙两端，建筑物转角的柱子。 金柱除檐柱、中柱、山柱外，其他柱子都称作金柱。 外金柱距离檐柱较近的柱子为外金柱。 里金柱 「里」和「外」是相对的，距离檐柱较远的柱子便称 作里金柱。
1当代文学：指1949年新中国成立以来至今尚在延续的半个多世纪的文学，属于我国的断代文学史之一。中国当代文学既是中国古代文学和现代文学的发展延续，同时，它又是一个只有起点而没有终点的开放性的体系，是一个在新的时代条件下不断变革发展的全新的文学历程。 2十七年的文学：（1949-1966）实用主义和狂热政治激情的结合，英雄主义情绪高度发扬，二元对立的思维模式的普遍存在，以及民族主义热情占支配的情绪。 3文革“十年”文学：（1966-1976）：万马齐喑，百花凋零。沦为政治斗争工具的主流文学；传递弥足珍贵文学声音的非主流文学（地下文学）。 4新时期文学：（1976- ） 1976年10月粉碎四人帮。1977年8月十一大宣布“文革”以粉碎四人帮结束，并把文革之后的中国社会主义革命和建设成为“新时期”。文学界虽将文革之后的文学成为“新时期文学”。事实上，直到1978年5月1日《实践是检验真理的唯一标准》发表，才是新时期的真正到来。当代文学中最富有探索性的阶段。“五四”文学精神回归。文学充满了生机勃勃的创新精神，但文学的浮躁也不可忽视。 5复调：巴赫金在分析陀思妥耶夫斯基的小说时，提出“复调小说”的理论。他认为，陀氏创作的是一种“多声部性”的小说，是“有着众多的各自独立而不融合的声音和意识，由具有充分价值的不同声音组成的真正的复调”。“恰恰是在不同声音、不同意识相互交往的联接点上，思想才得以产生并开始生活”，所以“思想就其本质上来讲是对话的”。 6显性文学：即公开发表，进入了“印刷传媒”，处在流通地位，可以“正当”地、“合法”地拥有读者的作品。 7潜在写作：潜在写作：指17年和文革期间，许多被剥夺了正常写作权利的作家们的创作，包括他们当时不能发表的作品和本无发表预期的日记、书信等。如丰子恺的《缘缘堂续笔》，食指的诗，沈从文的家书等。“潜在写作”的相对概念是公开发表的文学作品，两者一起构成了时代文学的整体。 8反讽：是个中外现代小说中常见的—种叙述方式和美学效果。反讽简单讲就是说反话或反语，目的是造成幽默、讽刺或嘲弄效果。 9元小说：小说家在小说中提示和交代他是怎样在叙事、怎样在虚构，这被称为叙事的自我指涉，有自指性。在此，作者强制将读者带离想象，强制读者意识到叙事的虚构性和想像性。许多现代小说中都有这种叙事的自我指涉，或者也被称为元叙述，如博尔赫斯、卡尔维诺等人的小说。大量存在这种自我指涉的小说，理论家们就称它为元小说，或超小说、自反式小说等等 五六十年代 1第一次文代会： 1949年7月2日至19日，在北京召开了中华全国文学艺术第一次代表大会，出席代表824人，开幕式上，毛泽东、周恩来、朱德等先后讲话；最后，大会通过了《宣言》，确定了文艺为人民服务并首先是为工农兵服务的总方向，成立了中华全国文学艺术界联合会，选举郭沫若为主席，茅盾、周扬为副主席，会后又成立了全国文联下属的各个协会；这个大会揭开了中国文学艺术发展史新的一页，是中国当代文学的伟大开端。 2、百花文学： 1956年和1957年上半年，文学思想和创作出现了一些重要的变革。这在当时的“社会主义阵营”中，是带有普遍性的现象。在中国，毛泽东在1956年5月提出的“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的口号，给潜在于各个领域的强大的变革要求以推动和支持。 3、纪要：1966年2月，江青得到林彪的支持，并以林彪的名义在上海召开了“部队文艺工作座谈会”。会后形成了由江青、张春桥、陈伯达定稿，并由毛泽东审阅修改的《林彪同志委托江青同志召开的部队文艺工作座谈会纪要》。《纪要》共分十条内容，包括文艺黑线专政论、破除对中外古典文学的迷信、文艺上反对外国修正主义并点名批判了一批文艺作品。纪要以中央文件的形式下发全党，给以后的文艺界造成极大的祸害。1979年5月，中共中央批转中国人民解放军总政治部《关于建议撤销1966年2月部队文艺工作
名解 1，朦胧诗 朦胧诗是一个独特的诗学概念，它指的是以舒婷，顾城，江河，杨朔，芒克，食指，多多，梁小斌等为代表的一批“文革”中成长的青年诗人具有探索性的新诗潮。它孕育于“文革”时期的“地下文学”，当时食指，芒克，多多等在“文革”中就已经开始新的探索，他们的诗以手抄形式流传。朦胧诗的思想核心是对人的自我价值的确认，对人道主义和人性复归的呼唤，对人的心灵奥秘的探险。朦胧诗的审美艺术特征是：①打破现实主义审美模式，由写实转向写意，由具体转向抽象，由物象转向意象，由明晰转向模糊，不再侧重一个场景，一个过程的具体描摹和对一种政治情绪的表现或“升华”，而是重于表现多变，曲折和复杂的主体世界②主体的多义性和情感的多向性代替了过去的平面的状态，在结构上实现了真正的“自由”，即外在的形式完全决定于内在情绪的节奏，特征与状态③采用近似于早期象征主义的艺术手法，运用象征，通感，抽象词与具象词的巧妙搭配和超现实想象等多种艺术手法，使意象叠合，寓于暗示性。北岛《回答》，《宣告》，《迷途》《一切》，舒婷《致橡树》《双栀船》《会唱歌的鸢尾花》，顾城《一代人》《远和近》《我是个任性的孩子》，江河《纪念碑》，梁小斌《中国，我的钥匙丢了》，杨朔《大雁塔》 2，政治抒情诗（特点，局限性，作家，代表作） 特点：①“诗人”会以“阶级”的代言者的身份出现，来表达对当代重要政治事件，社会思潮的评说和情感反应，这种评述和反应一般说来不可能出现多种视角和声音，因为其精神上的“资深”，来自当时对现实历史所作的统一叙述②在诗体形态上，表现为强烈的情感宣泄和政论式的观念叙说的结合，即“实际上是抽象的思想，抽象的概念，但用了形象化的语言来表达”③政治抒情诗一般都是长诗，通常采用大量的排比句式是所要表现的观念和情绪进行渲染，铺陈，讲求节奏鲜明，声韵铿锵。 郭小川《望星空》，诗集《投入火热的斗争》，叙事诗集《将军三部曲》，《致大海》《白雪的赞歌》《深深地山谷》，贺敬之《东风万里》《十年颂歌》，诗集《放歌集》 局限性： 3.第一次文代会（时间，地点，意义，内容） 1949，4,2在北平，由郭沫若提议召开， 意义：①第一次文代会实现了党对文学的全面领导，确立了新生政权与文学艺术家之间领导和被领导的关系②确立了以毛泽东“讲话”为新中国文艺的总方针③确立了今后文学的总方向，为工农兵服务④成立了一个组织：文联（中华全国文学艺术联合会），会后成立下属协会（作家协会，戏剧家协会） 内容：周扬总结解放区文艺运动，作题为《新的人民的文艺》的报告，矛盾总结国统区文艺运动，作题为《在反动派压迫下斗争和发展的革命文艺》的报告。会议成立了以郭沫若为主席，矛盾，周扬为副主席的全国文艺界组织——中华全国文学艺术界联合会（文联）。 4.新写实小说的特点 原生态：注重现实生活原生形态的还原 ●理性批判精神的缺席：表现现实生活的荒诞、丑恶、灰暗或无奈，创作主体往往对现实 采取一种无奈的认同态度，缺少强烈的理性批判精神。 ●“零度”叙述：大多采用客观化的叙述态度，是一种缺乏价值判断的冷漠叙述。
四始六义：《诗经》有四始，关于此“四始”各家说法不一：一、一般指“风”﹑“小雅”﹑“大雅”﹑“颂”的首篇。《史记．孔子世家》：“《关雎》之乱以为…风?始，《鹿鸣》为…小雅?始，《文王》为…大雅?始，《清庙》为…颂?始。”二、指“风”﹑“小雅”﹑“大雅”﹑“颂”。《<诗>大序》：“一国之事系一人之本谓之…风?；言天下之事，形四方之风谓之…雅?；雅者正也言王政之所由废兴也政有大小故有…小雅?焉，有…大雅?焉；…颂?者美盛德之形容以其成功告于神明者也。是谓四始，《诗》之至也。”孔颖达疏引郑玄《答张逸》云：“四始…风?也，…小雅?也，…大雅?也，…颂?也。此四者人君行之则为兴，废之则为衰。”三、指“大雅”的《大明》，“小雅”的《四牡》﹑《南有嘉鱼》﹑《鸿雁》。《<诗>大序》：“是谓四始。”孔颖达疏：“《诗纬泛历枢》云：…《大明》在亥水始也；《四牡》在寅木始也；《嘉鱼》在巳火始也；《鸿雁》在申金始也。?……《纬》文因金﹑木﹑水﹑火﹑有四始之义以《诗》文托之。” 《诗经》的“六义”。最早记载于《周礼·春官》，汉代《毛诗序》中明确提出：“故诗有六义焉：一曰风，二曰赋，三曰比，四曰兴，五曰雅，六曰颂。”对于“六义”的解释，有着一个历史发展过程。唐代孔颖达提出了“三体”“三法”的说法，也就是将“六义”分为两组，“风”“雅”“颂”这三者是指体裁，“赋”“比”“兴”这三者是作法。 歌行体：“歌行”是我国古代诗歌的一种体裁，是初唐时期在汉魏六朝乐府诗的基础上建立起来的。刘希夷的《代悲白头吟》与张若虚的《春江花月夜》的出现，可说是这种体裁正式形成的标志。 明代文学家徐师曾在《诗体明辨》中对“歌”、“行”及“歌行”作了如下解释：“放情长言，杂而无方者曰歌；步骤驰骋，疏而不滞者曰行；兼之者曰歌行。” 《辞海》注曰：“行”是乐曲的意思；“歌”与“行”名称虽不同，但并无严格的区别，后来就有“歌行”一体。 风骚：1．指《诗经》和《离骚》。风指《诗经》中的《国风》，骚指《楚辞》中屈原的《离骚》，后来泛指广义文化；在文坛居于领袖地位或在某方面领先叫独领风骚。永明体：永明是南朝齐武帝的年号，“永明体”亦称“新体诗”，这种诗体要求严格四声八病之说，强调声韵格律。这种诗体的出现，对于纠正晋宋以来文人诗的语言过于艰涩的弊病，使创作转向清新通畅起了一定的作用。对“近体诗”的形成产生了重大影响。建安风骨：建安风骨是以曹氏父子为中心形成的文人集团所表现出的共同的文学倾向,他们高扬政治理想,展示强烈个性,具有浓郁的悲剧色彩,展现了东汉末年动荡的时代,形成了慷慨激昂、刚健有力的诗歌风格，所以被称为“建安风骨”，代表人物主要有“三曹”、“七子”和蔡琰等。
建设工程名词解释 饶志辉 1 结构转换层：建筑物某层的上部与下部因平面使用功能不同，该楼层上部与下部采用不同结构类型，并通过该楼层进行结构转换，则该楼层称为结构转换层。 2 冷剂压套筒接头： 3 沥青橡胶应力吸收薄膜： 4 冷桥现象：房屋外墙转角、内外墙交角、楼屋面与外墙搭接角的区域范围，在室内温度高于室外温度时候，产生水雾吸附于墙面的现象称为"冷桥"现象，大多出现在冬季。 5 银粉、金粉：含金属涂料的油漆。 6 （越岭线）垭口：山口。 7 路灯、草坪灯、庭园灯、地灯：路灯：装在道路上照明用的灯。草坪灯：草坪灯的设计主要以外型和柔和的灯光为城市绿地景观增添安全与美丽，并且普遍具有安装方便、装饰性强等特点，可用于公园、花园别墅、广场绿化、等场所的绿化带的装饰性照明。地灯：安装在地面上或接近地面位置上的灯。 8 两带：灞河滨水生活蓝带和浐河城市生态绿带。 9 绿肺：比喻能吸收二氧化碳并释放出氧气的绿地、森林等。 10 电气元器件气候防护：潮湿、盐雾、霉菌以及气压、污染气体对电子设备影响很大，其中潮湿的影响是最主要的。通常采用浸渍、灌封、密封等措施。
11 牛腿、肩梁： 12 声发射定位信号： 13 错层结构：是指在建筑中同层楼板不在同一高度，并且高差大于梁高（或大于500毫米）的结构类型。 14 红外轴温探测系统： 15 虚拟仓库：如果建筑材料市场离得不远的话，可通过信息系统对部分材料建立一个虚拟仓库，从而实现零库存。 16 高压射流技术、真空泵技术、以及射流泵的出现、液压技术的进步、超声波检测技术： 17 WSS无收缩深孔注浆技术： 18 三轴搅拌桩：是长螺旋桩机的一种，同时有三个螺旋钻孔，施工时三条螺旋钻孔同时向下施工，是软基处理的一种有效形式，利用搅拌桩机将水泥喷入土体并充分搅拌，使水泥与土发生一系列物理化学反应，使软土硬结而提高地基强度。 19 工程地质与基坑开挖深度及地连墙墙趾关系图： 20 透水砖：也叫渗水砖、荷兰砖。 21 水幕降尘器：是一种比较传统且常用的降尘方法。 22 水泡泥技术：一种隧道爆破时降低粉尘的技术。水泡泥就是用装水的塑料袋填于炮眼内来代替一部分泡泥，装完药后将其填于炮眼内，尽量不要搞破，然后用黄泥封堵。实践表明，此法降尘效率非常高。 23 单向阀：单向阀是流体只能沿进水口流动，出水口介质却无法回流，俗称单向阀。单向阀又称止回阀或逆止阀。用于液压系统中防止
中国现当代文学名词解释 现代文学 新青年: 中国现代文学史、文化思想上最重要的刊物。1915年创刊于上海，原名《青年杂志》，陈独秀主编。"五四"前后以《新青年》为主要阵地，同时进行了新文化运动和文学改革运动。创刊号发表的《敬告青年》提出了民主、科学的反封建思想的革命主张，1917年初发表了胡适的《文学改良刍议》、陈独秀的《文学革命论》，正式掀起文学革命。1918年5月，现代文学史上第一篇白话小说《狂人日记》发表于其上。该刊还广泛译介外国文学。1920年9月，它成为上海共产主义小组机关刊物，1926年终刊。 文学改良刍议: 1917年发表于《新青年》，是倡导文学革命的第一篇理论文章，对文学革命在理论上作出了重要贡献。提出文学改良应从"八事"入手:须言之有物、不摹仿古人、须讲求文法、不作无病呻吟、务去滥调套语、不用典、不讲对仗、不避俗字俗语。文章宣扬的是一种反拟古主义的现实主义文学思想，从不同角度针贬了旧文坛的复古主义和形式主义流弊，粗浅的触及了文学内容与形式的关系、文学的时代性与社会性以及语言变革等问题，初步阐明了新文学的要求和推行白话文的立场。 "人的文学": 1918年12月，《新青年》刊登了周作人的《人的文学》，对当时的文学革命影响很大。周作人从个性解放的要求出发，充分肯定人道主义，强调一种"利己而利他，利他即是利己"的"理想生活"，提出以"人道主义为本，对于人生诸问题，加以记录研究的文字，便谓之人的文学"，认为新文学即人的文学，应充分表现"灵肉一致"的人性。这深深影响了五四时期表现个性解放主题的创作，"人的文学"成为五四时期文学的一个中心概念。在《平民文学》中，周作人进一步阐述"人的文学"的主张，强调文学须应用于人生上，提出"普遍"与"真挚"的原则，并申明"以真为主，以美即在其中"的文学观念，这对五四时期尤其是为人生派的创作影响很大。 双簧信:
1、六义说：源自《毛诗序》，六义说实本于《周礼》，六义为风、雅、颂、赋、比、兴。风即《国风》，主要是各地方民歌；雅包括《大雅》、《小雅》，主要是周王朝京畿地区的歌曲；颂包括《鲁颂》、《商颂》、《周颂》，主要是宗庙祭祀的舞曲。 2、赋比兴：赋、比、兴都是《诗经》常用的艺术表现手法。赋者，直言之也，也就是直接敷陈。比者，以此物比彼物也，也就是比拟。兴者，先言他物以引起所咏之物也，也就是兴发。 3、《楚辞》：战国中晚期产生于南方长江流域楚地的一种新型诗体，以屈原、宋玉等为代表作家，代表作品包括屈原《离骚》、《九歌》、《九章》等，因西汉刘向编辑《楚辞》而得名。 4、初唐四杰：指初唐王勃、杨炯、卢照邻、骆宾王四位诗人，他们的创作活动都基本集中在高宗和武后时期，以出众的文才盛名当时。他们的诗歌都充满进取精神，有慷慨悲凉的感人力量，他们的创作给初唐诗坛吹进清新的空气，为变革齐梁以来的绮靡文风、开创唐诗的新局面有大功。 5、山水田园诗派：山水田园诗派是指以山水或田园为歌咏对象的诗歌流派，为山水诗歌奠定基础的南朝诗人谢灵运，为田园诗开创新局面的是东晋大诗人陶渊明，盛唐山水田园诗的代表主要是王维、孟浩然等。 6、边塞诗派：盛唐时重要诗歌流派，其代表诗人为高适、岑参等人，他们的诗歌多以边塞奇丽风光为描绘对象，也反映了戍边将士的建功立业、思念故土等思想情感，多有慷慨悲凉的情调。 7、韩孟诗派：韩孟诗派是指中唐以韩愈、孟郊为代表的诗歌流派，他们的诗歌进一步发展了杜诗奇崛的一面，力求瑰奇怪谲。他们除追求诗歌的雄奇怪异之美外，还大胆创新，或以散文章法结构诗篇，或在诗中大量使用散文句法，他们的“以文为诗”对宋诗有很大影响。 8、元白诗派：元白诗派是指中唐以元稹、白居易为代表的诗歌流派，他们重写实、尚通俗。他们发起新乐府运动，强调诗歌的惩恶扬善、补察时政的功能，语言方面则力求通俗易解。 9、花间词：花间词是指晚唐后蜀以温庭筠、韦庄为代表的词派，他们的词多以男欢女爱、相思离别为主要内容，其风格是香艳浓丽、婉约缠绵，他们的词大多被收入赵崇祚编辑的词集《花间集》中，故称。 10、豪放词：豪放词是指以苏轼和辛弃疾等爱国词人为代表的词派，他们的词摆脱了词为“艳科”的格局，在词的表现内容、境界方面均有所提高。视野广阔，气象恢宏，语言宏博，不拘音律。 11、婉约词：婉约词是指自花间词以下、以温庭筠、柳永、周邦彦等词人为代表的词派，他们的词表情达意一般崇尚含蓄婉转，充分发挥了词“专主情致”的特点。重儿女情长，委婉含蓄，结构深细缜密，音律婉转和谐，语言圆润清丽。 12、公安派：明代万历年间，以袁宗道、袁宏道、袁中道三兄弟为代表的一个文学流派。
解构主义，巴洛克建筑，拓扑学，波普艺术，逻各斯……】建筑师应该了解的名词，你知道多少？2011年05月31 日13:30:51 （图片如果看不到就右键在新标签页中打开，疏忽了抱歉 现代主义建筑：现代主义建筑是指二十世纪中叶，在西方建筑界居主导地位的一种建筑思想。这种建筑的代表人物主张：建筑师要摆脱传统建筑形式的束缚，大胆创造适应于工业化社会的条件、要求的崭新建筑。因此具有鲜明的理性主义和激进主义的色彩，又称为现代派建筑。 巴洛克建筑：巴洛克建筑是17～18世纪在意大利文艺复兴建筑基础上发展起来的一种建筑和装饰风格。其特点是外形自由，追求动态，喜好富丽的装饰和雕刻、强烈的色彩，常用穿插的曲面和椭圆形空间。巴洛克（baroque)此字源于西班牙语及葡萄牙语的“变形的珍珠”(—barroco)。作为形容词，此字有“俗丽凌乱”之意。欧洲人最初用这个词指“缺乏古典主义均衡特性的作品”，它原是18世纪崇尚古典艺术的人们，对17世纪不同于文艺复兴风格的一个带贬抑的称呼，现今这个词已失去了原有的贬抑，仅指17世纪风行于欧洲的一种艺术风格。 解构主义：解构主义60年代缘起于法国，雅克·德里达——解构主义领袖——不满于西方几千年来贯穿至今的哲学思想，对那种传统的不容置疑的哲学信念发起挑战，对自柏拉图以来的西方形而上学传统大加责难。 解构主义建筑：解构主义建筑是在80年代晚期开始的后现代建筑的发展。它的特别之处为破碎的想法，非线性设计的过程, 有兴趣在结构的表面或和明显非欧几里得几何上花点功夫,形成在建筑学设计原则的变形与移位,譬如一些结构与大厦封套.大厦的完成视觉外观利用不可预料和受控纷乱描绘的刺激出现了无数的解构主义的"样式"。一些解构主义的建筑师受到法国哲学家德里达(Jacques Derrida)的文字和他解构的想法的影响。虽然这个影响的程度仍然对受到怀疑; 而其他人则被重申的俄国人构成主义运动中的几何学不平衡想法所影响。在解构主义,也有对其它二十世纪运动作另外的参考: 现代主义/后现代主义互相作用，表现主义, 立体派, 简约主义及当代艺术。解构主义的全面尝试，就是让建筑学远离那些实习者所看见的现代主义的束紧规范，譬如“形式跟随功能”,“形式的纯度”,“材料的真我”和“结构的表达”。在解构主义运动的历史上的重要事件包括了1982年拉维列特公园(Parc de la Villette) 的建筑设计竞争(特别德里达和彼得·艾森曼的作品并且柏纳德·楚米的得奖作品), 1988年现代艺术博物馆在纽约的解构主义建筑展览, 由菲利普·约翰逊和马克·威格利组织, 还有1989年初位于俄亥俄州哥伦布市由彼得·艾森曼设计的卫克斯那艺术中心(Wexner Center for the Arts)。 拓扑学 拓扑学，是近代发展起来的一个研究连续性现象的数学分支。中文名称起源于希腊语Τοπολογ的音译。Topology原意为地貌，于19世纪中期由科学家引入，当时主要研究的是出于数学分析的需要而产生的一些几何问题。发展至今，主要研究拓扑空间在拓扑变换下的不变性质和不变量。拓扑学是数学中一个重要的、基础的分支。起初它是几何学的一
中国现当代文学名词解释 有考南师大文学院的请联系qq:309875834 (现代部分) 1917年1月，胡适发表《文学改良刍议》，并提出“八事主张”：“一曰，须言之有物；二曰，不摹仿古人；三曰，须讲求文法；四曰，不作无病之呻吟；五曰，务去滥调套话；六曰，不用典；七曰，不讲对仗；八曰，不避俗字俗语。以进化论的眼光断定白话文为中国文化之正宗，并旗帜鲜明的反对拟古主义和摹仿主义。 1917年2月，陈独秀发表文章《文学革命论》，明确提出“三大主义”：“曰推到雕琢的阿谀的贵族文学，建设平易的抒情的国民文学；曰推到陈腐的铺张的古典文学，建设新鲜的立诚的写实文学；曰推到愚昧的艰涩的山林文学，建设明了通俗的社会文学。”这从内容和形式两个方面提出文学改革的主张，态度比胡适更为坚决。 1918年周作人发表《人的文学》一文，提出新文学应是“人的文学”，反对封建的“非人的文学”。他所谓的“人的文学”，是以合乎人性的人的灵肉一致的生活为文学。周作人的“人的文学”的主张，对新文学第一个十年的理论建设和文学创作产生了重大影响，成为这一时期文学创作的重要特色。 指的是清末民初专写才子佳人题材的文学派别。又名礼拜六派(因鸳鸯蝴蝶派刊物中以《礼拜六》影响最大而得名)，始于20世纪初，1912—1917年为其繁盛期，直至1949年才基本消失。主要作家有包天笑、徐枕亚、周瘦鹃、李涵秋、李定夷等。主要刊物有《礼拜六》、《小说时报》、《小说新报》、《小说大观》等。文学主张是把小说作为“游戏”和“消遣”的工具。这一类文学以言情小说为骨干，总体特征是情调和风格偏于世俗、媚俗。代表作品有：徐枕亚《玉梨魂》、李涵秋《广陵潮》、包天笑《上海春秋》等。 其主流为言情小说，有坏的支流如黑幕小说等。鸳鸯蝴蝶派小说内容多为才子佳人恋爱婚姻，接触到婚姻制度不合理，但又常囿于礼教。其中好的有一定社会、艺术价值，但也有许多作品以营利为目的而粗制滥造。这一流派在小说形式、技巧方面有承前启后作用。文学研究会对其游戏、消遣的文学观进行过批判。 1921年1月,于北京成立。代表人物：周作人、郑振铎、茅盾（沈雁冰）、王统照、许地山、叶绍钧(叶圣陶)、朱自清、冰心、庐隐、俞平伯、老舍、丰子恺等。《小说月报》为代用会刊，还编印了《文学旬刊》及《诗》、《戏剧》月刊等刊物。 宗旨是：“研究介绍世界文学，整理中国旧文学，创造新文学”。 信仰：“相信文学是一种工作，而且又是于人生很切要的一种工作。”注重文学的社会功利性。以倡导“为人生”的现实主义文学为其主要倾向；文学研究会倡导和创作的反映各种社会问题的“问题小说”、“问题剧”和反映现实人生的“乡土文学”盛极一时；文学研究会注重翻译，以俄、法及北欧的现实主义名著居多。
1.《诗经》 《诗经》是中国古代诗歌的开端，也是最早的一部诗歌总集。反映了西周初期到春秋中叶约五百年间的社会面貌。《诗经》最初只称为“诗”或“诗三百”，到西汉时，被尊为儒家经典，才称为《诗经》。全篇按《风》、《雅》、《颂》三类编辑。内容丰富，反映了劳动与爱情、战争与徭役、压迫与反抗、风俗与婚姻、祭祖与宴会，甚至天象、地貌、动物、植物等方方面面，是周代社会生活的一面镜子。对后世影响深远。 2.《楚辞》 楚辞是屈原创作的一种新诗体，也是中国文学史上第一部浪漫主义诗歌总集。“楚辞”的名称，西汉初期已有之，至刘向乃编辑成集。原收战国楚人屈原、宋玉等人辞赋共十六篇。后增入《九思》，成十七篇。全书以屈原作品为主，其余各篇也是承袭屈赋的形式。以其运用楚地的文学样式、方言声韵和风土物产等，具有浓厚的地方色彩，故名《楚辞》，对后世诗歌产生深远影响。 3.古文运动 古文运动是指唐代中期以及宋朝提倡古文、反对骈文为特点的文体改革运动。因涉及文学的思想内容，所以兼有思想运动和社会运动的性质。“古文”这一概念由韩愈最先提出。他把六朝以来讲求声律及辞藻、排偶的骈文视为俗下文字，认为自己的散文继承了两汉文章的传统，所以称“古文”。韩愈提倡古文，目的在于恢复古代的儒学道统，将改革文风与复兴儒学变为相辅相成的运动。在提倡古文时，进一步强调要以文明道。除唐代的韩愈、柳宗元外，宋代的欧阳修、王安石、曾巩、苏洵、苏轼、苏辙等人也是其中的代表。 4.《红楼梦》 中国古典四大名著之首，清代作家曹雪芹创作的章回体长篇小说，共一百二十回，是一部具有世界影响力的人情小说作品，举世公认的中国古典小说巅峰之作，中国封建社会的百科全书，传统文化的集大成者。小说以贾、史、王、薛四大家族的兴衰为背景，贾宝玉、林黛玉、薛宝钗的爱情婚姻故事为主线，通过家族悲剧、女儿悲剧及主人公的人生悲剧，揭示出封建末世的危机。《红楼梦》对宫廷官场的黑暗、封建贵族的腐朽等社会现实及道德观念都进行了深刻的批判，具有极其深远的影响。 5.《呐喊》 鲁迅的第一部小说集，1923年8月首次出版。收1918年4月至1922年10月期间的作品共14篇。包括《狂人日记》、《孔乙己》、《故乡》、《阿Q正传》等著名作品。《呐喊》显示了鲁迅对传统文学和外来文艺的有机结合，成功地塑造了一系列典型形象，具有独特的民族风格和民族特色，代表了鲁迅文学创作的最高成就。它的出版，改变了文学革命初期仅有理论建树而创作不丰的局面，
1.国内生产总值：一国在一年内所生产的物品和劳务的市场价值的总和。 2.总需求：是指在其他条件的不变的情况下，在某一给定的价格水平上人们所愿意购买的产出总量。67789787678908907798907877897889078907890；】【】】 3.总供给：在其他条件不变的情况下，所有企业愿意提供的产出总量与整体价格水平的关系。 4.实际GDP：按固定价格或不变价格统计的GDP。 5.名义GDP：用实际市场价格统计的GDP。 6.潜在GDP：指一国经济所能持续地生产的最大的产出水平。 7.边际消费倾向：当可支配收入每增加1美元，人们所增加的消费量。 8.边际储蓄倾向：指每增加的1美元可支配收入种被用来增加储蓄的部分。 9.乘数效应：是指外生指出变化1美元对总产出的影响。 10.投资乘数：指投资增加1美元会使产出以若干倍增加。 11.商业周期：是国民总产出、总收入、总就业量的波动，持续时间通常为2—10年，它以大多数经济部门的扩张或收缩为标志。 12.狭义货币供给量（M1）：指在银行体系以外流动的硬币和纸币之和，再加上支票帐户存款。 13.广义货币供给量（M2）：即M1加上储蓄存款、小额定期
存款和货币市场共同基金等准货币。 14.货币的交易需求：为购买商品和劳务需要进行支付的货币量。 15.货币的资产需求：在资产增值和保持流动性之间选择而持有的货币量。 16.投资的风险：意味着投资收益的可变性。 17.名义利率：衡量的是每投资1美元所获得的货币收获。 18.实际利率：衡量的是今天我们所放弃的物品在明天能为我们带来的物品的数量。 19.通货膨胀：意味着总体价格水平的上升。 20.通货紧缩：意味着总体价格水平的下降。 21.成本推进型通货膨胀：在失业率高且资源利用不足时，由成本上升所造成的通货膨胀。 22.需求拉动型通货膨胀：总需求的增长速度超过经济潜在的生产能力，使物价上升以平衡总供给与总需求的通货膨胀。 23.中央银行的贴现率：商业银行向十二个地区性联邦储备银行借款时的利息率。 24.法定准备金率：指银行必须持有一个比例的支票存款作为准备金，这个比例被称为法定准备金率。 25.非加速通货膨胀失业率（自然失业率）：是指与稳定的通货膨胀率相一致的失业率。 26.奥肯法则：相对与潜在GDP，GDP每下降2个百分点，