自行车自动变速策略研究
摘要
在骑车过程中，车手可以移动移杆，获得不同的齿轮比或踩踏节奏来满足不同的外部环境和心脑血管要求，如高功耗，低蹬力，低肌肉应力等。人力自行车之前的研究专注于满足特定的一个或两个要求，以确定最佳的节奏。但大多数没有经验的骑手不能判断换档的时机以获得最佳的节奏。这样的行动会伤害骑手的身体，让车手不能正确使用变速器系统。本研究采用模糊控制理论融和骑行时的所有要求，制定出取决于心脑血管要求和外部物理环境的模糊控制方法以求上移或下移换挡时刻的正确性。最后，本研究提出了一个更完整的策略，以保证车手的健康。本研究综合了先前研究中有关齿轮变换的顺序，以便在骑行中用上所有的齿轮比。在文章的最后，设计了Browning SmartShift系统用于实现该方法，并进行了道路试验，以确保系统的反应确实符合用户的要求。
第一章
1.1自行车变速系统
约翰·肯普和威廉·萨顿在1886年，发明了第一辆自行车。大约一百年后，使骑行更舒适和高效的自行车设计技术发展得很好。近年来，变速自行车已成为市场主流。一量变速自行车由很多部件组成，包括帧管，刹车，变速系统和传动部件。一个完整的变速系统，如图1.1和图1.2，由五个部分组成：链轮和飞轮，前部和后部变速器，换挡杆，线缆和一个链条。链轮和飞轮由几个齿片和螺丝钉组成，它们都有不同的齿数。有两个换挡杆通过线缆连接到方和后方的变速器。骑行者移动两换挡杆驱动变速器使链条啮合到较大的齿片上，或使链条下降到较小齿片。它可以为骑行者获得到不同的齿轮比。在骑自行车时，骑行者大量使用腿部力量和心脑血管系统。变换齿轮比可以使骑行者感觉更加舒适。骑行者可以选择低齿轮比以高节奏和低扭矩来踩踏，或选择高齿轮比以低节奏和高扭矩来踩踏，选择哪一齿轮比由许多因素决定。最佳的齿轮比可以获得最佳的骑行节奏。骑自行者会觉得很舒适如果他们以他们最佳的骑行节奏骑行的话。当外部物理环境变化时，骑自行车可以改变齿轮比，以获得最佳节奏。但重要的是去决定最佳节奏是什么和当外部物理环境改变时怎样选择一个最佳的节奏。
图1.1 自行车变速装置
图 1.2 一种自行车变速器细节图
1.2动机
近年来，越来越多的人骑自行车用来休闲娱乐。人们希望所骑自行车具有更好的性能使骑行更舒适。他们所需要的是知道最佳节奏的选择而后以最佳节奏骑行，有很多因素影响到如何选择最佳节奏。例如，肌肉应力，关节力矩，人的力量，扭矩等等。过去，许多研究关注一个到两个因素来确定最佳的节奏。从这些研究中，骑行者可以得到一些规则，以帮助他们以最佳节奏骑行，但车手仍然感到不舒服因为有一些因素被忽视了。例如，从人机工程的角度来看骑行者可以选择最佳的节奏为50~60转每分钟，但这样节奏的转速在生物力学上来讲很容易使膝盖受伤。所以就有了当外部物理环境已经改变时便改变齿轮比以获得最佳节奏的时机的研究。当然，一个没有经验的骑手无法判断用换挡杆来获得最佳节奏的时刻。因此，他们不能正确使用好变速系统。然而，没有任何关于选择最佳节奏的研究是考虑到上述提到的所有因素的。但在市场上有一些产品是可以自动改变齿轮例如Browning SmartShift and Shimano AutoD等。但这些产品的换档标准，只能依赖于自行车的速度。事实上，对人类来说这是不足够的。根据上述报告，这项研究的目的是要建立一个考虑到影响人类最佳节奏的各方面因素的模型。此外，当外部物理环境改变时，这项研究还提供有关规则决定如何选择正确的齿轮比。最后，该系统可以自动改变齿轮，使任何人都可以自如地骑自行车并充分利用好变速系统。
1.3文献回顾
为了骑行时能达到最佳节奏，要从不同的观点用大量的研究来界定最佳节奏。1986年，Rob Redfield 和M. L. Hull研发了一在人骑自行车时计算应力和力矩的生物力学模型。他们发现，通过实验发现了关节力矩和蹬踏率之间的关系。他们试图在恒功率骑行时减少平均绝对关节力矩的总和。他们发现，最佳节奏约为95至105转每分钟，并做了实验以获得更低的肌肉应力或关节力矩。从实验中，他们获得了肌肉应力与其他因素（如踏板力和脚踝力矩）之间的联系。1988年，M. L. Hull和他的同事们选择降低肌肉应力。他们开发出一种更复杂的模型来评估骑踏节奏对肌肉应力的影响。他们减小肌肉应力，得到的最佳节奏约为95至100转每分钟。2000年，Anthony P. Marsh和他的同事们做了实验。他们把骑行者分为三组：训练有素的赛车手，跑步者和未受训练的骑行者。这些骑行
者在实验中有的是以最佳节奏骑行，有的是以最佳输出功率骑行的。训练有素的骑行者和跑步者以100瓦，150瓦，200瓦，250瓦骑行，少有训练的骑行者以100瓦和150W骑行。一个关于特定神经肌肉反应，动力，应力和忍耐力的仿真与分析建立于以265W的固定输出功率进行75,90和105转每分钟的速率踩踏的动态模型上，对业余自行车手来说最佳输出功率为75瓦左右。一项实验中测得了喜欢的骑踏节奏和氧气消耗最低节奏。8位骑行者和8个非骑行者都以200W 踩踏，他们更喜欢的节奏是75至95转每分钟，而对骑行者来说最低耗氧量的踩踏节奏是50至60转每分钟。从这些研究中看，考虑到所有影响最佳节奏的因素是非常重要的，因为从不同的角度出发最佳节奏是明显不一样的。
1.4论文概述
为了建立一个考虑到所有影响最佳节奏因素的模型，骑行模型试验和原因分析在本文中将双管齐下，所介绍的模型能有助于决定怎样选择一合适的齿轮比。简要说明本论文的轮廓，内容如下。
第2章将初步介绍一些细节其中包括下肢在解剖学中的简要介绍以及自行车零件的一些专业术语。第3章介绍了对自行车的影响因素以及这些因素对车手骑行的影响。第4章提出了基本概念和模糊逻辑控制器的详细设计步骤，换挡的模糊逻辑控制器也在第4章设计的。第5章中，此研究通过软件和硬件的结合建成实验机器，并在第五章对实验结果进行了讨论，同时跟Browning SmartShift 系统进行了比较。最后，第6章包含这篇论文的结论和对未来工作的展望，可以为以后关于此工作的研究提供某些方面的帮助。
第三章
3.1 蹬踏力
车手产生蹬踏的力使自行车前进，如果有更多的力量产生，自行车会走得更快。同时，力使人身体产生关节力矩和肌肉应力。从以往对最佳节奏的研究得出的有关结论是：
1．关节力矩最小化，可以得到的最佳踏板节奏范围为90~105转每分钟。
2．最大限度地减少肌肉应力，可以得到的最佳踏板节奏范围为95到100转每分钟。
3．最大限度地降低踏板力，可以得到约90转每分钟的最佳踏板节奏。
4．车手的经验很大程度上影响人骑自行车的结果。
3.2 心脑血管系统
骑自行车时，心脑血管系统是一个重要因素。人骑自行车时将快速喘气，心跳加速。这将使乘客感到疲倦，不舒服。如果骑行者的心血管系统可以承受骑行时加载在他们身上的这些压力，他（她）可以骑很长一段时间。
实验所得结果总结如下：
1．骑自行车强调腿部力量超过心血管系统。
2．高节奏使骑手舒适，可以骑很长一段时间，但它花费更多耗氧量。
3．经常骑自行车的人比不经常骑自行车的心脑血管系统更强，所以他们就可以在达到相同的踩踏节奏情况下消耗更少的耗氧量。
3.3 力与扭矩
如果车手能保持较高的能量，他（她）可以更容易地骑自行车。高能量是指很好的使用力气，它使骑行者很舒服地骑行。车手的力使踏板轴产生扭矩，较低的节奏导致高扭矩。高扭矩意味着高的角加速度和高蹬踏力的产生。高角加速可以使车手在很短的时间获得较高的速度，但高蹬踏力可能伤害到骑手的身体。相反，高节奏产生较低的扭矩，它可能使骑手容易感到疲倦。
实验分析结果可以归纳为：
1．高的踩踏节奏并不完全取决于人的力量。
2．人的力量和扭矩之间的关系符合理论。
从不同的观点出发，有很多不同的最佳踩踏节奏。之前上述研究结果得到的数据如表3.1所示。从这些结果可以看出，本次研究的最佳踩踏节奏范围是60至90之间的转速。范围将作为新的换挡策略的标准。
第四章
从前面章节的结论可以看出，很明显有许多因素影响到人类骑行自行车，并且很难为获得一最佳踩踏节奏而制定独一无二的标准。因此，本研究使用模糊逻辑控制器来模拟在骑行时的人类推理。
模糊逻辑控制器有一定的优势如下：
翻译人类专家的模糊不精确的知识的能力
简单的实现技术
软件设计和硬件实现的广泛支持
结果很容易从某产品转移到另一产品
平滑和强大的控制功能
控制不稳定系统的能力
第六章
结论
有许多因素影响骑行者的表现。但关键问题是，如果车手知道如何选择齿轮比，骑在最佳节奏，那么他或她可以获得最佳蹬踏节奏或最舒适的感受。在这项研究中，新的换挡策略是通过模糊逻辑控制理论完成的。它运用LabVIEW和，Browning SmartShift实现。结合软件和硬件后，它可以测试并获得实验数据。这项研究的结论可以概括如下：
1．选择最佳蹬踏在65至90转之间的节奏范围能满足所有先前的关于自行车骑行影响因素的研究。
2．设计一糊逻辑控制器，通过从属函数的设计，构建假定基础规则，选择推理方法和模糊化的方法。新的控制器可以决定如何改变齿轮比，它是一个新的基本换挡策略。
3．结合模糊逻辑控制器和最佳换挡顺序使换挡策略更完整。换挡的最佳顺序可在换挡时降低功率损失
4．结合软件和硬件，新齿轮换挡战略可以进行道路测试并获得实验数据。
5．实验结果相比较，新的换挡策略表现优于Browning SmartShift系统并且踩踏的节奏范围符合从前研究的最佳踩踏节奏的范围。
未来研究
虽然控制算法已经进行了开发和测试，还有一些工作需要在以后来完成：1．提升换挡的机制：
在这项研究中，Browning SmartShift系统用于实现算法。如果有一新的换挡机制，以便提高该算法工作效率就更好。
2．增加学习功能：
模糊逻辑控制，能适应不同乘客的需要，通过调整从属函数和假定规则。但它不能学着根据不同的用户调整算法，学习功能可以使调节更轻松。
3．发展更多的运作模式：
对于不同的驾驶条件，模糊隶属函数和规则库必须调整。可以结合学习功能进行动态调整，或在计算机中设定不同的骑行环境，如城市骑行，赛车，越野骑行等。
Development of an Automatic Bicycle Shifting Strategy
Based on Human Factors Modeling
Abstract
During cycling, riders can move shift-levers to obtain different gear-ratio or cadence in order to satisfy different external environments and cardiovascular requirements such as high power, low pedaling force, low muscle stress, and etc. Prior researches of human cycling focus on satisfying the specific one or two requirements to determine the optimal cadences. But most inexperienced riders can not judge the moment to shift gears to obtain the optimal cadence. Such actions will injure rider’s body, and riders can not ma ke use of the derailleur system in the correct way. This study used fuzzy control theory to integrate all requirements in cycling and developed the strategy about the correct up-shifting or down-shifting moment depending on all cardiovascular requirements and external physical environments. Finally, this study proposed a more complete strategy to certify rider’s health. On the hand, this study combined the gear-shifting sequence from prior researches to use all gear-ratios during cycling. Finally,Browning SmartShift system is used to implement the proposed method. Road tests were also performed to ensure the system reactions do meet users’ requirements.
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Bicycle Derailleur System
In 1886, John Kemp Sterley and William Sutton invented the first bicycles. About one hundred years later, bicycle design technologies were developed very well in order to ride more comfortable and efficient. In recent years, multi-speed bicycle has become the market stream. A multi-speed bicycle is composed of lots of components, including frame tubes, brakes, derailleur systems and transmission parts. A complete derailleur system, as shown in Fig 1.1 and Fig 1.2, consists of five components: chainwheel and freewheel, front and rear derailleurs, shift levers, cables and a chain. The chainwheel and freewheel include several chainrings and cogs, each having different numbers of teeth. There are two shift levers connected to the front and rear derailleurs through cables. Cyclists move the two shift levers to drive derailleurs guiding the chain to engage larger chainrings, or guiding the chain to drop to smaller chainrings. It can get different
gear-ratios for cyclist. When riding a bicycle, the cyclist makes significant use of both the strength in legs and the cardiovascular system. Change gear-ratios can make riders feel more comfortable. Cyclists can choose a low gear-ratio to pedal at high cadence and low torque, or choose a high gear-ratio to pedal at low cadence and high torque. It has many factors to decide which gear-ratio to be selected. The optimal gear-ratio can get the optimal cadence. Cyclists will feel comfortable if they pedal at their optimal cadence. When external physical environment changes, cyclists can change the gear-ratio to get their optimal cadences. It is important to decide what the optimal cadence is, and how to choose an optimal cadence when external
physical environment changes.
Fig 1.1 Bicycle derailleur system [1]
Fig 1.2 A detail bicycle derailleur system [1]
1.2 Motivation
In recent years, there are more and more people riding bicycles for recreation. People hope to ride bicycle more comfortable and with better performance. What they need is to know the selection of the optimal cadence and ride bicycle at the optimal cadence. There are lots of factors which influence how to choose the optimal cadence. For example, muscle stress, joint moment, human power, torque, and etc. In the past, many researches focused on one or two factors to
determine the optimal cadence. From these researches, riders can get some rules to help them riding bicycle at the optimal cadence. But riders still feel uncomfortable because there are some factors neglected. For example, riders can choose the optimal cadence between 50 and 60 rpm from the ergonomic point of view, but such cadence may make knees easy to get injury in biomechanics. There are such researches about the time to change gear-ratio to get the optimal cadence when the external physical environment has been changed. Also, an inexperienced rider can not judge the moment to use the shift-levels to get the optimal cadence. So they can not make use of the derailleur system in a correct way. However, there are no researches about choosing the optimal cadence by considering all factors mentioned above. But on the market, there are some products which can change gears automatically such as Browning SmartShift and Shimano AutoD. But the gear changing criteria of these products only depends on the bicycle velocity. In facts, it is not enough for humans. According to the above statements, the purpose of this research is to develop a model considering all factors affecting the human optimal cadence. In addition, this study also provides rules about how to choose a correct gear-ratio as the external physical environment changes. Finally, the system can change gears automatically so that anyone can ride bicycle easily and make full use of the derailleur system.
1.3 Literature Review
In order to ride at the optimal cadence, there are lots of researches defining optimal cadence from different standpoints. In 1986, Rob Redfield and M. L. Hull developed a biomechanical model to compute stress and moment when riding bicycles. They found the relation between joint moments and pedaling rates with experiments. They tried to minimize the sum of the average absolute joint moments during constant power riding. They found the optimal cadence was about 95 to 105 rpm [2], and experimented for lowering muscle stress or joint moment. From the experiment, they got the high connection between muscle stress and other factors (such pedal force, and ankle moment) [3]. In 1988, M. L. Hull and his coworkers chose to lower muscle stress. And they developed a more sophisticated model to assess the influence of cadence on the muscle stress. They minimized the muscle stress and got the optimal cadence about 95 to100 rpm [4]. In 2000, Anthony P. Marsh [5] and his coworkers made an experiment. They divided three groups of cyclists: trained cyclists, runners and less-trained cyclists. These cyclists experimented at optimum cadence and optimum output powers. The trained cyclists and runners rode at 100 W, 150 W, 200
W, and 250 W; the less-trained cyclists rode at 100 W and 150 W. A simulation and analysis about the specific neuromuscular activation, force, stress and endurance based on a dynamic model carried out at different rates of 75, 90 and 105 rpm at a fixed power output of 265 W [6]. An optimum power output of the amateur cyclist is about 75 W [7]. One experiment measured the preferred cadence and the lowest oxygen consumption cadence. Eight cyclists and eight non-cyclists pedaled at 200 W. The preferred cadence for cyclists is 75 to 95 rpm. But the lowest oxygen consumption cadence for cyclists is 50 to 60 rpm [8]. From these researches, it is important to consider all factors influencing the optimal cadence. Because it has a obvious difference from different points of view.
1.4 Thesis Outlines
In order to develop a model including all factors affecting the optimal cadence, the cycling model and factor analysis have be done in this thesis. And the model can help to determine how to choose a suitable gear ratio. The brief description of outlines on this thesis contents are given as follows.
Chapter 2 is the preliminary details which include brief introduction about lower limb in anatomy and some terminology on the bicycle. Chapter 3 introduces that the factors influence human cycling and the effect of this factors about rider’s performance. Chapter 4 p roposes the basic concept and detail design steps for fuzzy logic controller. And the fuzzy logic controller of the gear-shifting is designed in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5, this study constructs the experiments machines by combing the software and hardware. And it has discussion about test results and compare to the Browning SmartShift system. Finally, Chapter 6 contains the conclusions and future works, which could assist some aspects for following works on this study.
CHAPTER3
3.1 FORCE
Riders generate pedaling forces to make bicycles moving forward. If more forces are generated, the bicycles will go faster. At the same time, forces make people to generate joint moments and muscle stresses.
The conclusions from previous studies about the optimum cadence are:
1. Minimizing the joint moments can get the optimal pedal cadence ranges between 90 to 105 rpm.
2. Minimizing the muscle stress can get the optimal pedal cadence ranges between 95 to 100 rpm.
3. Minimizing the pedal force can get the optimal pedal cadence about 90 rpm.
4. The experience of riders influence the results a lot in human cycling.
3.2 CARDIOV ASCULAR
The cardiovascular system is an important factor when riding a bicycle. People riding bicycles will pant and his heartbeat become fast. It will make riders feel tired and uncomfortable. If a rider’s cardiovascular system can endure the loading from cycling, he or she can ride for a long time.
The results here can be concluded as:
1. Riding bicycles emphasize the strength in legs more than the cardiovascular system.
2. Higher cadences make rider comfortable and can ride for a long time, but it cost more oxygen consumption.
3. Cyclists have a stronger cardiovascular system than non-cyclists, so they can use less oxygen consumption at the same cadence.
3.3 POWER AND TORQUE
If a rider can maintain higher power, he or she can ride bicycle more easily. High power means using energy well. It makes riders easy to move bicycles forward. Riders generate force to make torque on the shaft of the pedals. Lower cadence leads high torque. High torque means that high angular acceleration and high pedaling forces generated. High angular acceleration can make rider get the high velocity in a short time, but high pedaling forces might break rider’s body. On the contrary, high cadence generates lower torque, and it might make rider easy to feel tired.
These results can be concluded as:
1. High pedaling cadence is not totally good for human power.
2. The relationship between human power and torque conforms to the theory.
There is a lot optimal pedaling cadence based on different view points. The prior researches results mentioned above can provide the data as shown in Table 3.1. From these results, this study takes the optimal pedaling cadence range is between 60 to 90 rpm. The range will be the criterion of the new gear-shifting strategy.
CHAPTER 4
From the conclusions of previous chapters, it is obvious that many factors affect human cycling, and it is difficult to obtain an unique criteria for the optimum cadence. Therefore, this study then uses the fuzzy logic controller to simulate human reasoning during cycling.
It has some advantages as follows [19]:
Ability to translate imprecise/vague knowledge of human experts
Simple to implement technologies
Software design and hardware implementation widely support
Results are easy to transfer from product to product
Smooth and robust controller behavior
Ability to control unstable systems
CHAPTER 6
Conclusions
There are many factors influencing the riders’ performances. But the point is that if the riders know how to choose the gear-ratio and ride at the optimal cadence, then he or she can get the best performances or most comfortable feelings. In this study, the new shifting strategy is completed by fuzzy logic control theory. And it is implement using LabVIEW, and Browning SmartShift. It can test and get experiment data after combining the software and hardware. The conclusions of this study can be summarized as follows:
1. Choosing the optimal pedaling cadence range between 65 to 90 rpm can satisfy the all factors influencing the cycling performance in the prior researches.
2. Designing a fuzzy logic controller by designing the membership functions, constructing the if-then rule base, choosing the inference method and the defuzzification method. The new controller can decide how to change the gear-ratio and it is a new basic shifting strategy.
3. Integrating the fuzzy logic controller with the optimal gear-shifting sequence make the strategy more complete. The optimal gear-shifting sequence can decrease power lose during gear-shifting.
4. Combining the software (LabVIEW) and hardware (Browning SmartShift), the new gear-shifting strategy can perform road tests and get the experiment data.
5. Comparing the experiment results, the new shifting strategy performances is better than the Browning SmartShift system and the pedaling cadence ranges match the optimal cadence range
chosen from the prior researches.
Further works
Although the control algorithms are developed and tested, there are still some further works should be accomplished in the future:
1. Improve the gear-shifting mechanism:
In this study, Browning SmartShift system was used to implement the algorithm. It is better to have a new gear-shifting mechanism in order that the algorithm can work efficiently.
2. Add the learning functions:
The fuzzy logic controller can fit different riders’ needs by adjusting the membership functions and if-then rules. But it can not learn to adjust the algorithm according to different users. The learning functions can make the adjusting easier.
3. Develope more operation models:
For different riding conditions, the fuzzy membership functions and rule bases have to be adjusted. It can combine with the learning functions to adjust dynamically, or set different riding conditions, such as city riding, racing, or cross-country riding, in the bicycle computer.
华北电力大学科技学院 毕业设计（论文）附件 外文文献翻译 学号：121912020115姓名：彭钰钊 所在系别：动力工程系专业班级：测控技术与仪器12K1指导教师：李冰 原文标题：Infrared Remote Control System Abstract 2016 年 4 月 19 日
红外遥控系统 摘要 红外数据通信技术是目前在世界范围内被广泛使用的一种无线连接技术，被众多的硬件和软件平台所支持。红外收发器产品具有成本低，小型化，传输速率快，点对点安全传输，不受电磁干扰等特点，可以实现信息在不同产品之间快速、方便、安全地交换与传送，在短距离无线传输方面拥有十分明显的优势。红外遥控收发系统的设计在具有很高的实用价值，目前红外收发器产品在可携式产品中的应用潜力很大。全世界约有1亿5千万台设备采用红外技术，在电子产品和工业设备、医疗设备等领域广泛使用。绝大多数笔记本电脑和手机都配置红外收发器接口。随着红外数据传输技术更加成熟、成本下降，红外收发器在短距离通讯领域必将得到更广泛的应用。 本系统的设计目的是用红外线作为传输媒质来传输用户的操作信息并由接收电路解调出原始信号，主要用到编码芯片和解码芯片对信号进行调制与解调，其中编码芯片用的是台湾生产的PT2262，解码芯片是PT2272。主要工作原理是：利用编码键盘可以为PT2262提供的输入信息，PT2262对输入的信息进行编码并加载到38KHZ的载波上并调制红外发射二极管并辐射到空间，然后再由接收系统接收到发射的信号并解调出原始信息，由PT2272对原信号进行解码以驱动相应的电路完成用户的操作要求。 关键字：红外线；编码；解码；LM386；红外收发器。 1 绪论
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外文翻译 专业机械设计制造及其自动化学生姓名刘链柱 班级机制111 学号1110101102 指导教师葛友华
外文资料名称： Design and performance evaluation of vacuum cleaners using cyclone technology 外文资料出处：Korean J. Chem. Eng., 23(6), (用外文写) 925-930 (2006) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文 2.外文原文
应用旋风技术真空吸尘器的设计和性能介绍 吉尔泰金，洪城铱昌，宰瑾李， 刘链柱译 摘要：旋风型分离器技术用于真空吸尘器 - 轴向进流旋风和切向进气道流旋风有效地收集粉尘和降低压力降已被实验研究。优化设计等因素作为集尘效率，压降，并切成尺寸被粒度对应于分级收集的50％的效率进行了研究。颗粒切成大小降低入口面积，体直径，减小涡取景器直径的旋风。切向入口的双流量气旋具有良好的性能考虑的350毫米汞柱的低压降和为1.5μm的质量中位直径在1米3的流量的截止尺寸。一使用切向入口的双流量旋风吸尘器示出了势是一种有效的方法，用于收集在家庭中产生的粉尘。 摘要及关键词：吸尘器; 粉尘; 旋风分离器 引言 我们这个时代的很大一部分都花在了房子，工作场所，或其他建筑，因此，室内空间应该是既舒适情绪和卫生。但室内空气中含有超过室外空气因气密性的二次污染物，毒物，食品气味。这是通过使用产生在建筑中的新材料和设备。真空吸尘器为代表的家电去除有害物质从地板到地毯所用的商用真空吸尘器房子由纸过滤，预过滤器和排气过滤器通过洁净的空气排放到大气中。虽然真空吸尘器是方便在使用中，吸入压力下降说唱空转成比例地清洗的时间，以及纸过滤器也应定期更换，由于压力下降，气味和细菌通过纸过滤器内的残留粉尘。 图1示出了大气气溶胶的粒度分布通常是双峰形，在粗颗粒（>2.0微米）模式为主要的外部来源，如风吹尘，海盐喷雾，火山，从工厂直接排放和车辆废气排放，以及那些在细颗粒模式包括燃烧或光化学反应。表1显示模式，典型的大气航空的直径和质量浓度溶胶被许多研究者测量。精细模式在0.18?0.36 在5.7到25微米尺寸范围微米尺寸范围。质量浓度为2?205微克，可直接在大气气溶胶和 3.85至36.3μg/m3柴油气溶胶。
Optimum blank design of an automobile sub-frame Jong-Yop Kim a ,Naksoo Kim a,*,Man-Sung Huh b a Department of Mechanical Engineering,Sogang University,Shinsu-dong 1,Mapo-ku,Seoul 121-742,South Korea b Hwa-shin Corporation,Young-chun,Kyung-buk,770-140,South Korea Received 17July 1998 Abstract A roll-back method is proposed to predict the optimum initial blank shape in the sheet metal forming process.The method takes the difference between the ?nal deformed shape and the target contour shape into account.Based on the method,a computer program composed of a blank design module,an FE-analysis program and a mesh generation module is developed.The roll-back method is applied to the drawing of a square cup with the ˉange of uniform size around its periphery,to con?rm its validity.Good agreement is recognized between the numerical results and the published results for initial blank shape and thickness strain distribution.The optimum blank shapes for two parts of an automobile sub-frame are designed.Both the thickness distribution and the level of punch load are improved with the designed blank.Also,the method is applied to design the weld line in a tailor-welded blank.It is concluded that the roll-back method is an effective and convenient method for an optimum blank shape design.#2000Elsevier Science S.A.All rights reserved. Keywords:Blank design;Sheet metal forming;Finite element method;Roll-back method
A convection-conduction model for analysis of the freeze-thaw conditions in the surrounding rock wall of a tunnel in permafrost regions Abstract Based on the analyses of fundamental meteorological and hydrogeological conditions at the site of a tunnel in the cold regions, a combined convection-conduction model for air flow in the tunnel and temperature field in the surrounding has been constructed. Using the model, the air temperature distribution in the Xiluoqi No. 2 Tunnel has been simulated numerically. The simulated results are in agreement with the data observed. Then, based on the in situ conditions of sir temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind force, hydrogeology and engineering geology, the air-temperature relationship between the temperature on the surface of the tunnel wall and the air temperature at the entry and exit of the tunnel has been obtained, and the freeze-thaw conditions at the Dabanshan Tunnel which is now under construction is predicted. Keywords: tunnel in cold regions, convective heat exchange and conduction, freeze-thaw. A number of highway and railway tunnels have been constructed in the permafrost regions and their neighboring areas in China. Since the hydrological and thermal conditions changed after a tunnel was excavated，the surrounding wall rock materials often froze, the frost heaving caused damage to the liner layers and seeping water froze into ice diamonds，which seriously interfered with the communication and transportation. Similar problems of the freezing damage in the tunnels also appeared in other countries like Russia, Norway and Japan .Hence it is urgent to predict the freeze-thaw conditions in the surrounding rock materials and provide a basis for the design，construction and
外文翻译 原文 Foreign T rade o f China Material Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka 1.Introduction On December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing: ?In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44% ?In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1 ?In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2 ?In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province ?In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere 2.Evolution of China’s Trade Regime Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a much
文献出处：Thronson P. Toward Comprehensive Reform of America’s Emergency Law Regime [J]. University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 2013, 46(2). 原文 TOWARD COMPREHENSIVE REFORM OF AMERICA’S EMERGENCY LAW REGIME Patrick A. Thronson Unbenownst to most Americans, the United States is presently under thirty presidentially declared states of emergency. They confer vast powers on the Executive Branch, including the ability to financially incapacitate any person or organization in the United States, seize control of the nation’s communications infrastructure, mobilize military forces, expand the permissible size of the military without congressional authorization, and extend tours of duty without consent from service personnel. Declared states of emergency may also activate Presidential Emergency Action Documents and other continuity-of-government procedures, which confer powers on the President—such as the unilateral suspension of habeas corpus—that appear fundamentally opposed to the American constitutional order.
南京理工大学 毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译 教学点：南京信息职业技术学院 专业：电子信息工程 姓名：陈洁 学号： 014910253034 外文出处：《 Pci System Architecture 》 (用外文写) 附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。 指导教师评语： 该生外文翻译没有基本的语法错误，用词准确，没 有重要误译，忠实原文；译文通顺，条理清楚，数量与 质量上达到了本科水平。 签名： 年月日 注：请将该封面与附件装订成册。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 64位PCI扩展 1.64位数据传送和64位寻址：独立的能力 PCI规范给出了允许64位总线主设备与64位目标实现64位数据传送的机理。在传送的开始，如果回应目标是一个64位或32位设备，64位总线设备会自动识别。如果它是64位设备，达到8个字节（一个4字）可以在每个数据段中传送。假定是一串0等待状态数据段。在33MHz总线速率上可以每秒264兆字节获取（8字节／传送＊33百万传送字／秒），在66MHz总线上可以528M字节／秒获取。如果回应目标是32位设备，总线主设备会自动识别并且在下部4位数据通道上（AD[31::00]）引导，所以数据指向或来自目标。 规范也定义了64位存储器寻址功能。此功能只用于寻址驻留在4GB地址边界以上的存储器目标。32位和64位总线主设备都可以实现64位寻址。此外，对64位寻址反映的存储器目标（驻留在4GB地址边界上）可以看作32位或64位目标来实现。 注意64位寻址和64位数据传送功能是两种特性，各自独立并且严格区分开来是非常重要的。一个设备可以支持一种、另一种、都支持或都不支持。 2.64位扩展信号 为了支持64位数据传送功能，PCI总线另有39个引脚。 ●REQ64#被64位总线主设备有效表明它想执行64位数据传送操作。REQ64#与FRAME#信号具有相同的时序和间隔。REQ64#信号必须由系统主板上的上拉电阻来支持。当32位总线主设备进行传送时，REQ64#不能又漂移。 ●ACK64#被目标有效以回应被主设备有效的REQ64#（如果目标支持64位数据传送），ACK64#与DEVSEL#具有相同的时序和间隔（但是直到REQ64#被主设备有效，ACK64#才可被有效）。像REQ64#一样，ACK64#信号线也必须由系统主板上的上拉电阻来支持。当32位设备是传送目标时，ACK64#不能漂移。 ●AD[64::32]包含上部4位地址／数据通道。 ●C/BE#[7::4]包含高4位命令/字节使能信号。 ●PAR64是为上部4个AD通道和上部4位C/BE信号线提供偶校验的奇偶校验位。 以下是几小结详细讨论64位数据传送和寻址功能。 3.在32位插入式连接器上的64位卡
翻译文献：INVESTIGATION ON DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE OF SLIDE UNIT IN MODULAR MACHINE TOOL （对组合机床滑台动态性能的调查报告） 文献作者：Peter Dransfield, 出处：Peter Dransfield, Hydraulic Control System-Design and Analysis of TheirDynamics, Springer-Verlag, 1981 翻译页数：p139—144 英文译文： 对组合机床滑台动态性能的调查报告 【摘要】这一张纸处理调查利用有束缚力的曲线图和状态空间分析法对组合机床滑台的滑动影响和运动平稳性问题进行分析与研究，从而建立了滑台的液压驱动系统一自调背压调速系统的动态数学模型。通过计算机数字仿真系统，分析了滑台产生滑动影响和运动不平稳的原因及主要影响因素。从那些中可以得出那样的结论，如果能合理地设计液压缸和自调背压调压阀的结构尺寸. 本文中所使用的符号如下： s1-流源，即调速阀出口流量； S el—滑台滑动摩擦力 R一滑台等效粘性摩擦系数： I1—滑台与油缸的质量 12—自调背压阀阀心质量 C1、c2—油缸无杆腔及有杆腔的液容； C2—自调背压阀弹簧柔度； R1, R2自调背压阀阻尼孔液阻， R9—自调背压阀阀口液阻 S e2—自调背压阀弹簧的初始预紧力； I4, I5—管路的等效液感 C5、C6—管路的等效液容： R5, R7-管路的等效液阻； V3, V4—油缸无杆腔及有杆腔内容积； P3, P4—油缸无杆腔及有杆腔的压力 F—滑台承受负载， V—滑台运动速度。本文采用功率键合图和状态空间分折法建立系统的运动数学模型，滑台的动态特性可以能得到显著改善。
204/JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING/AUGUST1999
JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING /AUGUST 1999/205 ends.The stress state in each cylindrical strip was determined from the total potential energy of a nonlinear arch model using the Rayleigh-Ritz method. It was emphasized that the membrane stresses in the com-pression region of the curved models were less than those predicted by linear theory and that there was an accompanying increase in ?ange resultant force.The maximum web bending stress was shown to occur at 0.20h from the compression ?ange for the simple support stiffness condition and 0.24h for the ?xed condition,where h is the height of the analytical panel.It was noted that 0.20h would be the optimum position for longitudinal stiffeners in curved girders,which is the same as for straight girders based on stability requirements.From the ?xed condition cases it was determined that there was no signi?cant change in the membrane stresses (from free to ?xed)but that there was a signi?cant effect on the web bend-ing stresses.Numerical results were generated for the reduc-tion in effective moment required to produce initial yield in the ?anges based on curvature and web slenderness for a panel aspect ratio of 1.0and a web-to-?ange area ratio of 2.0.From the results,a maximum reduction of about 13%was noted for a /R =0.167and about 8%for a /R =0.10(h /t w =150),both of which would correspond to extreme curvature,where a is the length of the analytical panel (modeling the distance be-tween transverse stiffeners)and R is the radius of curvature.To apply the parametric results to developing design criteria for practical curved girders,the de?ections and web bending stresses that would occur for girders with a curvature corre-sponding to the initial imperfection out-of-?atness limit of D /120was used.It was noted that,for a panel with an aspect ratio of 1.0,this would correspond to a curvature of a /R =0.067.The values of moment reduction using this approach were compared with those presented by Basler (Basler and Thurlimann 1961;Vincent 1969).Numerical results based on this limit were generated,and the following web-slenderness requirement was derived: 2 D 36,500a a =1?8.6?34 (1) ? ??? t R R F w ?y where D =unsupported distance between ?anges;and F y =yield stress in psi. An extension of this work was published a year later,when Culver et al.(1973)checked the accuracy of the isolated elas-tically supported cylindrical strips by treating the panel as a unit two-way shell rather than as individual strips.The ?ange/web boundaries were modeled as ?xed,and the boundaries at the transverse stiffeners were modeled as ?xed and simple.Longitudinal stiffeners were modeled with moments of inertias as multiples of the AASHO (Standard 1969)values for straight https://www.doczj.com/doc/715566066.html,ing analytical results obtained for the slenderness required to limit the plate bending stresses in the curved panel to those of a ?at panel with the maximum allowed out-of-?atness (a /R =0.067)and with D /t w =330,the following equa-tion was developed for curved plate girder web slenderness with one longitudinal stiffener: D 46,000a a =1?2.9 ?2.2 (2) ? ? ? t R f R w ?b where the calculated bending stress,f b ,is in psi.It was further concluded that if longitudinal stiffeners are located in both the tension and compression regions,the reduction in D /t w will not be required.For the case of two stiffeners,web bending in both regions is reduced and the web slenderness could be de-signed as a straight girder panel.Eq.(1)is currently used in the ‘‘Load Factor Design’’portion of the Guide Speci?cations ,and (2)is used in the ‘‘Allowable Stress Design’’portion for girders stiffened with one longitudinal stiffener.This work was continued by Mariani et al.(1973),where the optimum trans-verse stiffener rigidity was determined analytically. During almost the same time,Abdel-Sayed (1973)studied the prebuckling and elastic buckling behavior of curved web panels and proposed approximate conservative equations for estimating the critical load under pure normal loading (stress),pure shear,and combined normal and shear loading.The linear theory of shells was used.The panel was simply supported along all four edges with no torsional rigidity of the ?anges provided.The transverse stiffeners were therefore assumed to be rigid in their directions (no strains could be developed along the edges of the panels).The Galerkin method was used to solve the governing differential equations,and minimum eigenvalues of the critical load were calculated and presented for a wide range of loading conditions (bedding,shear,and combined),aspect ratios,and curvatures.For all cases,it was demonstrated that the critical load is higher for curved panels over the comparable ?at panel and increases with an increase in curvature. In 1980,Daniels et al.summarized the Lehigh University ?ve-year experimental research program on the fatigue behav-ior of horizontally curved bridges and concluded that the slen-derness limits suggested by Culver were too severe.Equations for ‘‘Load Factor Design’’and for ‘‘Allowable Stress Design’’were developed (respectively)as D 36,500a =1?4?192(3)? ?t R F w ?y D 23,000a =1?4 ?170 (4) ? ? t R f w ?b The latter equation is currently used in the ‘‘Allowable Stress Design’’portion of the Guide Speci?cations for girders not stiffened longitudinally. Numerous analytical and experimental works on the subject have also been published by Japanese researchers since the end of the CURT project.Mikami and colleagues presented work in Japanese journals (Mikami et al.1980;Mikami and Furunishi 1981)and later in the ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics (Mikami and Furunishi 1984)on the nonlinear be-havior of cylindrical web panels under bending and combined bending and shear.They analyzed the cylindrical panels based on Washizu’s (1975)nonlinear theory of shells.The governing nonlinear differential equations were solved numerically by the ?nite-difference method.Simple support boundary condi-tions were assumed along the curved boundaries (top and bot-tom at the ?ange locations)and both simple and ?xed support conditions were used at the straight (vertical)boundaries.The large displacement behavior was demonstrated by Mi-kami and Furunishi for a range of geometric properties.Nu-merical values of the load,de?ection,membrane stress,bend-ing stress,and torsional stress were obtained,but no equations for design use were presented.Signi?cant conclusions include that:(1)the compressive membrane stress in the circumfer-ential direction decreases with an increase in curvature;(2)the panel under combined bending and shear exhibits a lower level of the circumferential membrane stress as compared with the panel under pure bending,and as a result,the bending moment carried by the web panel is reduced;and (3)the plate bending stress under combined bending and shear is larger than that under pure bending.No formulations or recommendations for direct design use were made. Kuranishi and Hiwatashi (1981,1983)used the ?nite-ele-ment method to demonstrate the elastic ?nite displacement be-havior of curved I-girder webs under bending using models with and without ?ange rigidities.Rotation was not allowed (?xed condition)about the vertical axis at the ends of the panel (transverse stiffener locations).Again,the nonlinear distribu-
提高塔式复合人工湿地处理农村生活污水的 脱氮效率1 摘要： 努力保护水源，尤其是在乡镇地区的饮用水源，是中国污水处理当前面临的主要问题。氮元素在水体富营养化和对水生物的潜在毒害方面的重要作用，目前废水脱氮已成为首要关注的焦点。人工湿地作为一种小型的，处理费用较低的方法被用于处理乡镇生活污水。比起活性炭在脱氮方面显示出的广阔前景，人工湿地系统由于溶解氧的缺乏而在脱氮方面存在一定的制约。为了提高脱氮效率，一种新型三阶段塔式混合湿地结构----人工湿地（thcw）应运而生。它的第一部分和第三部分是水平流矩形湿地结构，第二部分分三层，呈圆形，呈紊流状态。塔式结构中水流由顶层进入第二层及底层，形成瀑布溢流，因此水中溶解氧浓度增加，从而提高了硝化反应效率，反硝化效率也由于有另外的有机物的加入而得到了改善，增加反硝化速率的另一个原因是直接通过旁路进入第二部分的废水中带入的足量有机物。常绿植物池柏（Taxodium ascendens），经济作物蔺草（Schoenoplectus trigueter），野茭白（Zizania aquatica），有装饰性的多花植物睡莲（Nymphaea tetragona），香蒲（Typha angustifolia）被种植在湿地中。该系统对总悬浮物、化学需氧量、氨氮、总氮和总磷的去除率分别为89%、85%、83%、83% 和64%。高水力负荷和低水力负荷（16 cm/d 和32 cm/d）对于塔式复合人工湿地结构的性能没有显著的影响。通过硝化活性和硝化速率的测定，发现硝化和反硝化是湿地脱氮的主要机理。塔式复合人工湿地结构同样具有观赏的价值。 关键词： 人工湿地；硝化作用；反硝化作用；生活污水；脱氮；硝化细菌；反硝化细菌 １. 前言 对于提高水源水质的广泛需求，尤其是提高饮用水水源水质的需求是目前废水深度处理的技术发展指向。在中国的乡镇地区，生活污水是直接排入湖泊、河流、土壤、海洋等水源中。这些缺乏处理的污水排放对于很多水库、湖泊不能达到水质标准是有责任的。许多位于中国的乡镇地区的社区缺乏足够的生活污水处理设备。由于山区地形、人口分散、经济基础差等原因，废水的收集和处理是很成问题的。由于资源短缺，经济欠发达地区所采取的废水处理技术必须低价高效，并且要便于施用，能量输入及维护费用较低，而且要保证出水能达标。建造在城市中基于活性污泥床的废水集中处理厂，对于小乡镇缺乏经济适用性，主要是由于污水收集结构的建造费用高。 1Ecological Engineering，Fen xia ，Ying Li。