GRE写作工具箱
写作工具箱（新东方—孙远）
下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。
对于文章中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。
因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，我并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now.
经常有学生告诉我：不知道背诵什么好。现在我可以告诉各位：背诵下面的文章错不了，至少对GRE的写作来说有立竿见影的效果！可别再找借口了哦！
目录
1. Section one: Education ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
1.1 Proverbs ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
1.2 Damaging Research -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
1.3 Education and Citizenship ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5
1.4 The Teacher‘s Role --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
1.5 Education Philosophy ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7
1.6 Student Life ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
1.7 Adult Education -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.8 Moral Relativism in American -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.9 Schools Should Teach Values ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 10
1.10 College Pressures --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
1.11 To Err Is Wrong ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 15
1.11.1 Playing It Safe ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
1.11.2 Different Logic ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
1.11.3 Errors as Stepping Stones ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
1.11.4 Negative Feedback ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
1.11.5 Trying New Things ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
1.11.6 Nat ure‘s Errors ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
1.11.7 Summary ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
1.12 The Practicality of the Liberal Arts Major ---------------------------------------------------------------- 19
1.13 The Liberal Arts Degree Is Marketable ------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
1.13.1 Skills acquired with a Liberal Arts Background Are Most Desired by Employers ---- 21
1.13.2 Liberal Arts Majors Can Enhance Their Credentials ---------------------------------------- 21
1.14 The Vast Emptiness at the Core of Today‘s Liberal Arts Education ------------------------------ 22
1.15 Education as Philosophy ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 23
1.16 What True Education Should Do -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
1.17 The Future of Universities ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
1.18 Teaching and Learning: Strategies for the 21st Century -------------------------------------------- 25
1.19 Universities changing to meet the needs of the 21st Century ------------------------------------- 26
1.20 Education and Training -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
1.21 Knowledge and Wisdom ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
2. Section Two: Science and Technology ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 32
2.1 Computer in Education --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
2.2 Computer Make the Workplace Less Friendly --------------------------------------------------------- 32
2.3 Solar Energy ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
2.4 Micro machines ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 35
2.5 Social Responsible in Science and Arts ----------------------------------------------------------------- 35
2.6 Environmental Stress ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
2.7 High Technology and Employment ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 37
2.8 The Effects of Technology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
2.9 Technology and Social Change ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
2.10 The Quest for Energy ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
2.11 Technology in Everyday Life -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
2.12 Science, Technology and Society: The Case of Medical Technology ---------------------------- 42
2.13 The Impact of Technology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
2.14 Scientific Institutions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 43
2.15 The Norms of Science --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
2.16 Technology in Modern Societies --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
2.17 Galileo and the Inquisition ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
2.18 Technology and People -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
3. Section Three: Ideas ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
3.1 Critical Thinking ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 51
3.1.1 Be willing to say ―I don‘t know‖-------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
3.1.2 Define your terms ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 51
3.1.3 Practice tolerance ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 52
3.1.4 Understand before criticizing ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
3.1.5 Watch for hot spots ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
3.1.6 Consider the source --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
3.1.7 Seek out alternative views ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
3.1.8 Ask questions ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
3.1.9 Look for at least three answers ------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
3.1.10 Be willing to change your mind ------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
3.1.11 Lay your cards on the table ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 54
3.1.12 Examine the problem from different points of view ------------------------------------------ 54
3.1.13 Write about it ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.1.14 Construct a reasonable view ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.2 The Function of Critical Thinking -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.3 Critical Thinking as Thorough Thinking ------------------------------------------------------------------ 56
3.4 Creative people ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 56
3.5 The Lowest Animal -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58
3.6 Decision by Consensus -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
4. Section Four: Mass Media ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
4.1 Propaganda Techniques in Today‘s Adv ertising ------------------------------------------------------- 62
4.2 TV Addiction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
5. Section Five: Society ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 67
5.1 The Function of Art -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
5.2 Intercultural Prejudices --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
5.3 Culture Shock -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
5.4 Groups ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
5.5 Authority --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
5.6 The No-Status Society --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
5.7 Conformity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
5.8 Debating Moral Questions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72
5.9 Art as Nonverbal Communication ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73
5.10 Turtle Island ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74
6. Section Six: Politics -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
6.1 Proverbs --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
6.2 What Makes a Leader? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 77
6.3 What Derails Fast-Track Executives? -------------------------------------------------------------------- 79
6.4 A Leader --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
6.5 Watergate-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
1. Section one: Education
1.1 Proverbs
1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands
of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.
2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one‘s mind a pleasant place in
which to spend one‘s time.
3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither
freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.
4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.
5. Education‘s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.
6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people
who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.
7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn‘t answer questions; it provokes them.
8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.
9. the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the
individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.
10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each
as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.
11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside
him and see for yourself.
12. If you can read and don‘, you are an illiterate by choice.
1.2 Damaging Research
A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.
1.3 Education and Citizenship
An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society
itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.
Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language).On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children‘s education.
Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail ―the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages‖ and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.
Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.
1.4 The Teacher‘s Role
Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students‘ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to t heir later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students‘ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children‘s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.
Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher.
In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher‘s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.
1.5 Education Philosophy
For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey bel ieved hat the school‘s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.
Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching ―life skills‖ –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.
In addition to ―life skills‖, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and suicide are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.
This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.
1.6 Student Life
To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start ―changing classes‖. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.
Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don‘t become engaged in such activities or have after\school jobs have plenty of opportunity to ―hang out‖, listen to teenager music, and watch tel evision.
Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children‘s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) ―He‘s just not a scholar‖, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn‘t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of thei r own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)
What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading
groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A‘s and F‘s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A‘s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.
Foreign students sometimes don‘t understand that copying from other people‘s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.
1.7 Adult Education
After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, ―Bu t where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.‖
So at least to this person, school requirements weren‘t inhibiting. And to milli ons of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.
1.8 Moral Relativism in American
Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation‘s fo unding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need ―to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.‖ Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one‘s ―morals‖ and ―faculties‖. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school‘s original moral mission explains a great deal.
Starting in the early seventies, ―values clarification‖ programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to ―clarify‖ his own values (which adults, including parents, had no ―rights‖ to criticize). The ―values clarification‖ movement didn‘t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.
In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, ―They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and
wrong.‖ The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school jun iors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor‘s opinion, ―He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ?If I come from the position of what is wrong,‘ he explained, ?then I‘m not their counselor.‘‖
Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering ―choices‖ or ―options‖.
In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I‘ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): ―Who are you to say what‘s important?‖ or ―Whose standards and judgments do we use?‖
The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we‘ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded ―elitist‖ trying to impose his view on everybody else.
The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be ―progressive‖ is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, ―the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things‖ and if the world can‘t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn‘t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.
At one time, we weren‘t so re luctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the ―common school‖, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission o f school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.
The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.
But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the public，that schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.
There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many
competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one‘s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.
1.9 Schools Should Teach Values
People often said, ―Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?‖ this question deserves a candid response, one that isn‘t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford‘s Mary Warnock has written, ―You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.‖ The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences ―by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ?right‘, of what should be.‖ It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the ―vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.‖
There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.
As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, ―Is this a good school?‖ They answered, ―Yes, this is a good school.‖ I asked them, ―Why?‖ Among other things, one eight-year-old said, ―The principal Mr. Ri egel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.‖ So I said, ―Give me an example.‖ And another answered, ―You can‘t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don‘t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn‘t either.‖
This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can‘t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.
We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The resea rch shows that most ―values education‖ exercises and separate courses in ―moral reasoning‖ tend not to affect children‘s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.
What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop‘s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage,
we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told C rito: ―No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.‖ If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.‘ ―Letter from Birmingham jail.‖ From the Bible they should know about Ruth‘s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph‘s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan‘s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan‘s kindness toward a stranger, and David‘s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.
These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.
After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are he ated disputes about the Founders‘ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.
1.10 College Pressures
Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.
What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.
My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.
I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard.
But there are no villains: only victims.
―In the late 1960s.‖ one dean told me. ―The typical question that I got from students was ?Why is there so much suffering in the world‘ or ?how I can make a contribution?‘ Today it‘s ?Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?‘‖ many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: ―They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.‖
Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale‘s official system of grading, A means ―excellent‖ and B means ―very good.‖ Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.
It‘s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it‘s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.
The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the ―gentleman‘s C.‖ when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.
Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.
Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used ―he,‖ incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify t heir expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.
Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.
I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.
―Do you want to medical school?‖ I asked them.
―I guess so,‖ they say, without conviction, or ―Not really.‖
―Then why are you going?‖
―Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …‖
Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no ―practical‖ value. Where‘s the payoff on the humanities? It‘s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, ―pre-rich.‖
But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents‘ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.
I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strong ly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a ―dumb‖ thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the ―dumb‖ courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.
Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.
―I had a freshman student I‘ll call Linda,‖ one dean told me, ―who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the s ame thing about Linda.‖
The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: ―Will I get everything done?‖
Probably they won‘t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.
Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.
―Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,‖ one dean points out, ―It‘s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.‖
Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reverse d. Besides, the professor‘s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That‘s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.
To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.
If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.
Ultimately it will be the students‘ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents‘ dreams and their classmates‘ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.
―Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,‖ says Carlos Hortas. ―College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It‘s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they‘ve got to fit into ce rtain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.‖
―They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They‘ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.‖
I have painted too drab a portrait of t oday‘s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn‘t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.
Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.
This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want
to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; i n the ?60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale‘s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.
They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who‘s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editoria l staff used to be small and totally committed and that ―newsies‖ routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today‘s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I‘ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.
If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it‘s because that‘s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It‘s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.
I tell students that there is no one ―right‖ way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.
I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.
1.11 To Err Is Wrong
In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz‘s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, ―Hey Yaz, aren‘t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?‖ Yastrzemski replied, ―I look at this way: in my career I‘ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I‘ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. Th at fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.‖
Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.
Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on ―the right answer‖ belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more cons ervative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:
Right over 90% of the time = ―A‖
Right over 80% of the time = ―B~‖
Right o ver 70% of the time = ―C~‖ Right over 60% of the time = ―D~‖ Less than 60% correct, you fail.
From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that ―to err is wrong.
1.11.1 Playing It Safe
With this kind of attitude, you aren‘t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a ―B‖ performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on ―failure‖.
I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master‘s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn‘t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.
Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.
1.11.2 Different Logic
From a practic al point of view, ―to err is wrong‖ makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn‘t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won‘t keep their jobs very long.
Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief ―to err is wrong‖ can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you‘ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you‘ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will
produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, ―if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.‖ That‘s the way the game of life goes.
1.11.3 Errors as Stepping Stones
Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is ―Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?‖ the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, ―Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?‖ and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.
The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was ―knock,‖ the phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.
Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the ―knock.‖ He thought to him, ―How can I get the gas oline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?‖ the key concept here is ―early‖. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of ―things that happen early.‖ He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which ―happen s early,‖ i.e., it blooms in the snow (―earlier‖ than other plants). One of this plant‘s chief characteristics is its‘ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wav elengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.
Now came the critical step in Kettering‘s chain of thought. He asked himself, ―How can I make the gasoline red?‖ perhaps I‘ll put red dye in the gasol ine—maybe that‘ll make it combust earlier.‖ He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn‘t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn‘t ―knock‖.
Several days later, Kettering wanted to make sure that it was the redness of the iodine which had an fact solved his problem. He got some red dye and added it to the gasoline. Nothing happened! Kettering then realized that it wasn‘t the ―redness‖ which had solved the ―knock‖ problem, but certain other properties of iodine. In this case, an error had proven to be a stepping-stone to a better idea. Had he known that ―redness‖ alone was not the solution, he may not have found his way to the additive in iodine.
1.11.4 Negative Feedback
Errors serve another useful purpose: they tell us when to change direction. When things are
going smoothly, we generally don‘t think about them. To a great extent, this is because we function according to the printing of negative feedback. Often it is when things or people fail to do their job that they get over attention. For example, you are probably not thinking about your kneecaps right now; that‘s because everything is fine with them. The same goes for your elbows: they are also performing their function—no problem at all. But if you were to break a leg, you would immediately notice all of the things you could no longer do, but which you used to take for granted.
Negative feedback means that the current approach is not working, and it is up to you to figure out a new one. We learn by trial and error, not by trial and rightness. If we did things correctly every time, we would never have to change direction—we‘d just continue the current course and end up with more of the same.
For example, after the supertanker Amoco Cadiz broke up off the coast of Brittany in the spring of 1987, thereby polluting the coast with hundreds of thousands of tons of oil, the oil industry rethought many of its safety standards regarding petroleum transport. The same thing happened after the accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor in 1979—many procedures and safety standards were changed.
Neil Gold Schmidt, former Secretary of Transportation, had this to say about the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BA RT): it‘s gotten too fashionable around the country to beat up on BART and not give credit to the vision that put this system in place. We have learned from BART around the country. The lessons were put to use in Washington, in Atlantic, in Buffalo, and other cities where we are building mass transit systems. One of the lessons is not to build a system like BART. We learn by our failures. A person‘s errors are the whacks that lead him to think something different.
1.11.5 Trying New Things
Your error rate in any activity is a function of your familiarity with that activity. If you are doing things that are routine and have a high likelihood of correctness, then you will probably make every few errors. But if you are doing things that have no precedence in your experience or are trying different approaches, then you will be making your share of mistakes. Innovators may not bat a thousand –far from it—but they do get new ideas.
The creative director of an advertising agency told me that he isn‘t happy unless he is fai ling at least half of the time. As he puts it, ―If you are going to be original, you are going to be wrong a lot.‖
One of my clients, the president of a fast-growing computer company, tells his people: ―We‘re innovators. We‘re doing things nobody has ever done before. Therefore, we are going to be making mistakes. My advice to you: make your mistakes, but make them in a hurry.‖
Another client, a division manager of a high-technology company, asked his president of engineering what percentage of their new products should be successful in the marketplace. The answer he received was ―about 50%‖. The division manager replied, ―That‘s too high, 30% is a better target; otherwise we‘ll be too conservative in our planning.‖
Along similar lines, in the banking industry, it is said that if the credit manager never has to default on any of his loans, it‘s a sure sign he‘s not being aggressive enough in the marketplace.
Thomas J. Watson, the founder of IBM, has similar words: ―The way to succeed is to double your failure
rate.‖
Thus, errors, at the very least, are a sign that we are diverging from the main road and trying different approaches.
1.11.6 Nature‘s Errors
Nature serves as a good example of how trial and error can be used to make changes. Every now and then genetic mutations occur—errors in gene reproduction. Most of the time, these mutations have a deleterious effect on the species, and they drop out of the gene pool. But occasionally, a mutation provides the species with something beneficial, and that change will be passed on to future generations.
The rich variety of all species is due to this trial and error process. If there had been any mutations from the first amoeba, where would we be now?
1.11.7 Summary
There are places where errors are inappropriate, but the germinal phase of the creative process isn‘t one of them. Errors are a sign that you are diverging from the well-traveled path. If you‘re not failing every now and then, it‘s a sign you‘re not being very innovative.
Tip #1:
If you make an error, use it as a stepping-stone to a new idea you might not have otherwise discovered.
Tip #2:
Differentiate between errors of ―commission‖ and those of ―omission.‖ The latter can be more costly than the former. If you‘re not making many errors, you might ask yourself, ―How many opportunities am I missing by not being more aggressive?‖
Tip #3:
Strengthen your ―risk muscle.‖ Everyone has one, but you have to exercise it or else it will atrophy. Make it a point to take at least one risk every twenty-four hours.
Tip #4:
Remember thes e two benefits of failure. First, if you do fail, you learn what doesn‘t work; and second, the failure gives you an opportunity to try a new approach.
1.12 The Practicality of the Liberal Arts Major
Current trends indicate that by the year 2000 the average person will change careers at least twice during a lifetime. How does the entering college student prepare for career mobility, which has never before been necessary? Our fathers decided what they wanted to do in life, which was very often what their fathers had done-went to college or apprenticed themselves, and pursued the same career until retirement. Our mothers assumed one of the nurturing roles in society, if they assumed a role outside of the home at all. Things have certainly changed. No longer is life so simple.
Adaptability and lifelong learning is now the cornerstone of success. What direction does a person take to prepare for a lifetime of change? The one-degree that provides training, which never becomes obsolete, is the liberal degree; it teaches you how to think. It also teaches you how to read, write and speak intelligently, get along with others, and conceptualize problems. For the first time in several decades, the liberal arts degree is coming to the forefront of the employment field.
Growing ranks of corporate executives are lamenting that college students are specializing too much and too early. What corporate America really needs, according to chief executive officers of major corporations, is students soundly grounded in the liberal arts—English, especially—who then can pick up more specific business or technical skills on the job. Few students, however, seem to be listening to this message. Today‘s best selling courses offer evidence that students want to take courses that provide direct job related skills rather than the most basic survival skills in the workplace: communication and thinking skills. They want courses they can parlay into jobs and high paying ones at that. Certainly, we can understand this mentality when we consider trends indicating that this generation will be the first who will not be able to do better economically than their parents. They don‘t want to leave anything to chance. Historically, the liberal arts degree was good insurance for a poverty level existence. Students are looking to history to provide some answers it simply cannot give. They would do well to examine the present.
One of the big problems in the liberal arts community is that we do not market what we have to offer. Students very often fail to see the practicality of studying Shakespeare as preparation for a career in the business community. Perhaps some of us have locked ourselves in the ivory tower a little too long extolling the virtues of a liberal education as preparation for citizenship and life only to the neglect of it as preparation for career or careers. Education for education‘s sake is noble but impractical to today‘s college student who is facing a competitive and rapidly changing job market. They want and deserve to know how their courses will help them get a job. We as educators owe them some answers; we must be accountable not only for learning but also for providing information regarding the transferability of classroom skills into the workplace.
In an attempt to provide answers, we conducted a research project in the Dallas metropolis last year, assuming the role of the liberal arts graduate seeking employment in the fields of government, banking, business, and industry. Using informational inter-viewing as our method of job hunting and obtaining data, we conducted twenty-five interviews with a diversity of executive officers, ranging from personnel directors to the chairman of the board of an exclusive department store and the state governor. We wished to validate, through practical and current research, that not only does the liberal arts degree provide the best preparation for a lifetime of change, but it also provides a plethora of employment opportunities. We do not claim our research to be all encompassing, but we do feel its practicality was rewarding. We gathered data as to how the liberal arts major should present himself on paper and in person, where her best chances for employment are, and what he can do to augment the liberal arts degree. We were able to draw several conclusions as to how the liberal arts community could better prepare students for professional mobility.
1.13 The Liberal Arts Degree Is Marketable
Ninety percent of those interviewed responded they would hire liberal arts major for an entry-level position, which could lead to the executive suite if the position itself were not executive level. The chairman of the board of a major department store in Dallas responded to the question, ―For what position would you hire a liberal arts graduate?‖ with a direct, ―Any position in the company.‖ When