Review of Experimental Concepts for Studying the
Quantum Vacuum Field
E. W. Davis1, V. L. Teofilo2, B. Haisch3, H. E. Puthoff1, L. J. Nickisch4, A.
Rueda5, and D. C. Cole6
1Inst. for Advanced Studies at Austin,4030W.Braker Ln., Ste. 300,Austin, TX 78759, USA
2Lockheed Martin Space Systems,M.S.L2-01/B157, PO Box 3504, Sunnyvale, CA 94089,USA 3ManyOne Networks,100 Enterprise Way, Bldg. G-370, Scotts Valley, CA 95066,USA
4NorthWest Research Associates, 14508 NE20th St.,Bellevue, WA 98007, USA 5Dept. of Electrical Engineering, ECS Bldg., Cal.State Univ.-Long Beach, Long Beach,CA 90840,USA
6Dept. of Manufacturing Engineering, Boston University,15St. Mary’s Street, Boston,MA 02215, USA
1512-342-2187, ewdavis@https://www.doczj.com/doc/654345945.html,
Abstract.We review concepts that provide an experimental framework for exploring the possibility and limitations of accessing energy from the space vacuum environment. Quantum electrodynamics (QED) and stochastic electrodynamics (SED) are the theoretical approaches guiding this experimental investigation. This investigation explores the question of whether the quantum vacuum field contains useful energy that can be exploited for applications under the action of a catalyst, or cavity structure, so that energy conservation is not violated. This is similar to the same technical problem at about the same level of technology as that faced by early nuclear energy pioneers who searched for, and successfully discovered,the unique material structure that caused the release of nuclear energy via the neutron chain reaction.
Keywords: Zero-point Fluctuations, Quantum Vacuum, Quantum Electrodynamics, Stochastic Electrodynamics.
PACS:03.50.De, 05.10.Gg, 12.20. m.
INTRODUCTION
Quantum theory predicts that the vacuum of space in the universe is filled with low-energy electromagnetic waves, random in phase and amplitude and propagating in all possible directions. This is different from the cosmic microwave background radiation and it is referred to as the electromagnetic quantum vacuum since it is the lowest state of otherwise empty space.When integrated over all frequency modes up to the Planck frequency,Q P (~ 1043 Hz), this represents an enormous potential source of energy with a density of as much as ~ 10113 J/m3which is far in excess of any other known energy source even if only an infinitesimal fraction of it is accessible.This is also several tens of orders of magnitude greater than the energy density of matter-antimatter annihilation reactions. Even if we are constrained to integrate over all frequency modes only up to the nucleon Compton frequency (~ 1023 Hz), this energy density will still be enormous(~ 1035 J/m3). And we have not taken into account the fact that the electromagnetic quantum vacuum is not alone by itself. On the contrary, it intimately couples to the charged particles in the Dirac sea of particle-antiparticle pairs and thereby couples to the other interactions of the Standard Model(weak and strong force vacua).So all the numbers we just mentioned admit of some further adjustment.
This energy is so enormous that most physicists believe that even though zero-point energy (ZPE) seems to be an inescapable consequence of quantum field theory, it cannot be physically real, and so is subtracted away in calculations by ad hoc means. A minority of physicists do,however, accept it as a real energy which we cannot directly sense since it is the same everywhere, even inside our bodies and measuring devices. From this perspective, the ordinary world of matter and energy is like foam atop the quantum vacuum sea. It does not matter to a ship how
deep the ocean is below it. If the ZPE is real, then there is the possibility that it can be tapped as a source of power or be harnessed to generate a propulsive force for space travel.
The propeller or the jet engine of an aircraft can push air backwards to propel the aircraft forward. A ship or boat propeller does the same thing in water.On Earth there is always air or water available to push against.Ignoring mass fluctuations or other propellant concepts, a rocket in space has nothing to push against, and so it needs to carry propellant to eject in the absence of air or water. The fundamental problem is that a deep space rocket would have to start out with all the propellant it will ever need. This quickly results in the need to carry more and more propellant just to propel the propellant.The breakthrough one wishes for in deep space travel is to overcome the need to carry propellant at all. How can one generate a propulsive force without carrying and ejecting propellant? There is a force associated with the electromagnetic quantum vacuum: the Casimir force(Casimir, 1948). This force is an attraction between parallel uncharged metallic plates that has now been well measured (Lamoreaux, 1997, Mohideen, 1998, Chen et al., 2004) and can be attributed to a minute imbalance in the zero-point energy density inside the cavity between the plates versus the region outside the plates as shown in Figure1. However, this is not useful for propulsion since it symmetrically pulls on the plates. If some asymmetric variation of the Casimir force could be identified, though,then one could in effect sail through space as if propelled by a kind of quantum fluctuation wind. Unfortunately, at this point this is pure speculation since it requires an invention to contrive such a means.
FIGURE 1. Casimir Effect (d =Cavity Wall Separation,O = ZPF Mode Wavelength).
The other requirement for space travel is energy.It is sometimes assumed that attempting to extract energy from the vacuum zero-point field (ZPF) would somehow violate the laws of thermodynamics. Fortunately, it turns out that this is not the case. A thought experiment published by Forward (1983,1984)demonstrated how the Casimir force could in principle be used to extract energy from the vacuum ZPF. He showed that any pair of conducting plates at close distance experiences an attractive Casimir force that is due to the electromagnetic ZPF of the vacuum. A “vacuum-fluctuation battery” can be constructed by using the Casimir force to do work on a stack of charged conducting plates (see Figure 2). By applying a charge of the same polarity to each conducting plate, a repulsive electrostatic force will be produced that opposes the Casimir force.If the applied electrostatic force is adjusted to be always slightly less than the Casimir force,the plates will move toward each other and the Casimir force will add energy to the electric field between the plates. The battery can be recharged by making the electrical force slightly stronger than the Casimir force to re-expand the foliated conductor.
Cole and Puthoff (1993)verified that(generic) energy extraction schemes are not contradictory to the laws of thermodynamics. For thermodynamically reversible processes, no heat will flow at temperature T = 0. However, for thermodynamically irreversible processes, heat can be produced and made to flow,either at T = 0 or at any other T > 0 situation, such as by taking a system out of mechanical equilibrium. Moreover,work can be done by or done on physical systems, either at T = 0 or T > 0 situations, whether for a reversible or irreversible process. However, if
one is considering a net cyclical process on the basis of, say, the Casimir Effect, then energy would not be able to be continually extracted without a violation of the second law of thermodynamics. Thus, Forward’s process cannot be cycled to yield a continuous extraction of energy.Here, the recharging of the battery would,owing to frictional and other losses,require more energy than is gained from the ZPF. There is no useful engine cycle in this process; nonetheless, the plate-contraction phase of the cycle does demonstrate the ability to cause “extraction” of energy from the ZPF.It does reflect work done by the ZPF on matter.
FIGURE 2. Vacuum-Fluctuation Battery(Forward, 1983, 1984).
Another illustrative example of a scheme for extracting energy from the ZPF is a patent by Mead and Nachamkin (1996). They propose that a set of resonant dielectric spheres be used to extract energy from the ZPF and convert it into electrical power. They consider the use of resonant dielectric spheres, slightly detuned from each other, to provide a beat-frequency downshift of the more energetic high-frequency components of the ZPF to a more easily captured form (see two embodiments of the invention in Figure 3).Their device includes a pair of dielectric structures(items 12, 14, 112, 114 in Fig. 3) that are positioned proximal to each other and which intercept incident ZPE radiation(items 16, 116in Fig.3). The volumetric sizes of the structures are selected so that they resonate at a particular frequency of the incident radiation. But the volumetric sizes of the structures are chosen to be slightly different so that the secondary radiation emitted from them (items 18, 20, 24,118,120, 124 in Fig. 3) at resonance interferes with each other, thus producing a beat frequency radiation that is at a much lower frequency than that of the incident radiation, and that can be converted into electrical energy. A conventional metallic antenna (loop or dipole type,or a RF cavity structure; items 22, 122 in Fig. 3) can then be used to collect the beat frequency radiation.This radiation is next transmitted from the antenna to a converter via an electrical conductor or waveguide (items 26, 126 in Fig. 3) and converted to electrical energy. The converter must include: 1) a tuning circuit or comparable device so that it can effectively receive the beat frequency radiation,2) a transformer to convert the energy to electrical current having a desired voltage, and 3) a rectifier to convert the energy to electrical current having a desired waveform(items28, 30, 32,34, 128, 130, 132in Fig. 3).
The receiving structures are composed of dielectric material in order to diffract and scatter the incident ZPE radiation. The volumetric sizing requirements for the receiving structures are selected to enable them to resonate at a high frequency of the incident ZPE radiation based on the parameters of frequency (of the incident ZPE radiation) and propagation characteristics of the medium (vacuum or otherwise) and of the receiving structures. Since the ZPE radiation energy density increases with increasing frequency,greater amounts of electromagnetic energy are potentially available at higher frequencies. Consequently, the size of the receiving structures must be miniaturized in order to produce greater amounts of energy from a system located within a space or area of a given size. Therefore, the smaller the size of the receiving structures, the greater the amount of energy that can be produced by the system. No experimental study has been performed to validate this invention and characterize its performance, or otherwise confirm or refute its claimed efficacy.
Although novel ZPF energy extraction mechanisms have been proposed in the literature (some credible, many not credible), no practicable technique has been successfully demonstrated in the laboratory. Therefore, our mission is to work with the theoretical physicists who developed the comprehensive understanding of ZPF theory along with experienced electrodynamic and RF engineers so that we can further characterize the physics of the ZPF and identify possible energy extraction techniques and test their feasibility for application to space power systems. In particular, we are pursuing experimental designs that are capable of either confirming or refuting the theoretical predictions and expectations by many experimentalists that cyclic energy can be obtained from the ZPF.Our proposed research program is to:1) develop a theoretical framework for analyzing and developing the potential ZPF energy and extend original research as needed; 2) design and assess potential methods and techniques utilizing ZPF energy as a practical power source; 3)prepare detailed test plans for candidate experiments; 4) design and fabricate ZPF energy extraction device(s) for performance characterization and validation; 5) test the devices under appropriate space conditions, as necessary; 6) evaluate test results for application to space power and propulsion; and 7) identify necessary additional development for qualification of ZPF energy devices. In what follows,we summarize the physics of the ZPF and the experimental investigation we propose to conduct in support of our program.
FIGURE 3.ZPE Resonant Dielectric Spheres Electrical Power Generator (Mead and Nachamkin,1996).
ORIGIN OF ZERO-POINT FIELD ENERGY
In the traditional quantum theory presented in many textbooks, the basis of the ZPF is attributed to the so-called Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. According to this principle, A and B are any two conjugate observables that we are interested in measuring in a lab experiment and they must obey the commutation relation[A,B] = i?(? is Planck’s reduced constant).Their corresponding uncertainty relation is'A'B t?/2, where'A is the variance (a.k.a. uncertainty)of observable A and 'B is that of the conjugate observable B. This relation states that if one measures observable A with very high precision (i.e., its uncertainty'A is very small), then a simultaneous measurement of observable B will be less precise (i.e., its uncertainty'B is very large), and vice versa. In other words, it is not possible to simultaneously measure two conjugate observable quantities with infinite precision. This minimum uncertainty is not due to any correctable flaws in measurement, but rather reflects the intrinsic fuzziness in the quantum nature of energy and matter. Substantial theoretical and experimental work has shown that in many quantum systems the limits to measurement precision is imposed by the quantum vacuum zero-point fluctuations (ZPF) embodied within the uncertainty principle.Nowadays we rather see the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle as a necessary consequence, and therefore, a derived result of the wave nature of quantum phenomena. The uncertainties are just a consequence of the Fourier nature of conjugate pairs of quantities (observables). For example,the two Fourier-wave-conjugates time and frequency become the pair of quantum-particle conjugates time and energy and
the two Fourier-wave-conjugates displacement and wavenumber become the pair of quantum-particle conjugates position and momentum. For more on this see, e.g., Peres (1993).
Radio and microwaves, infrared light,visible light,ultraviolet light,X-rays, and gamma rays are all forms of electromagnetic radiation. Classically, electromagnetic radiation can be pictured as waves flowing through space at the speed of light. The waves are not waves of anything substantive,but are in fact ripples in the state of a field. These waves carry energy, and each wave has a specific direction, frequency and polarization state. This is called a “propagating mode of the electromagnetic field.” A useful tool for modeling the (propagating mode of the)electromagnetic field in quantum mechanics is the ideal quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator:a hypothetical mass on a perfect spring oscillating back and forth under the action of the spring’s restoring force,which is small enough to be subject to quantum laws. The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle dictates that a quantized harmonic oscillator (a.k.a. a photon state) can never come entirely to rest, since that would be a state of exactly zero energy,which is forbidden. Every mode of the field must have ?Z /2 (Z is the mode/photon frequency,?Z is the energy of a single mode/photon) as its average minimum energy in the vacuum.(This is a tiny amount of energy, but the number of modes is enormous, and indeed increases as the square of the frequency. The product of this tiny energy per mode times the huge spatial density of modes yields a very high theoretical energy density per unit volume.) It is for this reason that a ZPE term is added to the classical blackbody spectral radiation energy density U (Z )d Z (i.e.,the energy per unit volume of radiation in the frequency interval [Z ,Z + d Z ]) for when the absolute temperature T of the oscillator system becomes 0K in the vacuum (Milonni,1994):
223()12kT d c e
Z Z Z Z d U Z Z Z S ao ?? ??!!!, (1)where c is the speed of light,and k is Boltzmann’s constant (note:Z = 2SQ ). The factor outside the square brackets is the density of (mode/photon) states (i.e., the number of states per unit frequency interval), the first term inside the square brackets is the standard Planck blackbody radiation energy per mode, and the second term inside the square brackets is the quantum zero-point energy per mode. Equation (1) is called the Zero-Point Planck (ZPP) spectral radiation energy density.
From this line of reasoning,quantum physics predicts that all of space must be filled with electromagnetic zero-point fluctuations (a.k.a. the zero-point field) creating a universal sea of zero-point energy. The density of this energy depends critically on where the frequency of the zero-point fluctuations cease. Since space itself is thought to break up into a kind of quantum foam at a tiny distance scale called the Planck length, l P (~ 10 35 m), it is argued that the zero-point fluctuations must cease at the corresponding Q P . If that is the case, then the zero-point energy density would be 108 orders of magnitude greater than the radiant energy at the center of the Sun. That is the extreme limit. Formally, in QED the ZPE energy density is taken as infinite. H owever, arguments based on quantum gravity considerations yield a finite cutoff at Q P .Therefore, the spectral energy density is given by U (Z )d Z = (?Z 3/2S 2c 3)d Z , which integrates to an energy density, u = ?Q P 4/8S 2c 3| 10113 J/m 3. As large as the ZPE is, interactions with it are typically cut off at lower frequencies depending on the particle coupling constants or their structure.
In SED the origin of the ZPF comes as a direct consequence of the fundamental assumptions. SED is just the ordinary classical electrodynamics of Maxwell and Lorentz where instead of taking the homogeneous solution of the source-free differential wave equations for the electromagnetic potentials, as done in traditional electrodynamics,one considers that (because there are many other moving charged particles in the distant universe) there always is the presence of a random electromagnetic background in the form of a random radiation affecting the particle(s) in our experiment. This new boundary condition replaces the null one of traditional classical electrodynamics.Moreover, as the relativity principle dictates that identical experiments performed in different inertial frames must yield the same result, this random classical electromagnetic radiation must be the same in all inertial frames and therefore have a Lorentz-invariant energy density spectrum. But the only energy density spectrum that obeys such a condition happens to be one that is proportional to the cubic power of the frequency.Interestingly enough, this is exactly the same frequency dependence as that of the QED spectral ZPF energy density presented above when in equation (1) we set the temperature T to zero.In SED we can then write this random radiation in the same way as the ZPE of QED and we call it the classical electromagnetic ZPE.Planck’s constant appears then in SED as an adjustable parameter that sets the scale of the ZPE spectral density. Several quantum results have been reproduced
by means of the classical SED approach. For a very thorough,detailed and scholarly review of SED, see de la Pe?a and Cetto (1996). This book was reviewed by two of us (Cole and Rueda, 1996). Nevertheless,QED and SED do not in general yield the same results for nonlinear systems, although they are in agreement for the linear systems examined. The apparent disagreements between SED and QED are quite serious, since they occur in areas that QED is highly successful. Speculatively, but quite possibly, the source of these difficulties lies in accurately dealing with the nonlinear stochastic differential equations in SED for these problems. However, even if this can be satisfied, it is most likely there will still be differences that should clearly be testable by experimental means (Cole, 2005).
PROPOSED EXPERIMENTS
In what follows, we outline each of the proposed experimental concepts that we plan to explore theoretically and in the laboratory, though space limitations and proprietary concerns force us to limit the level of detail that we can present. The experimental and theoretical program described below has undergone preliminary evaluation by Lockheed Martin review panels involving both internal R&D personnel and outside experts on theory and experimentation.
Voltage Fluctuations in Coils Induced by ZPF at High Frequency
In a series of experiments, Koch et al. (1980,1981,1982) measured voltage fluctuations in resistive wire circuits that are induced by the ZPF.The Koch et al. result is striking confirmation of the reality of the ZPF and proves that the ZPF can do real work (cause measurable currents).Although the Koch et al. experiment detected miniscule amounts of ZPF energy, it shows the principle of ZPF energy circuit effects to be valid and opens the door to consideration of means to extract useful amounts of energy.
Blanco et al. (2001)have proposed a method for enhancing the ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations in circuits.Treating a coil of wire theoretically as an antenna, they argue that the antenna-like radiation resistance of the coil should be included in the total resistance of the circuit, and they suggest that it is this total resistance that should be used in the theoretical computation of the ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations. Because of the strong dependence of the radiation resistance on the number of coil turns (scaling quadratically),coil radius (quartic scaling), and frequency (quartic scaling), these enhanced ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations should be measurable in the laboratory at quite accessible frequencies (100 MHz compared to the 100GHz range necessary in the Koch et al. experiments).The Blanco et al. theory is as follows. Random voltage fluctuations are conveniently described by their frequency spectrum. That is, given a time interval of measured voltages, one can Fourier transform the measurements to the frequency domain to determine how the voltage fluctuations are distributed in frequency (e.g., how much low-frequency,long duration fluctuations are present relative to high-frequency, short-duration fluctuations).Theoretically the spectrum of voltage fluctuations S(Z ,T) of a resistive circuit is given by:
(,)(,)coth 22R T S T kT Z Z Z S § ¨?1
!!Z ·?, (2)where R(Z ,T) is the total resistance (ohmic plus radiative),Z is the (angular)frequency, and T is the absolute temperature. The resistance R(Z ,T) is temperature dependent through its ohmic part (the radiation resistance contribution is frequency-dependent only). The postulate of Blanco et al. is that the total resistance must include the radiation resistance of the circuit:
(,)(,)()ohmic rad R T R T R Z Z Z . (3)
Under the assumption that the wavelengths of the ZPF modes of interest are larger than the dimensions of the circuit, the radiation resistance of a coil is given by:
4
222()3rad N a R c c S Z Z §· ¨??1, (4)where N is the number of coil turns, and a is the radius of the coil winding.
According to the Blanco et al. theory, large enhancements in ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations are possible. By reducing the temperature to minimize ohmic resistance,making the coil of many turns and large radius, and performing measurements at high frequency, it will be possible to confirm this amplification effect. Using the theory of Blanco et al., the predicted coil-enhanced voltage spectrum can be computed.For a 1 cm diameter coil of 2000 turns made of 38 AWG Tungsten wire, and at a temperature of 3 K, the result is shown in Figure 4. In Figure 4, the upper (blue) curve represents the predicted voltage spectral density for the combined ohmic plus radiation resistance. The lower (red) curve is the result when radiation resistance is ignored.If the Blanco et al. postulate is correct, the enhancement effect of the coil should be easily measured at frequencies as low as 100 MHz (where the coil enhancement effect is about 100-fold for Tungsten).
To successfully measure the ZPF-induced voltage fluctuations, the requirements of low temperature, large coil, and high frequency must be met. The low-temperature requirement is met by performing the experiment in a cooled dewar. There are laboratories with high-quality dewars (pumped down to 3K) and sensitive instruments suitable for the measurements. The cold spot in one particular dewar under consideration is cylindrical, 2.5 cm in diameter and height.Thus the largest coil that we can consider will have a coil radius of approximately a = 1 cm.To keep the linear dimension of the coil small, we will require small wire thicknesses, say b = 0.01 cm (gauge 38 AWG). By winding the coil in a number of layers (10 or 12 layers) we can accommodate a large number of turns, say N = 2,000 turns. To minimize ohmic resistance, wire made of tungsten (W) is preferred.However, copper (Cu) is a suitable alternative providing significant cost savings.
Voltage fluctuations in the 100 MH z range are easily detected using fairly common laboratory equipment. We could perform this experiment using tungsten without resorting to the sophisticated/costly techniques used by Koch et al. to attain their extremely high frequency measurements (involving resistively shunted Josephson junctions).For a copper wire coil, the magnitude of the enhancement effect is reduced somewhat compared to the tungsten case of Figure 4, but for frequencies approaching the GHz regime, the radiation resistance enhancement effect is still over four orders of magnitude. Equipment easily obtained will allow measurements of the voltage spectrum in the GHz regime. Therefore,given the cost tradeoff of coil fabrication for copper vs. tungsten, we may use copper coils and perform the experiment. Suitable coils will be fabricated by a custom coil-winding vendor, and a second coil will be tested. The second coil will be used in a control experiment.It will be constructed with the same parameters as the first coil, but will have half of its turns wound in the reverse direction.This will make the coil non-inductive so that its voltage spectral density should correspond to the lower red curve in Figure 4.
ZPF Energy Extraction by Ground State Energy Reduction
As first analyzed by Boyer (1975) and later refined by Puthoff (1987),the following paradox was addressed that even though atomic ground states involve electrons in accelerated motion, such states are nonetheless radiationless in nature. This ground state characteristic was shown to be interpretable (for the standard Bohr ground state orbit of the hydrogen atom) as an equilibrium process in which radiation by the electron in its ground state orbit was compensated by absorption of radiation from the background vacuum electromagnetic ZPE. This interpretation has recently been strengthened by the analyses of Cole and Zou (2003, 2004) using a stochastic electrodynamic (SED) model for the vacuum ZPE. Since the balance between emitted orbital-acceleration radiation and absorbed ZPE radiation is modeled as taking place primarily at the ground state orbital frequency, we can consider the possibility of using this feature in a mechanism to extract energy from the ZPE.
By passing monatomic gas atoms through specially constructed microcavities (e.g.,resonant conducting Casimir cavities),which suppress the background vacuum ZPE at the ground state frequency (thereby upsetting the balance),one might expect the ground state orbit to drop in energy to a new equilibrium orbit and release the energy difference (see Figure 5). Such a process would mimic the usual radiation emission of an electron dropping from an excited state to the ground state, although in this case the “excited” state is the free-space ground state and the final
state is the new lower-energy equilibrium ground state resulting from the effects of cavity mode suppression. Microcavity fabrication to match the atomic ground states is daunting because there will potentially be fabrication irregularities that cause edge and surface effects which act upon the particles as they enter or exit the Casimir region. It will be a challenge to properly account for this so as to disentangle the effects from experimental results.
H owever, further investigation showed that this principle is broadly applicable to other than just atomic ground states, e.g., to the ground state harmonic-oscillator-type vibrational motion of, say, an H2molecule.The estimated power output under optimized conditions from this experimental approach is estimated to be on the order of Watts to kiloWatts.
FIGURE 4. Theoretical Voltage Spectral Density of a Tungsten Coil.
(a)Hydrogenic Atom in Free Space.(b) Hydrogenic Atom in Microcavity.
FIGURE 5. Release of Energy (E out) from Ground State Suppression of Hydrogenic Atom in a Microcavity. (r b =Free-Space Bohr Orbital Radius, r b c= Suppressed Bohr Orbital Radius,O = Resonant Wavelength of Bohr Orbit).
An exploratory effort to investigate the above concept was carried out by Puthoff et al.(2001).In their experiment H2 gas was passed through a 1P m Casimir cavity to suppress the ZPE radiation at the vibrational ground state of the H2molecule (see Figure 6).The anticipated signature for such a process would be increased dissociation energy of the molecule. For this purpose, the experiment was carried out at the Synchrotron Radiation Center at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, where an intense UV beam to disassociate gas molecules could be generated. Unfortunately, problems with the synchrotron beam (unrelated to the experiment) prevented a definitive result from being obtained, so the efficacy of this ZPE-extraction approach remains undetermined at the present time. Further experimentation of this type will be explored with regard to ZPE extraction.
FIGURE 6.Experimental Apparatus for Ground State Energy Reduction Tests.
Tunable Casimir Effect
The Casimir Effect is a unique ZPF-driven quantum force that occurs between closely-spaced conductive cavity walls (or plates). If left unfettered, the plates will collapse together and energy is converted from the ZPF into heat (or other forms of energy) in accordance with the expression E/A = S2?c/720d3, where E/A is the energy per unit area of the plates and d is the plate separation. Further investigation of this mechanism by Cole and Puthoff (1993) showed that this process not only did not violate energy conservation, but it was compatible with thermodynamic constraints as well.
Although the Casimir force is conservative, and thus the Casimir device might appear to be a one-shot device, the fact that the attractive Casimir force is weaker for dielectric plates compared to conductive plates raises the possibility of the use of thin-film switchable mirrors to obtain a recycling engine(Puthoff,1985,Lipkin,1996, Pinto,1999). In such an application the plates are drawn together by the stronger force associated with the conducting state and withdrawn after switching to the dielectric state. Under the most optimistic conditions for eventual embodiment in practical devices (where negligible energy is required for switching, oscillation between 30 nm and 15 nm spacing can be achieved for1 cm2 plates, driving circuit|10 times the weight of the Casimir plates, etc.), an estimate based on a switching oscillation from a purely conductive state to a dielectric constant of K = 4 yields a figure of merit of | 35u f(MHz)W/kg (f = switching rate) for the power density (Puthoff,1985). This can be compared to the power density of|5W/kg achieved by radioisotope thermoelectric generators. The predicted output power per unit area for this experimental device is | 10 6 f(MHz)/4[d(P m)]3 Watts/cm2.
Another “tunable” conductive-type plate experiment under consideration involves the use of plates consisting of three-dimensional photonic crystals with the bandgap of the photons that can transmit through the structure being a
“tunable”value. Using microelectromechanical processing methods, Sandia National Laboratories has experimentally produced such crystals and are researching methods of actively modifying the structures while in use (Lin et al., 2003). Finally, the technology requirements for this experimental concept are the nano-fabrication of microcavities with thin-film deposited surfaces, RF-driven piezoelectric mounts for cavity oscillation, mirror-switching modality (e.g., hydrogen pressure modulation), and calorimetric measurement of energy/heat production.
Electron Inertial Mass Test
Another interesting concept to explore is a postulated electron mass change caused by the exclusion of ZPF modes between Casimir plates, which would result in a change in the optical path-length of a laser beam passing through the cavity compared to a beam not passing through it. According to the quantum vacuum inertia hypothesis (Haisch et al., 1994,2001, Rueda and Haisch,1998a,1998b,2005), as well as the connectivity approach of Nickisch and Mollere (2002), at least some component of inertial mass derives from charge interactions with the ZPF. It is possible to investigate the electromagnetic basis of inertial mass experimentally by using Casimir plates immersed in a plasma. The Casimir plates are enclosed in a vacuum tube in which uniformly distributed plasma is created. A laser beam is split three ways, as shown in Figure 7. One laser beam is directed between the Casimir plates, and the other two outside the plates.The goal is to combine Beams 1 and 2, and, separately, Beams 2 and3 and to look for interference fringe shifting of the 2-3 combination relative to the 1-2 combination. Under the postulated effect this fringe shift would be due to an inertial mass change of the electrons between the plates. Note that the electron plasma frequency f plasma is given (in Gaussian units)by:
f(5)
plasma
where N e is the electron number density,e is the electron charge, and m e is the electron mass.The index of refraction of the plasma is given by:
n,(6)
where f is the frequency of the laser. Any electron mass change caused by the exclusion of ZPF modes between the Casimir plates would result in a change in the optical path-length for Beam 3 and produce a corresponding interference fringe shift. It might be possible to attach the plates to a device for changing the plate separation and look for interference fringe shifting as a function of plate separation. Alternatively, a Casimir tube could be used instead of plates for enhanced effect since the Casimir ZPF exclusion would then occur in two dimensions instead of only one.We will be investigating the feasibility of this experiment, including working out the best combination of laser frequency and plasma density and calculating the magnitude of the effect expected.
FIGURE 7.Electron Inertial Mass Test.
CAVEAT EMPTOR!
There has been a large amount of popular semi-technical literature published over the last 25 years covering the topic of extracting energy from the quantum vacuum field. The literature is mostly composed of self-published books or pamphlets found in bookstores or on the internet, and there are also professional society conference papers that are largely not peer-reviewed.Unfortunately, much of this literature is published within the context of free energy and antigravity devices with claims that the vacuum ZPE is the source that drives free energy devices or powers an antigravity craft, or powers gravity/mass modification or repulsive gravitational force beam devices, etc.
A number of these claims have been evaluated over the years by credentialed scientists and were falsified. Much of this literature is self-serving marketing propaganda, and the language describing the physics or engineering principles for these claims is often couched in what we call “technobabble.” Credentialed scientists interested in seriously pursuing a laboratory investigation of the vacuum ZPF should be forewarned that many of the claims being made in the non-peer-reviewed literature are fraught with pathological science, fraud, misinformation, disinformation, and spurious physics. This is the reason why the present authors were very selective about which ZPE extraction approaches to consider for our research program.
CONCLUSION
We reviewed the physical nature of the quantum vacuum field, and described its spectral characteristics and latent energy content.We are interested in concepts that provide an experimental framework for exploring the possibility and limitations of accessing energy from the space vacuum environment. The theoretical approaches guiding this experimental investigation are based on the QED and SED models of the ZPF. The purpose of our investigation is to explore the question of whether the quantum vacuum field contains useful energy that can be exploited for space power and propulsion applications under the action of a catalyst, or cavity structure, so that energy conservation is not violated.We identified six experiments that have the potential to extract useful energy from the vacuum. One of these, Forward’s Vacuum-Fluctuation Battery, was shown to be unsuitable for completing an engine cycle for pumping energy from the vacuum. The efficacy of the Mead and Nachamkin patent device has not yet been evaluated in the lab.H owever, four additional experimental concepts are potentially exploitable and we have selected those to pursue in a carefully guided theoretical and laboratory research program. The estimated power output from three of these concepts could under optimum conditions range from Watts to kiloWatts. But it should be stressed that there potentially is a real theoretical and experimental challenge in modeling and predicting noise sources, edge and surface effects, etc. within the different experimental approaches, so that experimental results are unambiguously interpretable. If successful, however, it is anticipated that these experiments would lead to a revolution in the way we generate electrical power for commercial and space applications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Lockheed Martin Space Systems,the Institute for Advanced Studies at Austin, ManyOne Networks, Boston University, and California State University-Long Beach for their institutional support of this research program.We are also grateful to Jeff Newmeyer (Lockheed Martin)for very useful comments.
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of与for的用法以及区别 for 表原因、目的 of 表从属关系 介词of的用法 （1）所有关系 this is a picture of a classroom （2）部分关系 a piece of paper a cup of tea a glass of water a bottle of milk what kind of football，American of soccer？ （3）描写关系 a man of thirty 三十岁的人 a man of shanghai 上海人 （4）承受动作 the exploitation of man by man．人对人的剥削。 （5）同位关系 It was a cold spring morning in the city of London in England． （6）关于，对于 What do you think of Chinese food？ 你觉得中国食品怎么样？ 介词 for 的用法小结 1. 表示“当作、作为”。如: I like some bread and milk for breakfast. 我喜欢把面包和牛奶作为早餐。What will we have for supper? 我们晚餐吃什么?
2. 表示理由或原因,意为“因为、由于”。如: Thank you for helping me with my English. 谢谢你帮我学习英语。 Thank you for your last letter. 谢谢你上次的来信。 Thank you for teaching us so well. 感谢你如此尽心地教我们。 3. 表示动作的对象或接受者,意为“给……”、“对…… (而言)”。如: Let me pick it up for you. 让我为你捡起来。 Watching TV too much is bad for your health. 看电视太多有害于你的健康。 4. 表示时间、距离,意为“计、达”。如: I usually do the running for an hour in the morning. 我早晨通常跑步一小时。We will stay there for two days. 我们将在那里逗留两天。 5. 表示去向、目的,意为“向、往、取、买”等。如: let’s go for a walk. 我们出去散步吧。 I came here for my schoolbag.我来这儿取书包。 I paid twenty yuan for the dictionary. 我花了20元买这本词典。 6. 表示所属关系或用途,意为“为、适于……的”。如: It’s time for school. 到上学的时间了。 Here is a letter for you. 这儿有你的一封信。 7. 表示“支持、赞成”。如: Are you for this plan or against it? 你是支持还是反对这个计划? 8. 用于一些固定搭配中。如: Who are you waiting for? 你在等谁? For example, Mr Green is a kind teacher. 比如,格林先生是一位心地善良的老师。
to与for的用法和区别 一般情况下, to后面常接对象; for后面表示原因与目的为多。 Thank you for helping me. Thanks to all of you. to sb.表示对某人有直接影响比如，食物对某人好或者不好就用to; for表示从意义、价值等间接角度来说，例如对某人而言是重要的，就用for. for和to这两个介词，意义丰富，用法复杂。这里仅就它们主要用法进行比较。 1. 表示各种“目的” 1. What do you study English for? 你为什么要学英语？ 2. She went to france for holiday. 她到法国度假去了。 3. These books are written for pupils. 这些书是为学生些的。 4. hope for the best, prepare for the worst. 作最好的打算，作最坏的准备。 2．对于 1．She has a liking for painting. 她爱好绘画。 2．She had a natural gift for teaching. 她对教学有天赋/ 3．表示赞成同情，用for不用to. 1. Are you for the idea or against it? 你是支持还是反对这个想法？ 2. He expresses sympathy for the common people.. 他表现了对普通老百姓的同情。 3. I felt deeply sorry for my friend who was very ill. 4 for表示因为，由于（常有较活译法） 1 Thank you for coming. 谢谢你来。 2. France is famous for its wines. 法国因酒而出名。 5．当事人对某事的主观看法，对于（某人），对…来说（多和形容词连用）用介词to，不用for.. He said that money was not important to him. 他说钱对他并不重要。 To her it was rather unusual. 对她来说这是相当不寻常的。 They are cruel to animals. 他们对动物很残忍。 6．for和fit, good, bad, useful, suitable 等形容词连用，表示适宜，适合。 Some training will make them fit for the job. 经过一段训练，他们会胜任这项工作的。 Exercises are good for health. 锻炼有益于健康。 Smoking and drinking are bad for health. 抽烟喝酒对健康有害。 You are not suited for the kind of work you are doing. 7. for表示不定式逻辑上的主语，可以用在主语、表语、状语、定语中。 1．It would be best for you to write to him. 2．The simple thing is for him to resign at once. 3．There was nowhere else for me to go. 4．He opened a door and stood aside for her to pass.
重庆中考英语高频考点 中考时态语态复习Review of Tenses 一、一般现在时 (Present Simple) 概念：表示习惯性，经常性的动作；表示现在的状态与特征；表示普遍真理 结构：do does 标志语：often，always，usually，sometimes，every day ( week，month, year...) 二、一般过去时(Past Simple) 概念：表示过去的情况或过去习惯性动作 结构：did 标志语： yesterday，the day before yesterday，ago，last..., in 1998 三、一般将来时(Future Simple) 概念:表示将要发生的动作或存在的状态. 结构：will do, shall do, be going to do 标志语： tomorrow，the day after tomorrow，next...，in + 时间段，in 2020 四、现在进行时(Present Progressive) 概念:表示正在发生的动作 结构：be (is, am, are) + doing 标志语： now，置于句首的 Look，Listen 五、过去进行时(Past Progressive) 概念：表示过去正在进行的动作 结构：be (was, were) + doing 标志语：at this time，at＋时间点+过去时间（at 9:00 o'clock last night），when，while. 六、过去将来时(Past Future Simple) 概念:表示从过去某时看将要发生的动作 结构： would do should do 标志语：常用于主句是一般过去时的宾语从句中 七、现在完成时(Present Perfect) 结构：has + done, have + done 概念与标志语： 1）表示过去发生的动作影响到现在，与already, yet, ever, never, just, before，so far 连用。 2）表示过去发生的动作持续到现在，常与for+时间段, since+过去时间，提问用How long. 八、过去完成时(Past Perfect) 概念：过去某时之前已发生的动作 结构：had done 标志语：1）以by，before+过去时间 2）主句为一般过去时的宾语从句中。 加do: 一感feel, 二听，hear ,listen to ,三让let, make ,have, 四看 see,look at ,watch ,notice ,半帮助help
For的用法 1. 表示“当作、作为”。如: I like some bread and milk for breakfast. 我喜欢把面包和牛奶作为早餐。 What will we have for supper? 我们晚餐吃什么? 2. 表示理由或原因,意为“因为、由于”。如: Thank you for helping me with my English. 谢谢你帮我学习英语。 3. 表示动作的对象或接受者,意为“给……”、“对…… (而言)”。如: Let me pick it up for you. 让我为你捡起来。 Watching TV too much is bad for your health. 看电视太多有害于你的健康。 4. 表示时间、距离,意为“计、达”。如: I usually do the running for an hour in the morning. 我早晨通常跑步一小时。 We will stay there for two days. 我们将在那里逗留两天。 5. 表示去向、目的,意为“向、往、取、买”等。如: Let’s go for a walk. 我们出去散步吧。 I came here for my schoolbag.我来这儿取书包。 I paid twenty yuan for the dictionary. 我花了20元买这本词典。 6. 表示所属关系或用途,意为“为、适于……的”。如: It’s time for school. 到上学的时间了。 Here is a letter for you. 这儿有你的一封信。 7. 表示“支持、赞成”。如: Are you for this plan or against it? 你是支持还是反对这个计划? 8. 用于一些固定搭配中。如: Who are you waiting for? 你在等谁? For example, Mr Green is a kind teacher. 比如,格林先生是一位心地善良的老师。 尽管for 的用法较多，但记住常用的几个就可以了。 to的用法: 一：表示相对，针对 be strange (common, new, familiar, peculiar) to This injection will make you immune to infection. 二：表示对比，比较 1：以-ior结尾的形容词，后接介词to表示比较，如：superior ,inferior,prior,senior,junior 2: 一些本身就含有比较或比拟意思的形容词，如equal，similar，equivalent，analogous A is similar to B in many ways.
介词for用法归纳 用法1：(表目的)为了。如： They went out for a walk. 他们出去散步了。 What did you do that for? 你干吗这样做？ That’s what we’re here for. 这正是我们来的目的。 What’s she gone for this time? 她这次去干什么去了？ He was waiting for the bus. 他在等公共汽车。 【用法说明】在通常情况下，英语不用for doing sth 来表示目的。如： 他去那儿看他叔叔。 误：He went there for seeing his uncle. 正：He went there to see his uncle. 但是，若一个动名词已名词化，则可与for 连用表目的。如： He went there for swimming. 他去那儿游泳。(swimming 已名词化) 注意：若不是表目的，而是表原因、用途等，则其后可接动名词。(见下面的有关用法) 用法2：(表利益)为，为了。如： What can I do for you? 你想要我什么？ We study hard for our motherland. 我们为祖国努力学习。 Would you please carry this for me? 请你替我提这个东西好吗？ Do more exercise for the good of your health. 为了健康你要多运动。 【用法说明】(1) 有些后接双宾语的动词(如buy, choose, cook, fetch, find, get, order, prepare, sing, spare 等)，当双宾语易位时，通常用for 来引出间接宾语，表示间接宾语为受益者。如： She made her daughter a dress. / She made a dress for her daughter. 她为她女儿做了件连衣裙。 He cooked us some potatoes. / He cooked some potatoes for us. 他为我们煮了些土豆。 注意，类似下面这样的句子必须用for： He bought a new chair for the office. 他为办公室买了张新办公椅。 (2) 注意不要按汉语字面意思，在一些及物动词后误加介词for： 他们决定在电视上为他们的新产品打广告。 误：They decided to advertise for their new product on TV. 正：They decided to advertise their new product on TV. 注：advertise 可用作及物或不及物动词，但含义不同：advertise sth＝为卖出某物而打广告；advertise for sth＝为寻找某物而打广告。如：advertise for a job=登广告求职。由于受汉语“为”的影响，而此处误加了介词for。类似地，汉语中的“为人民服务”，说成英语是serve the people，而不是serve for the people，“为某人的死报仇”，说成英语是avenge sb’s death，而不是avenge for sb’s death，等等。用法3：(表用途)用于，用来。如： Knives are used for cutting things. 小刀是用来切东西的。 This knife is for cutting bread. 这把小刀是用于切面包的。 It’s a machine for slicing bread. 这是切面包的机器。 The doctor gave her some medicine for her cold. 医生给了她一些感冒药。 用法4：为得到，为拿到，为取得。如： He went home for his book. 他回家拿书。 He went to his friend for advice. 他去向朋友请教。 She often asked her parents for money. 她经常向父母要钱。
Review of tenses Teaching contents: Present continuous tense Simple present tense Teaching aims and learning objectives: By the end of the lesson, the students would be able to: 1. use the present continuous tense to talk about things that are happening. 2. use the simple present tense when they talk about: 1). things that are true now 2). things that they do regularly 3). things that are always true. Focus of the lesson: Two tenses Teaching aids: Multi-media; exercise paper Teaching procedures: What day is it today? What are we doing now? What is she/he doing now? What are they doing now? Look and guess: Is he/she….?Are they….? 总结上述句子的时态 现在进行时的概念，构成，关键词 现在分词的构成 练习巩固现在进行时 T: Boys and girls,look,what am I doing? S:You’re reading. T: I like reading .I read books every evening. What do you usually do every evening?
of 1....的,属于 One of the legs of the table is broken. 桌子的一条腿坏了。 Mr.Brown is a friend of mine. 布朗先生是我的朋友。 2.用...做成的;由...制成 The house is of stone. 这房子是石建的。 3.含有...的;装有...的 4....之中的;...的成员 Of all the students in this class,Tom is the best. 在这个班级中,汤姆是最优秀的。 5.(表示同位) He came to New York at the age of ten. 他在十岁时来到纽约。 6.(表示宾格关系) He gave a lecture on the use of solar energy. 他就太阳能的利用作了一场讲演。 7.(表示主格关系) We waited for the arrival of the next bus. 我们等待下一班汽车的到来。
I have the complete works of Shakespeare. 我有莎士比亚全集。 8.来自...的;出自 He was a graduate of the University of Hawaii. 他是夏威夷大学的毕业生。 9.因为 Her son died of hepatitis. 她儿子因患肝炎而死。 10.在...方面 My aunt is hard of hearing. 我姑妈耳朵有点聋。 11.【美】(时间)在...之前 12.(表示具有某种性质) It is a matter of importance. 这是一件重要的事。 For 1.为,为了 They fought for national independence. 他们为民族独立而战。 This letter is for you. 这是你的信。
King’s College London Presessional 2019 Review your Essay Draft You should now have written most of your essay. This is your opportunity to review what you have done so far to make sure you are on track. Here are some questions to consider which, based on the input from the videos, should seem important to you. Can you answer ‘Yes’ to each of the following? INTRODUCTION 1.Does the introduction start with a good context-setting sentence? 2.Does the introduction contain a purpose for writing? 3.Does the introduction contain a thesis statement? 4.Does the introduction give an indication of what order the following sections are in? Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No CONCLUSION 1.Does your conclusion restate the thesis statement? 2.Are the main points from the body section included as evidence for your thesis? 3.Are suitable closing comments made, such as on the relevance of this argument or the implications of your conclusions? Yes No Yes No Yes No TOPIC SENTENCES, PARAGRAPHS & COHESION 1.Are there clear sections dealing with each aspect of the question? 2.Are topic sentences used effectively? 3.Is the direction of the argument well sign-posted at the beginning of the paragraph? 4.Do the paragraphs end with suitable summary sentences? Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No CONTENT & CRITICALITY Yes No
1.两者都可以引出间接宾语，但要根据不同的动词分别选用介词to 或for：(1) 在give, pass, hand, lend, send, tell, bring, show, pay, read, return, write, offer, teach, throw 等之后接介词to。 如： 请把那本字典递给我。 正：Please hand me that dictionary. 正：Please hand that dictionary to me. 她去年教我们的音乐。 正：She taught us music last year. 正：She taught music to us last year. (2) 在buy, make, get, order, cook, sing, fetch, play, find, paint, choose,prepare, spare 等之后用介词for 。如： 他为我们唱了首英语歌。 正：He sang us an English song. 正：He sang an English song for us. 请帮我把钥匙找到。 正：Please find me the keys. 正：Please find the keys for me. 能耽搁你几分钟吗(即你能为我抽出几分钟吗)? 正：Can you spare me a few minutes? 正：Can you spare a few minutes for me? 注：有的动词由于搭配和含义的不同，用介词to 或for 都是可能的。如：do sb a favour＝do a favour for sb 帮某人的忙 do sb harm＝do harm to sb 对某人有害
for的用法： 1. 表示“当作、作为”。如: I like some bread and milk for breakfast. 我喜欢把面包和牛奶作为早餐。 What will we have for supper? 我们晚餐吃什么? 2. 表示理由或原因,意为“因为、由于”。如: Thank you for helping me with my English. 谢谢你帮我学习英语。 Thank you for your last letter. 谢谢你上次的来信。 Thank you for teaching us so well. 感谢你如此尽心地教我们。 3. 表示动作的对象或接受者,意为“给……”、“对…… (而言)”。如: Let me pick it up for you. 让我为你捡起来。 Watching TV too much is bad for your health. 看电视太多有害于你的健康。 4. 表示时间、距离,意为“计、达”。如:
I usually do the running for an hour in the morning. 我早晨通常跑步一小时。 We will stay there for two days. 我们将在那里逗留两天。 5. 表示去向、目的,意为“向、往、取、买”等。如: Let’s go for a walk. 我们出去散步吧。 I came here for my schoolbag.我来这儿取书包。 I paid twenty yuan for the dictionary. 我花了20元买这本词典。 6. 表示所属关系或用途,意为“为、适于……的”。如: It’s time for school. 到上学的时间了。 Here is a letter for you. 这儿有你的一封信。 7. 表示“支持、赞成”。如: Are you for this plan or against it? 你是支持还是反对这个计划? 8. 用于一些固定搭配中。如:
1.表示各种“目的”，用for （1）What do you study English for 你为什么要学英语？ （2）went to france for holiday. 她到法国度假去了。 （3）These books are written for pupils. 这些书是为学生些的。 （4）hope for the best, prepare for the worst. 作最好的打算，作最坏的准备。 2．“对于”用for （1）She has a liking for painting. 她爱好绘画。 （2）She had a natural gift for teaching. 她对教学有天赋/ 3．表示“赞成、同情”，用for （1）Are you for the idea or against it 你是支持还是反对这个想法？ （2）He expresses sympathy for the common people.. 他表现了对普通老百姓的同情。 （3）I felt deeply sorry for my friend who was very ill. 4. 表示“因为，由于”（常有较活译法），用for （1）Thank you for coming. 谢谢你来。
（2）France is famous for its wines. 法国因酒而出名。 5．当事人对某事的主观看法，“对于（某人），对…来说”，（多和形容词连用），用介词to，不用for. （1）He said that money was not important to him. 他说钱对他并不重要。 （2）To her it was rather unusual. 对她来说这是相当不寻常的。 （3）They are cruel to animals. 他们对动物很残忍。 6．和fit, good, bad, useful, suitable 等形容词连用，表示“适宜，适合”，用for。（1）Some training will make them fit for the job. 经过一段训练，他们会胜任这项工作的。 （2）Exercises are good for health. 锻炼有益于健康。 （3）Smoking and drinking are bad for health. 抽烟喝酒对健康有害。 （4）You are not suited for the kind of work you are doing. 7. 表示不定式逻辑上的主语，可以用在主语、表语、状语、定语中。 （1）It would be best for you to write to him. （2） The simple thing is for him to resign at once.
加入收藏夹 主题： 介词试题It’s + 形容词 + of sb. to do sth.和It’s + 形容词 + for sb. to do sth.的用法区别。 内容： It's very nice___pictures for me. A.of you to draw B.for you to draw C.for you drawing C.of you drawing 提交人：杨天若时间：1/23/2008 20:5:54 主题：for 与of 的辨别 内容：It's very nice___pictures for me. A.of you to draw B.for you to draw C.for you drawing C.of you drawing 答：选A 解析：该题考查的句型It’s + 形容词+ of sb. to do sth.和It’s +形容词+ for sb. to do sth.的用法区别。 “It’s + 形容词+ to do sth.”中常用of或for引出不定式的行为者，究竟用of sb.还是用for sb.，取决于前面的形容词。 1) 若形容词是描述不定式行为者的性格、品质的，如kind，good，nice，right，wrong，clever，careless，polite，foolish等，用of sb. 例： It’s very kind of you to help me. 你能帮我，真好。 It’s clever of you to work out the maths problem. 你真聪明，解出了这道数学题。 2) 若形容词仅仅是描述事物，不是对不定式行为者的品格进行评价，用for sb.，这类形容词有difficult，easy，hard，important，dangerous，（im）possible等。例： It’s very dangerous for children to cross the busy street. 对孩子们来说，穿过繁忙的街道很危险。 It’s difficult for u s to finish the work. 对我们来说，完成这项工作很困难。 for 与of 的辨别方法： 用介词后面的代词作主语，用介词前边的形容词作表语，造个句子。如果道理上通顺用of，不通则用for. 如： You are nice.(通顺，所以应用of)。 He is hard.(人是困难的，不通，因此应用for.) 由此可知，该题的正确答案应该为A项。 提交人：f7_liyf 时间：1/24/2008 11:18:42
1. 两者都可以引出间接宾语，但要根据不同的动词分别选用介词to 或for： (1) 在give, pass, hand, lend, send, tell, bring, show, pay, read, return, write, offer, teach, throw 等之后接介词to。 如： 请把那本字典递给我。 正：Please hand me that dictionary. 正：Please hand that dictionary to me. 她去年教我们的音乐。 正：She taught us music last year. 正：She taught music to us last year. (2) 在buy, make, get, order, cook, sing, fetch, play, find, paint, choose,prepare, spare 等之后用介词for 。如： 他为我们唱了首英语歌。 正：He sang us an English song. 正：He sang an English song for us. 请帮我把钥匙找到。 正：Please find me the keys. 正：Please find the keys for me. 能耽搁你几分钟吗(即你能为我抽出几分钟吗)? 正：Can you spare me a few minutes? 正：Can you spare a few minutes for me? 注：有的动词由于搭配和含义的不同，用介词to 或for 都是可能的。如： do sb a favou r do a favour for sb 帮某人的忙 do sb harnn= do harm to sb 对某人有害
Review of Tenses Ⅰ.我们已学过的动词时态有：1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.。 Ⅱ.Let’s do some exercises about tenses we have learned. 1、Look! The boy _________ a book. (read) 2、I often ______to school.(walk) 3、They ______ fun last weekend.(have) 4、She _________ breakfast already. (eat) 5、People __________ robots in 100 years. (have) 6、Ms Green ___________ when I came in. (cook) Ⅲ.关注-----动词在时态中的形式： 1．动词原形 2．动词第三人称单数：（1）（2） （3） 3．现在分词：（1）（2） （3） 4．过去式：规则变化（1）（2） （3）（4） 5．过去分词： Ⅳ．三部曲包括： 一．二．三． A walks B is walk C is walking 2.---Where’s your father? ---I’m not sure. He _______ to Xi’an yesterday. A. goes B. went C. has gone
1. Be quiet! We _________ (watch) a soccer game on TV. 2. Lucy _________ (sleep) when I came in. Ⅲ．一般将来时 1.People________ robots in 100 years . A will have B have C are having 2.---What do you want to do tomorrow？ --- I________ time with my grandma. A. spend B. am going to spend C. spent Ⅷ．现在完成时 1．标志词 2．构成 1. ---- How clean the bedroom is ！ ---- Yes, I am sure that someone ____ (clean) it. 2. ----Hasn’t Betty come yet? ----No, and I____________ (wait) for her for more than 2 hours. Ⅸ．综合填空 I ____ (love) my school. It ____ (lie) in the town called Qutan. I ____ (come) to the school in 2016. I ___________(study) here for three years. In two months,I__________ (graduate) from my school. It's nine o'clock. I__________ (have) an English class. But at this time yesterday, I ___________( run) on the playground.
to和for的用法有什么不同（一） 一、引出间接宾语时的区别 两者都可以引出间接宾语，但要根据不同的动词分别选用介词to 或for，具体应注意以下三种情况： 1. 在give, pass, hand, lend, send, tell, bring, show, pay, read, return, write, offer, teach, throw 等之后接介词to。如： 请把那本字典递给我。 正：Please hand me that dictionary. 正：Please hand that dictionary to me. 她去年教我们的音乐。 正：She taught us music last year. 正：She taught music to us last year. 2. 在buy, make, get, order, cook, sing, fetch, play, find, paint, choose, prepare, spare 等之后用介词for 。如： 他为我们唱了首英语歌。 正：He sang us an English song. 正：He sang an English song for us. 请帮我把钥匙找到。 正：Please find me the keys. 正：Please find the keys for me. 能耽搁你几分钟吗(即你能为我抽出几分钟吗)? 正：Can you spare me a few minutes?
正：Can you spare a few minutes for me? 3. 有的动词由于用法和含义不同，用介词to 或for 都是可能的。如： do sb a favor＝do a favor for sb 帮某人的忙 do sb harm＝do harm to sb 对某人有害 在有的情况下，可能既不用for 也不用to，而用其他的介词。如： play sb a trick＝play a trick on sb 作弄某人 请比较： play sb some folk songs＝play some folk songs for sb 给某人演奏民歌 有时同一个动词，由于用法不同，所搭配的介词也可能不同，如leave sbsth 这一结构，若表示一般意义的为某人留下某物，则用介词for 引出间接宾语，即说leave sth for sb；若表示某人死后遗留下某物，则用介词to 引出间接宾语，即说leave sth to sb。如： Would you like to leave him a message? / Would you like to leave a message for him? 你要不要给他留个话？ Her father left her a large fortune. / Her father left a large fortune to her. 她父亲死后给她留下了一大笔财产。 二、表示目标或方向的区别 两者均可表示目标、目的地、方向等，此时也要根据不同动词分别对待。如： 1. 在come, go, walk, move, fly, ride, drive, march, return 等动词之后通常用介词to 表示目标或目的地。如： He has gone to Shanghai. 他到上海去了。 They walked to a river. 他们走到一条河边。
keep的用法 1. 用作及物动词 ①意为"保存；保留；保持；保守"。如： Could you keep these letters for me, please? 你能替我保存这些信吗？ ②意为"遵守；维护"。如： Everyone must keep the rules. 人人必须遵守规章制度。 The teacher is keeping order in class.老师正在课堂上维持秩序。 ③意为"使……保持某种(状态、位置或动作等)"。这时要在keep的宾语后接补足语，构 成复合宾语。其中宾语补足语通常由形容词、副词、介词短语、现在分词和过去分词等充当。如： 例：We should keep our classroom clean and tidy.(形容词) 我们应保持教室整洁干净。 You'd better keep the child away from the fire.(副词)你最好让孩子离火远一点。 The bad weather keeps us inside the house.(介词短语)坏天气使我们不能出门。 Don't keep me waiting for long.(现在分词)别让我等太久。 The other students in the class keep their eyes closed.(过去分词) 班上其他同学都闭着眼睛。 2. 用作连系动词 构成系表结构：keep＋表语，意为"保持，继续(处于某种状态)"。其中表语可用形容词、副词、介词短语等充当。如： 例：You must look after yourself and keep healthy.(形容词) 你必须照顾好自己，保持身体健康。 Keep off the grass.(副词)请勿践踏草地。 Traffic in Britain keeps to the left.(介词短语)英国的交通是靠左边行驶的。 注意：一般情况下，keep后接形容词较为多见。再如： She knew she must keep calm.她知道她必须保持镇静。 Please keep silent in class.课堂上请保持安静。 3. ①keep doing sth. 意为"继续干某事"，表示不间断地持续干某事，keep后不 能接不定式或表示静止状态的v-ing形式，而必须接延续性的动词。 例：He kept working all day, because he wanted to finish the work on time. 他整天都在不停地工作，因为他想准时完成工作。 Keep passing the ball to each other, and you'll be OK.坚持互相传球，你们就