Communicative Approach and Grammar Teaching in Senior
Middle School
1. Introduction (2)
2. English grammar teaching (3)
2.1 The definition of grammar (4)
2.2 The current situation of grammar teaching (4)
2.3 The essence and significance of grammar teaching (6)
3. An overview of Communicative Approach (7)
3.1 The comprehension of Communicative Approach (8)
3.2 The basic features of Communicative Approach (9)
3.3 The application of Communicative Approach in grammar teaching (10)
3.3.1 The principles of application (10)
3.3.2 Models (11)
3.3.2.1 Byrne‘s Model (11)
3.3.2.2 Brumfit‘s Model (12)
3.3.2.3 Harmer‘s Model (13)
4. Experiment of grammar teaching in the framework of CA in senor middle school (13)
4.1 The aim of experiment (13)
4.2 The steps of experiment (14)
4.2.1 The subjects (14)
4.2.2 The materials of experiment (14)
4.2.3 The process of experiment (15)
4.2.4 The result of experiment and analysis (17)
4.3 Conclusion of the experiment (19)
5. Conclusion (20)
References (21)
1. Introduction
It is always a popular topic in education field whether grammar teaching is necessary. And Communicative Approach is the other pop theme in teaching. Can they combine together? That is the theme which this thesis discuses and probes into.
Grammar plays a very significant role in language learning and teaching. How should grammar be taught? When considering this question, teachers should consider where grammar fits in language teaching. Some of them tend to extremes, either laying too much emphasis on grammar or just ignoring it. Neither of the two attitudes is adoptable, just as David Nunan argued ― it is wrong to imply that teachers are confronted with two mutually exclusive choices when it comes to teaching grammar, either avoiding the teaching of grammar altogether or returning to a traditional form-focused approach‖(1991:151). In other words, grammar should be put somewhere on the continuum between greatly emphasizing and completely ignoring grammar.
Now, more attention has been paid towards developing communicative competence in the foreign language teaching. Accordingly, grammar, as a part of language competence, should be considered as means rather than an end in itself. However, many middle school teachers especially those in the western areas insist on taking grammar knowledge as the key link in teaching. Most English teachers in China take a traditional method in foreign language teaching. Statistics show that many middle school students especially those in the countryside are taught by the Grammar-Translation Method and are tied to knowledge about English but have few chances to practice listening and speaking. Since the Grammar-Translation Method lays too great emphasis on grammar, many investigators believe this method which is
opposite to the purpose of the text will produce negative effect. Although the traditional method may help develop students‘ communicative competence to some extent, which is now believed by many applied linguists (for instance, Larsen-Freeman, 2002), it cannot achieve as much as the CA-- Communicative Approach (The term Communicative Language Teaching is also used sometimes).
Note that the Communicative Approach suggested in this thesis is somewhat a compromise method. Traditional procedures are not simply rejected but are reinterpreted and extended. Language knowledge is introduced in a context, grammatical items are isolated for controlled practice, and then a number of free activities are provided to reinforce what they deduce.
Hopefully, this thesis will provide senior middle school teachers with some insights into grammar teaching and more preferably they will set to think about their grammar teaching methods.
This thesis consists of five parts. Some basic concepts of grammar and grammar teaching, and the current situation of grammar teaching will be concluded in part two. Part three is the literature review relevant to the CA, and some theories of the application of CA and grammar teaching is mentioned. In part four, it shows the experiment, and some results and discussions concerned with the experiment are presented in this part, and then followed by the conclusion.
2. English grammar teaching
In last section, it summarizes the structure of the thesis simply. This section mainly introduces some notions about grammar teaching.
2.1 The definition of grammar
What is grammar?
In Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary(2004:762-63), grammar is referred to as: n. 1. [U] the rules in a language for changing the form of words and joining them into sentences; 2. [U] a person‘s knowledge and u se of a language; 3. [C] a book containing a description of the rules of a language; 4. [C] (linguistic) a particular theory that is intended to explain the rules of a language or of language in general. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines grammar as ―the study of use of the rules by which words change their forms and are combined into sentences‖(1995:658). Richards (1985) defines grammar as follows: a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language. (Quoted in George Yule, 2002:11) The grammar of a language is the description of the ways in which words can change their forms and can be combined into sentences in that language (see Jeremy Harmer, 2003:59).
CA has endowed the definition of grammar a new demand and meaning. It requires the student not only to inquire into language structure, but also to have the competent to make correct sentences. What‘s more, they must be required to know the application of ―when‖, ―where‖, ―who‖ and ―how‖.
As we know from above, the notions of grammar are of abundance and have changed over the years. In a word, grammar is a description of rules for forming sentences, including an account of meaning that these forms convey.
2.2 The current situation of grammar teaching
Lately a good deal of works has been written about grammar revival. It is widely
believed that, with the introduction of CA, attention to grammar was dimmed by an emphasis on experiential learning and purely communicative goals. But it is only partly true: although some syllabuses in favor of functions appeared in 1970s, e.g. Wilkins‘ Notional Syllabus (1976), a closer look at these syllabuses shows that they often have a strong grammar basis.
Grammar teaching means different things to different teachers. For some teachers, grammar classes primarily consist of the formal explanation of grammatical rules with all of the grammatical terminology necessary for this task. For other teachers, the grammar teaching is synonymous with practice of common grammatical patterns. But for still others, the teaching of grammar means providing students with opportunities to use English in various realistic situations in order to learn to communicate effectively.
Each of these views of grammar teaching has both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, if we view the grammar teaching as the formal presentation of grammatical rules, it is likely for our students to learn a great deal about grammatical rules of English; however, it is possible that they will not be able to effectively use English outside of the classroom. On the other hand, if we consider the grammar teaching as the practice of common grammatical patterns, it is likely that our students will become familiar with basic English sentence patterns, but they may not know when to use these patterns in realistic situations, our students will begin to learn how to communicate in English. It is possible that they will not know how to explain some of the grammatical rules of English. Nevertheless, many English native speakers cannot do this, let alone the English non-native speakers.
Grammar classes require us to pay attention to both form and function. In order to use English correctly, students need to become familiar with basic grammatical
patterns of English. However, it is not enough for our students to know how to make simple statements correctly such as ―please give me a coke‖, they need to be aware of the fact that they are making a request and that there are other ways of saying the same thing (e.g., ―a coke, please‖, ―would it be possible to get a coke?‖etc.). Moreover, they need to know when it would be appropriate to use each form. If we want our students to learn these and to use English both correctly and appropriately, we need to include in our grammar classes attention to both form and function (see Mickay, 1987: xi-xii).
2.3 The essence and significance of grammar teaching
Grammar teaching has been regarded as necessity by many grammarians or linguists. Celce-Murcia said, ―Noticeable and convincing proof shows teaching without grammar can only lead to crippled foreign language whether it is bases on comprehension or on communication. Students can‘t make p rogress if surpassing the stage‖(1988:89). As Krashen (1987:186) points out, the monitor is the device that learners use to edit their language performance. It utilizes ―learnt‖ knowledge by acting upon and modifying utterances generated from ―acquired‖ knowledge. This can occur either before or after the utterance is uttered.
According to the statistical analysis on the experience of foreign language teaching after things were set to rights again in 1978, Chinese students learned foreign language mainly by themselves. Teaching oneself a foreign language needs learning strategies and error correction monitoring. Spelling ability, grammatical competence and lexical knowledge are learning strategies to monitor error correction of language input and output. So English language teaching must have a foothold on language knowledge that is centered on grammar. Besides, the grammatical knowledge cannot
only be used to monitor output, it can also be used to understand what is heard, read and written.
What kind of position should grammar be in and what role should grammar play in EFL (English as a Foreign Language)? These issues should be made clear before we explore how to teach grammar in the framework of CA. For some time after the rise of CA, the status of grammar in the curriculum was rather uncertain. Some linguists maintained that it was unnecessary to teach grammar, that the ability to use a second language (knowing ―how‖) would develop automatically if learners were required to focus on meaning in the process of using the language to communicate. In recent years, some people in the English teaching circle think that grammar counts for little in EFL, thus it‘s necessary to cut down or even eliminate grammar class. Nowadays this view has come under serious challenge, and now it seems to be wildly accepted that there is value in classroom tasks which require learners to focus on form. It is also that grammar is an essential resource in using language communicatively.
3. An overview of Communicative Approach
The proliferation of approaches and methods is a prominent characteristic of contemporary second and foreign language teaching. The changes in language teaching methods throughout history have reflected recognition of changes in the kind of proficiency learners‘ need, such as a move towar d oral mastership rather than reading comprehension as the goal of language study. The popularity of the Communicative Approach since the final decades of last century has proved this fact well. CA is the main theme that we talk about in this section.
3.1 The comprehension of Communicative Approach
Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1985:45), CA, termed as CLT, is an approach to foreign or second language teaching, which emphasizes the goal of language learning, is communicative competence.
―The Communicative Approach – or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) - is the name which was given to a set of beliefs which included not only a re-examination of what aspects of language to teach, but also a shift in emphasis in how to teach‖ (Jeremy Harmer, 2003:84).
In fact, the comprehensiveness of CA makes it difficult to define authoritatively and thoroughly. For some, it means little more than an integration of grammatical and functional teaching. David Numan claims ―it is something of misnomer to talk about the communicative approach as there is family of approaches‖ (1991:159). Littlewood states, ―One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language‖(1981:25). For others, it means using procedures where learners work in pairs or groups employing available language resources in problem- solving tasks.
Follows are some comprehensions of CA:
(1). The CA is an approach to Foreign or Second Language Teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language teaching is communication competence. The CA is also called Communicative Language Teaching.
(2). The CA has been developed particularly by British applied linguists as a reaction away from grammar-based approaches such as the Audio-lingual Method.
(3). Teaching materials used with a CA often teach the language needed to express and understand different kinds of functions, such as requesting, describing, expressing likes and dislikes.
(4). The CA follows a Notional Syllabus or some other communicatively organized syllabus and emphasizes the processes of communication, such as using language appropriately in different kinds of tasks, for example, to solve puzzles, to get information, and using language for social interaction with other people.
3.2 The basic features of Communicative Approach
The Communicative Approach has many different features comprehended by different linguists. However, the aim of CA is to develop the students‘ communicative competence. Some features are summarized as follows:
(1)Language is regarded as a tool of communication.
(2) Notions, functions and communicative events, are taken as contents.
(3)It stresses that the teaching process itself is communicative.
(4)The most necessary language courses or materials are chosen to suit certain specific communicative purposes for different learners, e.g. English for scientists, English for doctors, English for attendants.
(5)The students‘ mistakes are not corrected in a hurry.
(6)It is against grammar-based teaching.
(7)It holds that teaching materials should match with suitable teaching media, and multi-media in the organization of teaching should be adopted.
(8)Its procedure for teaching is quite different from that of Structural Approach whose procedure is presentation of new items, drills, and then application in practical situations.
(9)English essential factors are thought to play a part respectively when people use a language to communicate with each other. (see Yuan Shipu, Qi Defeng & Liu Xinyi, 1998:83-85)
3.3 The application of Communicative Approach in grammar teaching
3.3.1 The principles of application
While teaching grammar, you should bear some principles in mind so that you can teach it more effectively. The following are the main principles for grammar teaching based on CA.
When you teach grammar, whichever technique you decide to use, it is important to keep several principles in mind. Firstly, be certain that your students always understand what they are saying. Use demonstrations, pictures, or translation. Secondly, when you introduce a new grammar point, select the model sentences carefully. In general, try to introduce only one new grammar point in a set of model sentences so that your students can be better focus on the point you wish to emphasize. Thirdly, always strive to keep the topic unified in theme and related to your students‘ interests. Nevertheless one way to provide practice and review of the same structure, while maintaining the interest of your students, is to vary the content you use. Finally, use model sentences that reflect actual usage and try to introduce these sentences in situations in which they might actually be used by the students. Remember, in order to communicate effectively, your students must not just know how to use the language correctly; they must know how to use it appropriately (see Mickay, 1987: xiv-xv).
In short, grammar presentation and practice activities should be evaluated according to: how efficient they are (the E-factor), how appropriate they are (the A-factor). The efficiency of an activity is gauged by determining: 1.Its economy—how time-efficient is it? 2. Its ease is it to set up? 3. Its efficacy—is it consistent with good learning principles? The appropricacy of an activity takes into
英语专业毕业论文提纲参考文档2篇English major thesis outline reference document 编订：JinTai College
英语专业毕业论文提纲参考文档2篇 前言：论文提纲是作者构思谋篇的具体体现，便于作者有条理地安排材料、展开论证。有了一个好的提纲，就能纲举目张，提纲挈领，掌握全篇论文的基本骨架，使论文的结构完整统一，分清层次，明确重点，周密地谋篇布局，使总论点和分论点有机地统一起来。本文档根据毕业论文提纲内容要求和特点展开说明，具有实践指导意义，便于学习和使用，本文下载后内容可随意调整修改及打印。 本文简要目录如下：【下载该文档后使用Word打开，按住键盘Ctrl键且鼠标单击目录内容即可跳转到对应篇章】 1、篇章1：英语专业毕业论文提纲参考文档 2、篇章2：关于英语专业毕业论文提纲选题文档 篇章1:英语专业毕业论文提纲参考文档 英语专业本科生毕业论文选题可以在三个大的方向中进行，即英语文学，语言学和翻译学。各个大方向中又可以选择小的方向，具体解释如下： 1.英语文学：选择英语文学的毕业论文选题可以从三个方向进行：国别文学研究、文学批评理论研究和比较文学研究。
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留学论文中，在动笔之前选对结构框架往往会决定最终的分数段！ 今天hansedu小编带大家一起学习essay常用的3个结构并且逐个进行深入分析。 首先，essay的结构主要分为以下3大类： Argument-opinion structure Cause-effect structure SPSE structure 我们今天一起探索论文里最常运用的第一类结构argument-opinion structure，比如分析问题strengths/weaknesses/limitations，给出具体论据论证，最后进行evaluation。 对于这类论文，一般两种outline最为适用。 1 for-and-against outline 第1种: for-and-against outline 顾名思义，按照支持方观点和反对方观点进行全文的重点分段，将所有支持的观点整合在一起，反对方也是一样。注意每个观点后面一定要有对应的support。 Brief outline: ---Introduction ---Viewpoints from pros (+support) ---Viewpoints from cons (+support) ---My position ---Conclusion 2 thematic outline 第2种: thematic outline 这种outline是按照主题(theme/topic)分类，比第一种更容易扩展，适合字数较多的论文分析。按照每个theme进行划分pros&cons观点，更加清晰。 Brief outline: ---Introduction ---Theme 1 (pros+cons) ---My position ---Theme 2 (pros+cons) ---My position ---Theme 3 (pros+cons) ---My position ---Conclusion 每种outline都有特定的适用范围，有的论文需要结合两种以上的不同结构。我们需要具体问题具体分析，希望大家能够在留学论文中灵活运用~
成都理工大学英语专业 学士学位论文（设计）学术标准及基本规范 学分：8分执笔人：丁启红、李珊审订人： 一、学士学位论文（设计）的目的 英语专业学士学位论文（设计）是本专业毕业生在教师的指导下，综合运用本学科所学基础理论和专业知识，对本学科中某一学术问题，做出较全面系统的归纳、论证和分析的一个重要教学环节。该过程主要完成以下任务： 1.综合检验学生所学基础理论、基本知识、基本技能； 2.系统培养学生综合运用所学知识，对英语语言和文学以及与英语语言相关的社 会、经济、政治、文化等问题，进行独立分析和解决实际问题的能力； 3.培养学生的创新意识和创新能力，使学生获得科学研究的基础训练； 4.培养学生形成正确的设计思想、理论联系实际的工作作风和严肃认真的科学态 度； 5.进一步提高学生英语语言运用能力和计算机操作能力，以及社会调查、文献资 料查阅和文字表达等基本技能。 总之，这一环节的根本目的在于培养和检验学生四年来的科学态度、观察能力、分析思考能力和最基本的学术训练水平，以及英语的实际综合运用能力。 二、学士学位论文（设计）的选题 （一）选题原则 英语专业毕业论文选题应符合“培养知识面广、有创新思维的外向型、应用型、复合型高级英语专门人才”的目标要求，能体现人才培养水平与质量。 题目来源包括指导教师科研题目、教师拟定、学生自拟。选题范围包括英语语言学研究、英美文学研究、翻译研究、英语国家社会与文化研究、英语教学研究，以及专门用途英语研究（如经贸英语、法律英语、新闻英语、科技英语等）。 学生应结合自己的兴趣与特长选择论文题目，做到一人一题。 （二）选题类型与主要研究设计内容 本专业选题类型主要包括理论研究和应用研究两种： 理论研究类论文主要就某一理论问题充分展开正面论证，阐述自己的理论见解。论文的关键在于有论有述，述论结合，论大于述。选题方向和内容主要涉及西方文论、美学、比较文学、文学史、翻译史、翻译理论、语言哲学等方面。 应用研究类论文主要是运用所学理论和知识来分析和解决某一实际问题。论文侧重 1
英语学术论文写作实践作业 作者 系（院）外国语学院 专业英语 年级2xxx级 学号 写作意向 旅游的快速发展以及随着中国融入全球化经济，中国与世界各国的交流不断增多，例如，加入WTO、2008年北京成功举办奥运会及上海世博会等，这些显示了中国在国际舞台上扮演越来越重要的角色。近些年来，越来越多的国家希望了解中国，许多外国朋友纷至沓来。特别是中国旅游风景名胜区，每年接待的外国游客越来越多。为了方便外国友人，我国旅游景区就必须提供英语景点导游词。旅游景点导游词主要指的是旅游景区公开和面对旅游者的告示、指示、提示、警示、标示等文字及图形信息，涉及到食、宿、行、游、娱、购等日常生活的方方面面。在旅游景区内，游客最为集中，与旅游宣传册、地图、宣传单等相比，景点导游词更加引人注目集中，更加直截了当地发挥其信息指示功能。由于旅游景点导游词需要及时满足的是社会公众和旅游者的直接社会、行为和心理需求，也反映了生活在这个社会群体的整体文化素质、道德修养和精神面貌，是一个国家对外交流水平和人文环境的具体体现。因此其翻译质量将会响到游客的旅游线路、兴致、感受及印象，进而间接影响我国旅游业的发展。因此，对旅游景点导游词的特点、翻译策略进行探讨具有一定的现实意义。 资料的初步整理 对于英语景点导游词，许多中外学者都做出自己的研究，提出自己的观点。以下是中外学术界的众多研究和观点。 蔡媛媛（2007）《英语景点导游词的语言特点》一文中指出，英语景点导游词具有相应的功能特点。（1）指示性。指示性景点导游词主要是提供给公众一些信息服务，没有任何限制或强制在内，同时也不强制要求公众采取任何行动，其功能只是指示服务内容。因此，指示性景点导游词也被称为指导性或引导性景点导游词。这也是景点导游词最基本、最主要的功能。例如：One Way （单行线）、Tickets （售票处）、Department Store （百货商场）。（2）提示性。提示性景点导游词提示性景点导游词提醒公众注意某些事情，同时提示性景点导游词也并不针对特殊或个别人群。这类景点导游词应用非常广泛，通过提示性景点导游词可以了解什么该做什么不该做，但是这种提示性景点导游词并不具有强制性，公众可根据实际情况来选择执行或不执行。例如：Caution！Radiation（当心射线）、Watch Your Hand（当心夹手）、Don’t Touch（请勿手扶）。（3）限制性。限制性景点导游词对有关公众提出限制或约束的要求，希望有关公众为了大众的利益遵守一定的规则。多数情况下限制性景点导游词语气较为直接，一目了然，但不会让人感到强硬、粗暴或无理。例如：Athletes Only （运动员专用通道）、Large Vehicles Keep Right （大型车靠右）。（4）强制性。强制性景点导游词对有关公众有较大约束力，要求有关公众必须或不得采取任何行动或严格遵守规则。这类景点导游词的语言直接、强制，没有任何商量的余地。例如：No Parking （禁止停车）。 上面是学者对景点导游词特点的研究，对于翻译，颜莉（2008）《英语景点导游词的文体特点及汉英翻译》一文中说到，在进行景点导游词的汉英翻译前，应先了解英语景点导游词的文体特点，这样才能更加准确地将汉语景点导游词译为地道的英语表达方式。代博君（2010）在《景点导游词的语言特征及翻译策略》一文中指出，景点导游词的翻译应属于实用翻译，也称语用翻译。法国翻译理论家Jean Delisle 将语用翻译界定为：运用语用学知识对语用文
Research Paper Outline The research paper outline is essential for any article or term paper. The outline may make a great difference on how your work is interpreted. Writing a research paper is as important as performing the actual research or experiment itself and can appear to be a very daunting task. It does not matter what conclusions you arrived at or how perfect your experimentation was, if you put no effort into writing a good report then your study will not be taken seriously. If you break report writing down into its constituent parts, it is not as complex as it seems and there is no reason to be worried. Scientific reports, for the vast majority of disciplines, are all structured in the same way; if you follow this structure then you cannot go far wrong. It is useful to note that every scientific discipline, every university and even supervisors can have their own preferred methods of constructing reports; with this in mind, do not be afraid to ask for advice on the best research paper format for your report. LAYOUT AND LENGTH For most assessed reports you will be told how long it should be, generally by the number of words. This is generally only a guide and is not set in stone; in most cases this limit does not include appendices and citation pages. If you plan to write for a specific journal, a good advice is to check the research paper outline of some of the articles to get a better idea on how to write your article. Here are a few outline samples. If your report is complex and strays over this limit, there should be no problem, as long as you have not repeated yourself or filled your work with irrelevant information. It is good practice to bear in mind that the appendix is there for any information that you feel could be omitted from the report without affecting the clarity. Your report can be shorter than the advised word limit if everything that needs to be included is there. This is preferable than trying to pad out the report in order to fulfill some ‘word count’ facility on the computer, risking being penalized for irrelevance.
Introduction to the Course --- Public Speaking Outline Specific purpose: To inform the students about the aspects of the course --- Public Speaking Central idea: The four aspects of this course include five purposes of opening the course, the way the course will be conducted and the teaching schedule, 14 requirements to ensure an effective result; and the evaluation and grading. Introduction I. First let me ask you three questions: A. A. Why do you choose this course B.What is a good speech C.What is the greatest obstacle if one wants to deliver a great speech II. As a veteran teacher of English I find Chinese students are reluctant to make a public speech. A.Chinese students are more likely to have stage fright because they are not or less trained. B.Public speech is a compulsory course in most of the American universities. III. For the next 30 minutes or so I’d like to talk about 4 things: the purposes of this course, the way the course will be conducted, the requirements you should meet and grading scheme. (Transition: Let’s start with the purposes of this course.) Body I. There are five main purposes to open this course.
My outline (080703120 汤煜芳) A Paralysed Wilderness —The Appreciation and Analysis of Symbols in Araby Thesis statement:The symbols regarding the setting, religion and characters in Araby are ingeniously adopted, which manifests a stretch of paralysed wilderness typical of Dublin and contributes immensely to the success of the short story. Outline: 1. Introduction 2. Demonstration 2.1 Symbols regarding the setting 2.1.1 Blind alley in North Richmond Street—hopelessness, bleakness, and ignorance 2.1.2 Houses and gardens in the street—decay and gloom 2.1.3 Lamplight 2.1. 3.1 Lamplight in the street—spiritual decadence 2.1. 3.2 Lamplight in Araby fair—darkness and disillusionment 2.1.4 Araby bazaar—boy’s goal and social reality 2.2 Symbols involving religion 2.2.1 Dead priest and his abandoned belongings—collapse of the religious belief 2.2.2 The wild garden—spiritual paralysis 2.2.3 The chalice—boy’s yearning for beautiful love 2.3 Symbols concerning the characters 2.3.1 Mangan’s sister—boy’s pursuit of dream 2.3.2 Aunt and uncle of th e narrator “I”—short-sighted and indifferent people 3. Conclusion 1
怎样撰写英语的outline 好的outline对你撰写正文内容具有很强的指导作用。不管你要撰写的是什么类型的文章，outline都是非常必要（通常情况下也是必须的）。接下来的内容对撰写提纲有很大帮助。 1.明确文章的主旨。 一篇文章都有其所要表达主旨。选择一个最终主旨不仅能引导你主题的方向，还有助于你有逻辑的组织文章。比如你在写论文，写下能够概括文章主旨的中心思想，以帮助你确定主旨： ? 比较和对照两个事物。 ? 列出因果 ? 阐明或分析一个特殊方面 ? 列出单个或两者的论证 ? 提供证据并得出结论 ? 列出问题然后提供解决方案 2.收集辅助材料。 这些被收集来的材料可能来自引用他人成果、数据统计、理论、实验结果等。通过收集材料，明确这些材料使用，这些东西可能会体现在essay outline中。 3.决定如何安排辅助论证来支撑主旨。 举例：如果你在呈现一个历史概述，你可以按年代来排序；如果你在辩论文学方面内容，你可能要按主题排序；如果你处在某观点立场的两级徘徊时，你可以先列出和你立场有矛盾的证据，然后用反论证消除达到有说服力的结果。 4.撰写主题提纲或者句子提纲。 如果文章非常灵活多变，那么你可以用利用一些短语作为主题大纲；用句子大纲阐述细节。 ? 一般来说你可以尝试先用主题提纲来开始你的提纲撰写，然后再逐步转变成句子提纲。 5.确定主要类别。 根据文章的主旨和找到的辅助材料来决定把全文的大主题分散整理到不同逻辑类别。这些类别将会被标记成罗马数字来形成提纲的第一步。 ? 当写文章时，通常会用一个大点去代表一个段落：比如，一、文章的开头段，二、主体段落的第一段，等等。例如，如果描写飞机历史发展史的概论，每一个大点就该包括各个飞机历史上的时期。 6.确定论点。
论文提纲范例 Sample Outline 编订：JinTai College
论文提纲范例 前言：论文格式就是指进行论文写作时的样式要求，以及写作标准，就是论文达到可公之于众的标准样式和内容要求，论文常用来进行科学研究和描述科研成果文章。本文档根据论文格式内容要求和特点展开说明，具有实践指导意义，便于学习和使用，本文下载后内容可随意调整修改及打印。 论文提纲范例一 题目：主标题网络教学形式新思维 副标题 ------基于网络环境的协作学习研究 关键词：网络环境协作学习 目录： 摘要：本文简要介绍了网络环境协作学习的意义，以及网络教学下协作学习的特点，基于网络下学习的自我体会-（100字） 引言------------------------------------------------------（200字） 一、网络教学（1000字）
1.1.网络教学下协作学习-------------------------1. 2.网络教学下协作学习与传统教学的比较分析 1.3.网络教学下协作学习的优势---------------- 二、协作学习的组织形式及其原则（1000字） 2.1.协作学习的组织形式------------------------- 2.2.协作学习的组织原则------------------------- 三、协作学习的基本要素分析（1000字）---- 四、网络教学下协作学习的实现方式（XX字） 4.1.角色扮演------------------------ 4.2.伙伴------------------------------ 4.3.竞争------------------------------ 4.4.协同------------------------------ 4.5.辩论------------------------------ 4.6.问题解决------------------------ 4.7.设计------------------------------ 五、基于网络下学习的自我体会（1000字）
英语专业毕业论文答辩开场白 英语专业毕业论文答辩开场白 Good morning, professors and everyone. I come from JMU College. I am ｘｘｘand my supervisor is prof ｘｘｘ. With her sincere and intellectual guidance, I have finished my paper. The title of my paper is An Analysis of Ahab’s Personality Tragedy in Moby Dick. I choose this title as my topic due to the following reasons. Firstly, I am fond of literature works , especially gothic literature works. Secondly, I am quite familiar with this work as this is one of the teｘts in our American literature course . Last but not least , Moby-Dick is widely recognized as the summit not only of Melville’s art but of American nineteenth-centry fiction. The purpose of this essay is to study Captain Ahab,the role in Moby-Dick, whose leg was bitten by the white whale in his process of the whaling. After losing his leg, he determined to revenge Moby Dick and tried to kill it. In order to revenge, Ahab ultimately dooms the crew of the Pequod (save for Ishmael) to death by his obsession with Moby Dick. By taking the comprehensive analysis perspective of Moby-Dick, this thesis will point out that the main characteristics of Ahab. This paper consists of three parts. Part one presents an introduction to the Social Background and the life of the Author Herman Melvillehe ,Part two presents The Main Characteristics of Ahab. there are three aspects have been divided to analyze his characters: his monomania , his selfishness, and his individualism. Part three presents The Consequences of Ahabs Personality Tragedy. OK, thats all. Thank you ! 英语专业毕业论文答辩开场白（2） Good morning, appraises committee members and schoolmates. I come from class 08951, and I am Yu Lianfei. Today, the title of my paper is On the Network Novels. In recent years, the network literature is developing rapidly. Network novel is one of the fast of them. In the middle schools, high schools and even universities, there is no lack of network novels addicts. For the above facts, I select the subject of on the network novels as the title of my paper. Then, I will show it to you. In the main part of this paper, I divide it into four parts, as the concept of network novels, the classification of their authors, the development of network novels and the prospects of that. The first part, the definition. Its concept can be divided into the generalized and the narrow. And it can also be divided into boys’ and girls’ in another way.
Outline of the Thesis （论文提纲） 说明： 1. “写作提纲”（Outline）就是自己的论文写作的详细计划（a practical working plan）。利用这个提纲整体规划全篇论文，分清主要观点、次要观点，先写什么、后写什么，每一章的中心论点是什么，包括多少小节，等等。有了这样的提纲，就有了写作过程的整体意识，保持各章节之间的逻辑联系，以免写作是迷失方向，或者丢三落四，或者详略失当。 2. “写作提纲”（Outline）的实际形式就是一个详尽的论文目录，重在表明你的写作思路和内容。 3.“写作提纲”需要得到指导老师的认可，可以用来向指导老师汇报写作进度或讨 论写作中的问题。 请仿照下面格式拟写论文提纲： （至少每章、每节都应拟定标题或小标题；至于全文分为多少章，每章又分为多少小节，根据自己的论文需要而定。） 1 Introduction(三号字) 1.1 （标题）(小三号字) 1.1.1 (小标题）(四号字) (正文用小四号字) 1.1.2 （小标题） 1.1.3 （小标题） 1.2 （标题）(小三号字) 1.2.1（小标题）(四号字) 1.2.2（小标题） 1.3（标题）(小三号字) 2 (三号字)
2.1（标题）(小三号字) 2.1.1（小标题）(四号字) 2.1.2（小标题） 2.1.3（小标题） ……………………………… 2.2 （标题）(小三号字) 2.2.1（小标题） 2.2.2（小标题） 2.2.3（小标题） ……………………………… 2.3 （标题） …………………………… 3 （标题）(三号字) 3.1 （标题） 3.2 （标题） 3.2.1（小标题） 3.2.2 3.3 （标题） 3.3.1（小标题） 3.3.2 ……………………………… 4 （标题）(三号字) 4.1.（标题） 4.2 4.3 5 Conclusion(三号字) 5.1（标题） 5.2
撰写essay之前，好的outline对你撰写正文内容具有很强的指导作用。不管你要撰写的是什么类型的文章，outline 都是非常必要（通常情况下也是必须的）。接下来的内容对撰写提纲有很大帮助。 1.明确文章的主旨。 一篇文章都有其所要表达主旨。选择一个最终主旨不仅能引导你主题的方向，还有助于你有逻辑的组织文章。比如你在写论文，写下能够概括文章主旨的中心思想，以帮助你确定主旨： ?比较和对照两个事物。 ?列出因果 ?阐明或分析一个特殊方面 ?列出单个或两者的论证 ?提供证据并得出结论 ?列出问题然后提供解决方案 2.收集辅助材料。 这些被收集来的材料可能来自引用他人成果、数据统计、理论、实验结果等。通过收集材料，明确这些材料使用，这些东西可能会体现在essay outline中。 3.决定如何安排辅助论证来支撑主旨。 举例：如果你在呈现一个历史概述，你可以按年代来排序；如果你在辩论文学方面内容，你可能要按主题排序；如果你处在某观点立场的两级徘徊时，你可以先列出和你立场有矛盾的证据，然后用反论证消除达到有说服力的结果。 4.撰写主题提纲或者句子提纲。 如果文章非常灵活多变，那么你可以用利用一些短语作为主题大纲；用句子大纲阐述细节。 ?一般来说你可以尝试先用主题提纲来开始你的提纲撰写，然后再逐步转变成句子提纲。 5.确定主要类别。 根据文章的主旨和找到的辅助材料来决定把全文的大主题分散整理到不同逻辑类别。这些类别将会被标记成罗马数字来形成提纲的第一步。 ?当写文章时，通常会用一个大点去代表一个段落：比如，一、文章的开头段，二、主体段落的第一段，等等。例如，如果描写飞机历史发展史的概论，每一个大点就该包括各个飞机历史上的时期。 6.确定论点。 每个分类至少想两个论点，根据你文章的主旨和你之前收集的论据材料来选择你的分论点。这些分论点就是你提纲的第二个层级。一般它们是用英文字母标示的。（比如A、B、C 等等） ?让你的第二层级比你的第一层级缩进1.27到2.54厘米 ?还是用飞机发展史历史的例子，每一个分点就可以描写那个时代的发动机型号 7.根据需要确定中心论点的分论点。 如果有必要的话，你可以在中心论点上确定分论点。这么做会最大化你文章的逻辑性。再把这些分论点放在你提纲的第三层，并用阿拉伯数字标示。（1、2、3、4 等等） ?为了方便标识，你可以在下一层用小写罗马字符（i、 ii、 iii、 iv等等），接着用小写英文字母（a、b、 c、d等等），最后可以用回阿拉伯数字（1、2、3、4，等等） ?在写提纲时基本上不需要四个层级。如果出现这类状况，试着合并论点。
在大多数美国人的心目中，马克?吐温是位伟大作家，他描写了哈克?费恩永恒的童年时代中充满诗情画意的旅程和汤姆?索亚在漫长的夏日里自由自在历险探奇的故事。的确，这位美国最受人喜爱的作家的探索精神、爱国热情、浪漫气质及幽默笔调都达到了登峰造极的程度。但我发现还有另一个不同的马克?吐温——一个由于深受人生悲剧的打击而变得愤世嫉俗、尖酸刻薄的马克?吐温，一个为人类品质上的弱点而忧心忡忡、明显地看到前途是一片黑暗的人。 印刷工、领航员、邦联游击队员、淘金者、耽于幻想的乐天派、语言尖刻的讽刺家：马克?吐温原名塞缪尔?朗赫恩?克莱门斯，他一生之中有超过三分之一的时间浪迹美国各地，体验着美国的新生活，尔后便以作家和演说家的身分将他所感受到的这一切介绍给全世界。他的笔名取自他在蒸汽船上做工时听到的报告水深为两口寻(12英尺)——意即可以通航的信号语。他的作品中有二十几部至今仍在印行，其外文译本仍在世界各地拥有读者，由此可见他的享誉程度。 在马克?吐温青年时代，美国的地理中心是密西西比河流域，而密西西比河是这个年轻国家中部的交通大动脉。龙骨船、平底船和大木筏载运着最重要的商品。木材、玉米、烟草、小麦和皮货通过这些运载工具顺流而下，运送到河口三角洲地区，而砂糖、糖浆、棉花和威士忌酒等货物则被运送到北方。在19世纪50年代，西部领土开发高潮到来之前，辽阔的密西西比河流域占美国已开发领土的四分之三。 1857年，少年马克?吐温作为蒸汽船上的一名小领航员踏人了这片天地。在这个新的工作岗位上，他接触到的是各式各样的人物，看到的是一个多姿多彩的大干世界。他完全地投身到这种生活之中，经常在操舵室里听着人们谈论民间争斗、海盗抢劫、私刑案件、游医卖药以及河边的一些化外民居的故事。所有这一切，连同他那像留声机般准确可靠的记忆所吸收的丰富多彩的语言，后来都有机会在他的作品中得以再现。 蒸汽船的甲板上不仅挤满了富有开拓精神的人们，而且也载着一些娼妓、赌棍和歹徒等社会渣滓。从所有这些形形色色的人身上，马克?吐温敏锐地认识了人类，认识了人们的言与行之间的差距。他在蒸汽船上工作的四年半时间是他真正接受教育的开端，而且也是最具有深远意义的教育。到了晚年，马克?吐温还声言是密西西比河使他了解了各种各样的人的本性。这种生活体验对他的全部创作都起了促进作用，然而他描写得最为成功的还是那些密西西比河上的人物。 随着铁路运输的发展，社会上对汽船领航员的需求日渐减少，而内战的爆发又阻碍了商业贸易的发展。这时，马克?吐温便离开了密西西比河流域。他在南方邦联游击队的一支杂牌队伍里当了两个星期的兵。那支队伍想方设法避免与敌军交战。在确信“我比发明撤退的人更精通撤退”之后，马克?吐温离开了那支队伍。 他乘驿站马车来到西部，在内华达州的华苏地区受到当时正流行的淘金热的诱惑。同那只有既幸运而又锲而不舍的追求者才能取得的巨大财富三心二意地打了八个月交道之后，他遭到了失败。在破产和灰心之余，他接受了为弗吉尼亚市
Class Four Katherine Topic: Abolition of the death penalty Thesis: The Chinese government should take steps to abolish the death penalty. Ⅰ. Introduction A.Definition of the death penalty B.History of the death penalty in China C.Thesis statement Ⅱ. Necessities of abolishing the death penalty in China A.The global trend 1.Consideration of the human rights 2.Quotations from the celebrities 3.Example of abolishing the death penalty abroad B.Defectiveness of the death penalty 1.Racial inequality 2.Economic inequality 3.Erroneous judgment 4.Ineffective deterrence C.Home Requirement 1.Attitudes of the party concerned 2.The need to build a harmonious society Ⅲ. Necessities of taking steps A.The enormous population and the lack of infrastructure construction B.Economic condition C.Public order condition D.Legislative condition E.Judicial condition F.Social psychology Ⅳ. How to take steps A.Revision of the laws B.Reformation of the judicature C.Promote people’s conception of the death penalty D.Promote leaders’ conception of the death penalty Ⅴ. Conclusion A.Summary of above information B.Restate thesis in different words C.Closing remark
外国语学院英语系 英语学术论文写作课程论文 题目:The Correlation between English Majors’ English Learning Motivation and Their Learning Strategies 姓名: 学号： 班级：2011级6班 日期: 2013年12月 评 语
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Contents Abstract (i) 摘要 (ii) 1.Introduction (1) 1.1 Background of the Study (1) 1.2 Significance of the Study (2) 1.3 Purpose of the Study (2) 1.4 Overview of the Thesis (2) 2.Literature Review (3) 2.1Research on English Learning Motivation (3) 2.1.1 Definition of ELM (3) 2.1.2 Classification of ELM (4) 2.1.2.1 Integrative Motivation and Instrumental Motivation (4) 2.1.2.2 Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation (5) 2.1.2.3 The Relationship between the Two Motivational Dichotomies.6 2.2 Research on English Learning Strategies (6) 2.2.1 Definition of ELS (7) 2.2.2 Classification of ELS (7) 2.3 Research on the Relationship of English Learning Motivation and English Learning strategies (10) 3. Methodology (11) 3.1Question.... . (11) 3.2 Subjects (12) 3.3 Instruments (12) 3.4 Data Collection (13) 3.5 Data Analysis (13) 4.Results and Discussion (13) 4.1 Results from ELM Questionnaire (13) 4.2 Results from ELS Questionnaire (16)