建筑电气
电气工程设计包括两个主要的设计方面。主要是一部分的电能的转换及分配和电力的供配、照明系统、防雷接地系统。一般来说,建筑主要的变化包括:高压和低压配电系统、变压器、备用电源系统。电力系统包括配电和控制，室内和室外照明系统包括所有类型的照明，防雷系统包括入侵波防护、闪电传感器、接地、等电位连接和局部等电位连接等。辅助等电位连接等。在短短的20年里,系统在技术和产品的面貌发生了翻天覆地的变化。许多的设计理念也发生了巨大的变化。开关设备如高压系统的第一个断路器油断路器，后来油断路器的逐步发展,不仅规模大,但是一般都包含油物质。由于开关设备尺寸较大,我们还必须建立独立的设备房间,占据了大量的建筑面积。现在真空断路器和六氟化硫断路器,不仅体积小,而且短路容量大，外壳尺寸远小于原来的橱柜，并且断路器没有任何油,防火性能大大提高。而且断路器和其他低压设备在一个房间里,这样即节省空间又方便管理。过去大容量的低压断路器,短路电流容量逐渐变大,规模也逐渐变小,而且更加稳定,使系统运行更加安全可靠,为设计带来了方便。向着智能化低压断路器方向发展,断路器各种参数可以通过总线工业控制,信号直接传输到计算机。
干式变压器的出现,对建筑电气设计带来了极大的方便,因为没有变压器油泄漏和火灾的可能性,以便它可以很容易地安装在建筑本身,甚至直接到负荷中心。它还消除变压器对油的需求限制,构建大容量设备时可以使用干式变压器。在实际工程设计中曾应用四个台湾2500kVA干式变压器。
在使用紧急发电机方面,从性能和尺寸的角度来看,比过去进步很多。除了使用柴油发电机；应急照明使用EPS备用电源；中断供电在一个毫秒以内的设备,可以使用UPS。
电力设备的控制从单一元件的控制到控制继电器控制变化。除了更好的性能的各种组件的规模较小,也降低控制箱的规模。由于数字技术更多的运用于控制能达到最佳的控制状态来控制设备。进一步提高了节能的效果。
照明系统从过去单一光源、灯具和低效率的状态向更广泛的前景发展。建筑中使用的光源可供选择的品种数量很多。光的发光效率和色调在向着高效的方向发展,灯具不断地改进其效率和不同形式的灯具运用于不同场合。例如,普通的荧光灯镇流器由普通的镇流器向节能型镇流器方向发展。还对谐波组件的大小进行精简,生产低谐波电子镇流器。许多措施如配件和灯具的使用,可以满足设计要求,同时能实现不同的体系结构、照明要求的各种场所。无论照明和室内装饰照明还
是道路照明和户外庭院建筑的光照明,所有的都展示了照明技术的发展和建筑照明的好处与便利。
另一个设计使用于电气设备和其他设备,如双电源开关的互投。与传统的专业生产产品相比,除了传统的功率切换外,双电源还能满足每个其他电子设备的需要,极大地提高供电的可靠性和连续性。
电力电缆和电线是被广泛使用的产品。过去的电线电缆,种类稀少。现在引入各种电缆,从普通阻燃PVC电缆到耐火、少烟无卤、防电磁干扰环境的电缆等。导线材料从普通的矿物绝缘绝缘材料到总线绝缘,高效绝缘等分支机构。电力建设中这些技术是安全、可靠、方便的,提供了一个有效的环境保护。
针对特殊需求分布、建设的一些新设备得到了广泛的应用。例如大型医院手术室医疗机构漏电保护、漏电监测系统等。
技术的发展强大在很多地方都有显现如实际工程和技术人员,以及我们自己的经验。如此巨大的发展为中国的电力建设和电力建设安全使用奠定了良好的基础也创造了条件。
随着建筑智能化技术的深入应用,一些设备、系统控制和控制系统已逐渐成为一个专业性的监控,并具有开放建筑设备监控系统通信协议、互联网和通信系统。建筑物内如自动功率控制系统,采用现场总线技术的数据采集和处理,集中控制变量分配系统实现远程监控和远程控制以及远程无人变电站的实现。连续收集和分析系统能提前给出建议或警告,以方便系统的安全运行。自动功率控制系统利用计算机技术、信息技术、控制技术、传感器技术、通信网络技术、电力电子技术等综合技术,它基本上可以取代传统的二次回路而且接线简单、性能可靠、易于维护。与此同时,根据建筑的能耗进行的第二次重大节能照明控制系统也会逐步实现。专业照明控制系统已经广泛应用于许多建筑物。照明控制由一个实时传感器控制定时控制。此外,现场控制、远程控制和控制多种灵活的控制现场,达到最大的能量利用,同时实现功能和人性化的舒适的照明系统。
各种建筑标准也相应出台，如1980年代末《标准建筑设计防火规范》GBJ16-87；1990年代《民用建筑照明设计标准》GBJ133-90；《民用建筑电气设计规范》JGJ/ T16 - 92；《工业企业照明设计标准》GB50034 - 92；《高层民用建筑设计防火规范》GB50045 - 95；《供配电系统设计规范》GB50052 - 95；《l0kV及以下变电所设计规范》GB50053 - 94；《低压配电设计规范》GB50054 - 95；《通用用电设备设计规范》GB50055 - 93；《建筑物防雷设计规范》GB50057-94等等。紧随后
的是建筑电气设计基础建设电气设计的标准化。
智能建筑技术只是一种手段，配备智能功能、强调效率、能耗低、更干净,真正实现以人为本。在实现节能的前提下,提高建筑的功能、环境保护和可持续发展的目标。构建可持续发展的实现从战略的角度来看,注重环境保护，保持生态系统稳定。可持续发展是一个永恒的主题，经过多年的实践,在一个理性和务实的态度下,以实际需要和实际应用为标准,不是盲目地追随片面而是追求全面、先进的智能系统,在技术上做到领先。设计需做了合理的投资,使用不同的功能。根据投资和管理需求的具体情况来确定先进的、可靠的、经济合理的和最优的方案，这个概念现在已经成为智能建筑行业的共识。建筑智能技术使所有的学院和大学的建设开辟了这一技术相应的专业课程和促进了相关专业学生的发展。
智能建筑技术包括:建筑设备自动控制系统、安全系统、停车场管理系统、火灾自动报警和消防系统、通信和计算机网络系统、综合布线系统、广播系统、有线电视系统、视频会议系统等,超过10个子系统的集成。是我国第一个独立于国内建筑智能技术系统集成子系统的开发。
1、20世纪的建筑设备监控系统的发展由1980年代的集中监控开始,由于可靠性差、速度慢，1990年代后已经很少使用,并取代了分布式控制。在1990年代末,随着计算机技术、控制技术、网络和通信技术开发和集成,监控施工设备技术发展迅速。
2、安全技术和安全措施也逐步发展,包括中央监控、入侵警报、访问控制(门)、巡逻削减等更多的周边防御和其他子系统。安全系统从最初的子系统相互独立的到各子系统之间相互联系。大大增加了安全性、可靠性和实时为人们的工作、学习和生活安全保障。闭路电视监控系统从模拟到数字的方向发展,整个安全系统的规模也在运动数字系统、集成的方向发展。
3、运用通信网络技术的智能建筑通信网络,包括计算机网络、双向有线电视传输网络和电话通讯网络。前两个智能网络作为一个宽带主干网络把几乎所有的信息技术和信息资源管理的几乎所有的用户连接到一起。在1990年代中期之前，有一个为所有类型的网络和用户的市场。但在1990年代末,由于以太网连接的灵活性和优越的性能、易于维护和使用等优点,ICT网络逐渐在列表中。以太网传输速率,从最初的10Mbps,100Mbps 到1 Gbps,10Gbps甚至更高的利率。智能建筑电话网络(ISDN,SL)目前用于语音通信、数据和图像的窄带宽数据通信,它让人们通过通信网络、电视、电话会议等功能实现相互交流。智能访问技术的关键是与
外界建立联系,它使世界变得越来越小。人们的工作、生活发生了剧大的变化。智能建筑访问网络或互联网,越来越多的高带宽需求的接收,满足日益增长的用户需求数据通信。在有线电视网络的发展同时,无线网络由于其灵活性,也进入了一个快速发展阶段。从2003年的基于最初的路线的轮询策略的研究到现在超过100兆赫。移动互联网正为人们提供很大的方便,并在许多领域发展潜力巨大，网络正在成为趋势。
4、综合布线技术PDS是智能建筑数据、语音和多媒体的通信平台。综合布线技术进入中国市场以来,因其优异的性能,并且对于智能建筑的国内市场来说是一个新概念、新技术,在建筑业立即引起了巨大的反响。该技术已广泛应用于所有类型的智能建筑。为了满足网络传输带宽和新产品的开发速度，PDS引入3线、5线到6线,甚至提高标准到七线系统的产品,以满足千兆网络的需求。提高网络的传输速率,以适应已经投入10G网络市场的发展。新的多模和单模光纤传输媒介作为一个很好的材料将被广泛使用。从铜线、光纤电缆、技术和产品的不断更新，PDS充分反映了智能建筑的快速发展,新技术的应用和广阔的发展前景。
5、智能建筑系统集成技术一般连接各个子网络。每个子系统的操作预计将完成他们的工作,但尚未达到共享信息资源。为了实现有效的管理,各个子系统之间的信息资源共享、系统集成。在系统集成过程中,选择平台集成、网络结构、集成子系统的范围是不同的、集成模型也是不同的。随着计算机技术、网络技术、控制技术、显示技术的发展,建筑设备监控系统和其他系统通过计算机网络连接。完成基于建筑设备监控系统的系统集成模式。平等的在各自的系统集成,建立一个网络管理系统集成。作为一个子系统可以降低现场控制网络集成。实时数据子系统、开放、行业标准接口,转换成统一的格式存储在数据库或服务器系统集成。综合网络管理系统实现统一管理子系统程序、监控和信息交换系统集成, 系统集成实现协议的各个子系统之间的联系有关控制和信息共享。提高管理效率,增强处理突发事件的能力和节约能源的目的、节省人力。这是建筑设备管理系统(BMS)。系统集成不是我们的目的,而是为了增强建筑的功能和技术手段,提高管理效率,整合内容不是更好,但根据使用和管理的需要,以及成熟的技术,该系统是可靠和合理的投资。有效管理的前提是集成的需求。
(6)智能住宅区
1990年代国际电子智能住宅提出的理念。智能建筑技术逐渐蔓延到居民区,在最初几个经济较发达的沿海城市已经成功。智能技术开始建设居住小区的住宅
和公共建筑。智能建筑智能技术迅速扩展,已成为智能建筑发展的一个重要市场。公共建筑和住宅智能化,这是市场的需求,也是实际的发展需求。智能设计研究所将中国住宅将放在一个重要位置,为住宅提供一个智能平台。住宅的智能设计是先进的和具有挑战性的领域。住宅小区智能化技术的发展可以分为以下方面:系统设计强调以人为本的设计理念,应该迎合居民所有级别的方便、安全、舒适和处理功能的要求，处理好先进和实用之间的关系和合理的投资。安全系统从一个单独的安全子系统为家庭和社区结合防御到国防安全的技术体系。从单个运营商宽带访问信息、通信模式选项、xD-SL宽带接入网络、一个双向有线电视网络,形成地区计算机网络发展。当地居民可以享受信息和通讯服务从一个宽带互联网服务地区接收更多的局域网的延伸增值服务。机电设备的自动监控、电子水位远程复制、音频和视频系统、信息技术和其他物业管理系统，区域居民的生活环境和生活质量大大提高。智能家居的应用,当地居民实际生活经验的信息时代,各种各样的便利和各种各样的家庭办公室,网络概念已成为一个现实的生活。
Building Electrical
Electrical construction including two strong design elements include : a part of the transformation and distribution system. power and lighting systems, mine grounding system.In general, building key changes include : high-voltage and low-voltage distribution systems, transformers, standby power system. power systems including power distribution and control; indoor and outdoor lighting system include all types of lighting; Lightning Protection System including mine waves penetrated, lightning sensors, grounded,equipotential bonding and local equipotential bonding. Auxiliary equipotential bonding and so on. In such a short span of 20 years, the system has undergone enormous changes in technology and products. Many of the design concept has also undergone tremendous changes. Swichgear such as high pressure system, the first circuit breaker to the oil circuit breakers. After the progressive development of the oil circuit breakers, is not only large in size, but did not fire. Swichgear are larger allocation, we must also set up independently in heir own rooms, occupied a lot of the construction area. Now a vacuum circuit breaker andSF6 circuit breakers, is not only small size but also high-capacity short-circuit. enclosure size is a lot smaller than the original cabinets, circuit breakers without any oil, fire performance greatly improved. with a total of home and other low-voltage equipment in a room, saving both space and convenience of management. The large volume of low-voltage circuit breaker from the past, the development of small to large short-circuit current capacity, the ability to continue to score small in size, stable, which makes the system more secure and reliable, and designed to bring the convenience. Intelligent direction toward another recent low voltage circuit breaker, breaker various parameters can be controlled through the bus industry, Signals transmitted to the computer directly.
The emergence of dry-type transformers, electrical design for the building posed a great convenience, Because there is no possibility of transformer oil spills and fires, so that it can be easily installed in the building itself, even go directly to the load center. It also eliminated restrictions on capacity building in the transformer oil, building greater capacity for dry-type transformers can be used. In the designs of the project, on the application of four Taiwan2500kV A dry-type transformers.
Used emergency power generators, from the performance and size perspective,there is a lot of progress than in the past. In addition to the use of diesel generators works, as emergency lighting, we use EPS. Allowing a millisecond interruption in the supply of equipment, we can use UPS.
Power equipment controlled from a single control to the control relay. Apart from the better performance of various components that are smaller in size and so reduce the volume control box, As a result of the digital technology is more controlled and controlled state control equipment at its best. further the energy saving effect.
Lighting Project is a single source from the past, light lamps and the low efficiency of state toward even broader prospects. The light source used in the building are a number of varieties to choose from, toward a luminous efficiency of light, light color, develop in the direction of high color-rendering index, and lamps
have been continuously improved its efficiency and allocation-form so that the application of different occasions.for example, the fluorescent lamp ballasts Inductance ballasts from the ordinary inductance ballasts to energy-saving electronic ballasts. but also against the size of the harmonic components, to produce low harmonic electronic ballasts. Many technologies, accessories and lamps, can satisfy the design and design options, and fully meet the varied architecture, Lighting requirements for the various sites. Regardless of the lighting or indoor decorative lighting.Whether or road lighting and outdoor courtyard of the building of light illumination, all of the show lighting technology to the development of the architectural lighting benefits and convenience.
Another design used in electrical devices and other equipment, such as co-switching power supply switch of mutual investment. from the traditional production of specialized products,in addition to the conventional power switching meet, also a dual power supply can meet each other electronic equipment investment, greatly increasing the reliability and continuity of supply.
Electric power supply cables and wires is widely used products. Look past the wire and cable samples, the species is scarce, and now, introducing various cable, From ordinary to the flame-retardant PVC cables, fire resistance, Low-smoke halogen-free cable-radiation environment; Insulation materials to the mineral insulated from the ordinary; Bus Bus closed to regular insulation, pre-cable, etc. branches. Electrical construction of these technologies are safe, reliable, convenient, providing an effective environmental protection.
Targeting special needs of the construction of distribution, some new device has been widely applied. For example, large hospital operating room medical establishments leakage protection, residual current monitoring system.
The development of the technology for strong, and it is obvious to the engineering and technical personnel, as well as our own experience. Such a great development for China's construction of electrical construction and laying a good foundation also created the conditions for the construction of safe use of electricity Along with the deepening of building intelligent technology applications, some of the equipment or system control, The control system has gradually become a professional monitor, and open its construction equipment monitoring and control system communication protocol. reach of the Internet and communications systems. Buildings such as the automatic power control system, using field bus technology data acquisition and processing, centralized control Variable distribution system to reach the remote monitoring, remote control that remote control and remote, unmanned substation achieve. Continuous collection and analysis systems, the necessary advice or warning is given in advance to facilitate the safe operation of the system. Automatic power control system using computer technology, information technology, control technology, sensor technology, communications networking technology,Power electronics technologies, it can basically replace the traditional secondary loop is the wiring simple, reliable performance and easy maintenance. Meanwhile, the energy consumption of buildings in the second major energy-efficient lighting control system will also be paying. professional lighting control systems have been widely used in
many buildings. Lighting control from a single real-time sensors to control the timing control,reduced-control development. In addition, scene control, remote control, and control a variety of flexible control of the scene, to achieve the maximum energy, while also achieving a comfortable lighting systems, functional and humane For example, the late 1980s "compiled by the architectural design of fire safety regulations," GBJl6-87; 1990s, the "civil Lighting Design Standards" GBJl33-90; JGJ/16-92;"civil Electrical Design Standards" "Lighting design standards of industrial enterprises"GB50034-92; "Architectural Design Standards" GB50045-95; "Supply and Distribution System Design Standards" GB50052-95; "l0kV substation design and below" GB50053-94;"Low V oltage Distribution Design Standards" GB50054-95; "Universal design of electricity distribution equipment," GB50055-93; GB50057-94 "Building mine design," and so on. To be followed by the construction of electrical design basis for the construction of electrical taken as olid step toward standardization Intelligent technology is only a means of building is equipped with intelligent functions,stressing efficiency, low energy consumption. Cleaner, in the true realization of people-centered, under the premise of achieving energy conservation, enhance building's function, protection of the environment and sustainable development goals. Building the implementation of sustainable development from a strategic perspective, ecosystem, emphasis on environmental protection. Sustainable development is an eternal theme. Through years of practice, in a rational and pragmatic attitude, from the actual needs, and practical application of the standards, not blindly follow the one-sided pursuit of a comprehensive and advanced intelligent systems, but technically ahead. The design also done a reasonable investment, the use of different functions. investment and management requirements of the specific situation,identify advanced, reliability, Economic rationality and the optimal point of this concept now has become the intelligent building industry consensus. Building Intelligent technology,which will enable the construction of all colleges and universities have opened up this technology corresponding professional courses and the development of relevant professional students.
Intelligent Building Technology include : construction equipment automatic control system, security system, the car park management system, automatic fire alarm and fire system that communications and computer network systems, integrated wiring system,broadcasting system, cable systems, video conferencing systems and the number of meetings，more than 10 sub-system integration. The first independent from the domestic building intelligent technology to the development of systems integration subsystem.
(1) Construction equipment monitoring technology 20th century mainly concentrated monitoring of the 1980s, due to poor reliability, speed slow After the 1990s has been rarely used, and have been replaced by the Distributed Control. In the late 1990s, as computer technology, control technology, network and communications technology development and integration, Monitoring construction equipment technology has been developing rapidly
(2)security technology Safety precautions, including CCTV, intrusion alarm, access control (doors), patrolling,cuts more perimeter defense and other
subsystems. Security systems from the initial subsystem independent of each other, to present the linkage between the various subsystems.greatly increased the tight security, reliability and real-time for the people's work, studying and living with a security guarantee. CCTV Surveillance System from analog to digital direction of the past, size of the entire security system is also moving system, digital,integrated direction
(3)communication network technology Intelligent Building communications networks, including computer networks, two-way cable TV transmission networks and telephone communications network. The first two intelligent building as a broadband backbone network to focus almost all of its information technology and information resource management Almost all of the users are connected to the station. Before the mid-1990s, in the 20th century, there is a market for all types of networks and users. But in the late 1990s, with reasonable investment Ethernet wiring flexibility, and superior performance, ease of maintenance and use of such advantages, ICT networks gradually in the list. Ethernet transmission rate, from the initial 10Mbps,100Mbps to 1Gbps.10Gbps even higher rate. Intelligent Building Telephone Network (ISDN, xI) SL), currently used for voice communication, also both data and images narrowband data communications,it makes people through communication networks, TV, telephone conference and other functions. Smart Access technology is the key to building links with the outside, it makes visible the world is becoming smaller and smaller. people's work, life has undergone a drastic change. Intelligent Building Access Network or the Internet, more and more high-bandwidth requirements of the receiving, to meet the increasing demand for user data communications.In the development of the cable network, a wireless network with the flexibility of receiving,entered a rapid development stage. From 2003 through the Study of Polling Strategy Based on the original Route to now, over to 100 megahertz. Mobile Internet access for people with a great convenience, and in many areas with great potential for development. network is becoming the trend
(4)integrated wiring technology PDS is intelligent building data, voice and multimedia communications platform. Since the technology into China's market, because of its excellent performance, Intelligent Building to the domestic market, a new concept, new technology, and immediately aroused tremendous repercussions in the construction industry. has been widely used in all types of intelligent building. To meet the network transmission bandwidth and speed the development of new products PDS fresh from the first three lines, Category 5 to 6 lines, or even in advance of the standard seven Cabling System products to meet the demand for gigabit networks. With a transmission rate of the network upgrade, in order to adapt to its fiber network has already been put into the development of the 10G market, The new multi-mode and single-mode fiber transmission medium as a good will be widely used. Copper from five to three over the five,six or even higher categories, from copper wire to fiber optic cable, technology and products continuously updated. Ting fully reflects the rapid development of the intelligent building and the application of new technologies and broad prospects.
(5)System Integration Technology Intelligent Building of each subsystem in general linking their respective networks, The operation is expected to complete their
work stations, but has not yet reached the sharing of information resources. In order to achieve efficient management, sharing of information resources between the various subsystems, and system integration. In the systems integration process, the choice of platform integration, network structure,The scope of integrated subsystems are different, with different integration models. With computer technology, network technology, control technology, the development of display technology, Building equipment monitoring and control system and other systems linked through computer networks. The resulting construction equipment monitoring system based systems integration mode. There is equality in their respective systems integration, and establish a network management system integration. as a subsystem to lower the scene control network integration and equal manner. Real-time data subsystem, open, industry-standard interface, converted into a uniform format stored in the database or server system integration.Integrated network management system to achieve unified management subsystem procedures, monitoring and information exchange Systems integration, in order to achieve agreement on the opening of the linkage between the various subsystems related to the control and information sharing. improved management efficiency, enhance capacity to deal with emergencies, and the purpose of saving energy and manpower savings. This is the construction equipment management system (BMS). System integration is not our aim, but to enhance the building's function and the technical means to improving management efficiency, Integrated content is not the better, but according to the use and management of the needs of the mature technology, the system is reliable and reasonable investment. Efficient management of the premise that demand integration
(6) intelligent residential areas
20th century and the 1990s by the international electronic smart residential housing ideas,Intelligent Building Technology gradually spread to residential areas, in the first few economies in the more developed coastal cities has been successful. Intelligent Technology began construction of residential and public buildings to residential quarter, Intelligent building intelligent technology to rapidly extend, which has become an important market for the development of intelligent buildings. From public buildings to residential intelligent intelligent, which is the demand of the market, as well as practical development needs.Intelligent Design Institute is the country will put on an important position in the residential,residential to provide a platform for intelligent, Residential and intelligent design is cutting-edge and challenging area. Residential District intelligent technology development can be categorized into the following areas : system design emphasizes people-oriented design concepts, residents should cater to all levels of convenience, safety and comfort and handling the relationship between advanced and practical relationship Function Deployment and reasonable investment. Security system from a separate Security Subsystem for family and neighborhood Combining the technologies of defense and defense Security system.Broadband Access information communications from a single operator mode for more options, xD-SL broadband access network, a two-way cable network to form district computer network development, Area residents can enjoy the information and communication services from a single
译文资料： 机器人 首先我介绍一下机器人产生的背景，机器人技术的发展，它应该说是一个科学技术发展共同的一个综合性的结果，同时，为社会经济发展产生了一个重大影响的一门科学技术，它的发展归功于在第二次世界大战中各国加强了经济的投入，就加强了本国的经济的发展。另一方面它也是生产力发展的需求的必然结果，也是人类自身发展的必然结果，那么随着人类的发展，人们在不断探讨自然过程中，在认识和改造自然过程中，需要能够解放人的一种奴隶。那么这种奴隶就是代替人们去能够从事复杂和繁重的体力劳动，实现人们对不可达世界的认识和改造，这也是人们在科技发展过程中的一个客观需要。 机器人有三个发展阶段，那么也就是说，我们习惯于把机器人分成三类，一种是第一代机器人，那么也叫示教再现型机器人，它是通过一个计算机，来控制一个多自由度的一个机械，通过示教存储程序和信息，工作时把信息读取出来，然后发出指令，这样的话机器人可以重复的根据人当时示教的结果，再现出这种动作，比方说汽车的点焊机器人，它只要把这个点焊的过程示教完以后，它总是重复这样一种工作，它对于外界的环境没有感知，这个力操作力的大小，这个工件存在不存在，焊的好与坏，它并不知道，那么实际上这种从第一代机器人，也就存在它这种缺陷，因此，在20世纪70年代后期，人们开始研究第二代机器人，叫带感觉的机器人，这种带感觉的机器人是类似人在某种功能的感觉，比如说力觉、触觉、滑觉、视觉、听觉和人进行相类比，有了各种各样的感觉，比方说在机器人抓一个物体的时候，它实际上力的大小能感觉出来，它能够通过视觉，能够去感受和识别它的形状、大小、颜色。抓一个鸡蛋，它能通过一个触觉，知道它的力的大小和滑动的情况。第三代机器人，也是我们机器人学中一个理想的所追求的最高级的阶段，叫智能机器人，那么只要告诉它做什么，不用告诉它怎么去做，它就能完成运动，感知思维和人机通讯的这种功能和机能，那么这个目前的发展还是相对的只是在局部有这种智能的概念和含义，但真正完整意义的这种智能机器人实际上并没有存在，而只是随着我们不断的科学技术的发展，智能的概念越来越丰富，它内涵越来越宽。 下面我简单介绍一下我国机器人发展的基本概况。由于我们国家存在很多其
人工智能的形成及其发展现状分析 冯海东 （长江大学管理学院荆州434023） 摘要：人工智能的历史并不久远，故将从人工智能的出现、形成、发展现 状及前景几个方面对其进行分析，总结其发展过程中所出现的问题，以及发展现状中的不足之处，分析其今后的发展方向。 关键词：人工智能，发展过程，现状分析，前景。 一．引言 人工智能最早是在1936年被英国的科学家图灵提出，并不为多数人所认知。 当时，他编写了一个下象棋的程序，这就是最早期的人工智能的应用。也有著名的“图灵测试”，这也是最初判断是否是人工智能的方案,因此，图灵被尊称为“人工智能之父”。人工智能从产生到发展经历了一个起伏跌宕的过程，直到目前为止，人工智能的应用技术也不是很成熟，而且存在相当的缺陷。 通过搜集的资料，将详细的介绍人工智能这个领域的具体情况，剖析其面临的挑战和未来的前景。 二．人工智能的发展历程 1. 1956年前的孕育期 (1) 从公元前伟大的哲学家亚里斯多德(Aristotle)到16世纪英国哲学家培根(F. Bacon)，他们提出的形式逻辑的三段论、归纳法以及“知识就是力量”的警句，都对人类思维过程的研究产生了重要影响。 （2）17世纪德国数学家莱布尼兹(G..Leibniz)提出了万能符号和推理计算思想，为数理逻辑的产生和发展奠定了基础，播下了现代机器思维设计思想的种子。而19世纪的英国逻辑学家布尔（G. Boole）创立的布尔代数，实现了用符号语言描述人类思维活动的基本推理法则。 （3） 20世纪30年代迅速发展的数学逻辑和关于计算的新思想，使人们在计算机出现之前，就建立了计算与智能关系的概念。被誉为人工智能之父的英国天才的数学家图灵（A. Tur-ing）在1936年提出了一种理想计算机的数学模型，即图灵机之后,1946年就由美国数学家莫克利（J. Mauchly）和埃柯特（J. Echert）研制出了世界上第一台数字计算机，它为人工智能的研究奠定了不可缺少的物质基础。1950年图灵又发表了“计算机与智能”的论文，提出了著名的“图灵测试”，形象地指出什么是人工智能以及机器具有智能的标准，对人工智能的发展产生了极其深远的影响。 （4） 1934年美国神经生理学家麦克洛奇(W. McCulloch) 和匹兹(W. Pitts )建立了第一个神经网络模型，为以后的人工神经网络研究奠定了基础。 2. 1956年至1969年的诞生发育期 (1)1956年夏季，麻省理工学院（MIT)的麦卡锡（J．McCarthy）、明斯基（M. Minshy）、塞尔夫里奇（O. Selfridge)与索罗门夫(R. Solomonff)、 IBM的洛
人工智能 【摘要】：人工智能是一门极富挑战性的科学，但也是一门边沿学科。它属于自然科学和社会科学的交叉。涉及的学科主要有哲学、认知科学、数学、神经生理学、心理学、计算机科学、信息论、控制论、不定性论、仿生学等。人工智能(Artificial Intelligence)，英文缩写为AI。它是研究、开发用于模拟、延伸和扩展人的智能的理论、方法、技术及应用系统的一门新的技术科学。人工智能是计算机科学的一个分支，它企图了解智能的实质，并生产出一种新的能以人类智能相似的方式做出反应的智能机器，该领域的研究包括机器人、语言识别、图像识别、自然语言处理和专家系统等1。 【关键词】：人工智能；应用领域；发展方向；人工检索。 1．人工智能描述 人工智能(Artificial Intelligence) ，英文缩写为AI。它是研究、开发用于模拟、延伸和扩展人的智能的理论、方法、技术及应用系统的一门新的技术科学2。人工智能是计 算机科学的一个分支，它企图了解智 能的实质，并生产出一种新的能以人 类智能相似的方式作出反应的智能 机器，该领域的研究包括机器人、语 言识别、图像识别、自然语言处理和 专家系统等。“人工智能”一词最初 是在1956 年Dartmouth学会上提出 的。从那以后,研究者们发展了众多 理论和原理,人工智能的概念也随之扩展。人工智能是一门极富挑战性的科学，从事这项工作的人必须懂得计算机知识，心理学和哲学。人工智能是包括十分广泛的科学，它由不同的领域组成，如机器学习，计算机视觉等等，总的说来，人工智能研究的一个主要目标是使机器能够胜任一些通常需要人类智能才能完成的复杂工作。但不同的时代、不同的人对这种“复杂工作”的理解是不同的。例如繁重的科学和工程计算本来是要人脑来承担的，现在计算机不但能完成这种计算, 而且能够比人脑做得更快、更准确，因之当代人已不再把这种计算看作是“需要人类智能才能完成的复 1.蔡自兴，徐光祐.人工智能及其应用.北京：清华大学出版社，2010 2元慧·议当人工智能的应用领域与发展状态〖Ｊ〗．2008
附件 毕业生毕业论文(设计)翻译原文 论文题目远程农作物病虫害诊断专家系统的设计与实现系别_____ ______ _ 年级______ _ _ _ _ _ 专业_____ ___ ___ 学生姓名______ _____ 学号 ___ __ _ 指导教师______ ___ _ __ _ 职称______ __ ___ 系主任 _________________ _ _ ___ 2012年 04月22 日
EXPERT SYSTEMS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Expert Systems are computer programs that are derived from a branch of computer science research called Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI's scientific goal is to understand intelligence by building computer programs that exhibit intelligent behavior. It is concerned with the concepts and methods of symbolic inference, or reasoning, by a computer, and how the knowledge used to make those inferences will be represented inside the machine. Of course, the term intelligence covers many cognitive skills, including the ability to solve problems, learn, and understand language; AI addresses all of those. But most progress to date in AI has been made in the area of problem solving -- concepts and methods for building programs that reason about problems rather than calculate a solution. AI programs that achieve expert-level competence in solving problems in task areas by bringing to bear a body of knowledge about specific tasks are called knowledge-based or expert systems. Often, the term expert systems is reserved for programs whose knowledge base contains the knowledge used by human experts, in contrast to knowledge gathered from textbooks or non-experts. More often than not, the two terms, expert systems (ES) and knowledge-based systems (KBS), are used synonymously. Taken together, they represent the most widespread type of AI application. The area of human intellectual endeavor to be captured in an expert system is called the task domain. Task refers to some goal-oriented, problem-solving activity. Domain refers to the area within which the task is being performed. Typical tasks are diagnosis, planning, scheduling, configuration and design. An example of a task domain is aircraft crew scheduling, discussed in Chapter 2. Building an expert system is known as knowledge engineering and its practitioners are called knowledge engineers. The knowledge engineer must make sure that the computer has all the knowledge needed to solve a problem. The knowledge engineer must choose one or more forms in which to represent the required knowledge as symbol patterns in the memory of the computer -- that is, he (or she) must choose a knowledge representation. He must also ensure that the computer can use the knowledge efficiently by selecting from a handful of reasoning methods. The practice of knowledge engineering is described later. We first describe the components of expert systems. The Building Blocks of Expert Systems Every expert system consists of two principal parts: the knowledge base; and the reasoning, or inference, engine.
人工智能研究方法的文献综述 1、前言 本文综述了人工智能的主要研究方法，并对各方法进行分析和总结，并阐述了目前人工智能研究方法日趋多样化的研究现状。 2、主题 研究方法，对一个问题的研究方法从根本上说分为两种：其一，对要解决的问题扩展到他所隶属的领域，对该领域做一广泛了解，研究该领域从而实现对该领域的研究，讲究广度，从对该领域的广泛研究收缩到问题本身；其二，把研究的问题特殊化，提炼出要研究问题的典型子问题或实例，从一个更具体的问题出发，做深刻的分析，研究透彻该问题，再一般化扩展到要解决的问题，讲究研究深度，从更具体的问题入手研究扩展到问题本身。 人工智能的研究方法主要可以分为三类：一、结构模拟，神经计算，就是根据人脑的生理结构和工作机理，实现计算机的智能，即人工智能。结构模拟法也就是基于人脑的生理模型，采用数值计算的方法，从微观上来模拟人脑，实现机器智能。采用结构模拟，运用神经网络和神经计算的方法研究人工智能者，被称为生理学派、连接主义。二、功能模拟，符号推演，就是在当前数字计算机上，对人脑从功能上进行模拟，实现人工智能。功能模拟法就是以人脑的心理模型，将问题或知识表示成某种逻辑网络，采用符号推演的方法，实现搜索、推理、学习等功能，从宏观上来模拟人脑的思维，实现机器智能。以功能模拟和符号推演研究人工智能者，被称为心理学派、逻辑学派、符号主义。三、行为模拟，控制进化，就是模拟人在控制过程中的智能活动和行为特性。以行为模拟方法研究人工智能者，被称为行为主义、进化主义、控制论学派。 人工智能的研究方法，已从“一枝独秀”的符号主义发展到多学派的“百花争艳”，除了上面提到的三种方法，又提出了“群体模拟，仿生计算”“博采广鉴，自然计算”“原理分析，数学建模”等方法。人工智能的目标是理解包括人在内的自然智能系统及行为，而这样的系统在实在世界中是以分层进化的方式形成了一个谱系，而智能作为系统的整体属性，其表现形式又具有多样性，人工智能的谱系及其多样性的行为注定了研究的具体目标和对象的多样性。人工智能与前沿技术的结合，使人工智能的研究日趋多样化。 3、总结 人工智能的研究方法会随着技术的进步而不断丰富，很多新名词还会被提出，但研究的目的基本不变，日趋多样化的研究方法追根溯源也就是研究问题的两种方法的演变。对人工智能中尚未解决的众多问题，运用基本的研究问题的方法，结合先进的技术，不断实现智能化。人工智能与前沿技术密切联系，人工智能的研究方法必然日趋多样化。 4、参考文献 （1）人工智能技术导论廉师友西安电子科技大学出版社2007.8 （2）人工智能研究方法及途径熊才权2005年第三期 （3）人工智能学派及其在理论、方法上的观点蔡自兴1995.5 （4）人工智能研究的主要学派及特点黄伟聂东陈英俊2001第三期 （5）人工智能研究对思维学的方法论启示尹鑫苏国辉2002.10第四期
中英文资料外文翻译文献 基于J2EE在分布式环境下的底层结构的自动动态配置的应用 摘要：为了实现广域网中符合工业标准基于组件的应用程序中动态的可适应性，我们需要一种框架来在这样的环境里自动化地配置J2EE 应用程序。这种需要对于哪怕在单一的应用程序服务器上尝试部署J2EE应用的人来说也显而易见，这种任务设计到大量的系统服务和应用组件的配置。 关键词：j2ee；动态配置；分布式；组件； 1 前言 近几年，我们已经看到基于组件的企业应用开发的显著增加。这种应用程序通常被部署在公司的内部网或者是因特网上，以高事务容量，大量的用户和覆盖范围广的访问为特征，它通常会被部署在中央区域，采用服务器集群来均衡负载从而支持用户下载。但是这种平均负荷的方法被证明只对减少应用转发的用户可以察觉的反应时间有效，而对于减少网络方面的延迟作用不大，垂直分割（例如…运行网络层和事务层在不同的虚拟机）被用于错误分离和均衡负荷，但是它是不符合实际的由于远程调运的大量使用显著地增加了运行时时间。最近的著作已经表明在广域网中利用垂直负荷而不引起前面所述的超时问题的可行性。那非研究的主要结论可以概括如下： (1) 应用合适的应用程序，在广域网中的垂直负荷可以察觉的延迟。 (2) 广域垂直层需要复制应用层组件而且需要维持和原组件间的一致性。 (3) 新加的复制组件可以被动态配置以满足新的需要。 (4) 事实上，不同的复制组件可能会根据应用不同的方式实现相组件。 (5) 新的请求路径可以复用先前的组件配置路径。 应用智能监视和人工智能规划方法再结合那个研究得出的结论，我们看到通过动态布置基于动态监视的额外的应用组件，在广域网中符合工业标准基于组件的应用程序中动态的可适应性是可以实现的。然而，为了实现这种动态可适性，我们需要一种框架来在这样的环境里自动化地配置J2EE 应用程序。这种需要对于哪怕在单一的应用程序服务器上尝试布置J2EE应用的人来说也显而易见，这种任务设计到大量的系统服务和应用组件的配置。例如你必须在配置和部署应用组件前先建立JDBC数据源，设立消息目的地和资源适配器。在需要跨越多个节点服务器的广域网配置中，这将更加复杂，因为
附件四英文文献原文 Artificial Intelligence "Artificial intelligence" is a word was originally Dartmouth in 1956 to put forward. From then on, researchers have developed many theories and principles, the concept of artificial intelligence is also expands. Artificial intelligence is a challenging job of science, the person must know computer knowledge, psychology and philosophy. Artificial intelligence is included a wide range of science, it is composed of different fields, such as machine learning, computer vision, etc, on the whole, the research on artificial intelligence is one of the main goals of the machine can do some usually need to perform complex human intelligence. But in different times and different people in the "complex" understanding is different. Such as heavy science and engineering calculation was supposed to be the brain to undertake, now computer can not only complete this calculation, and faster than the human brain can more accurately, and thus the people no longer put this calculation is regarded as "the need to perform complex human intelligence, complex tasks" work is defined as the development of The Times and the progress of technology, artificial intelligence is the science of specific target and nature as The Times change and development. On the one hand it continues to gain new progress on the one hand, and turning to more meaningful, the more difficult the target. Current can be used to study the main material of artificial intelligence and artificial intelligence technology to realize the machine is a computer, the development history of artificial intelligence is computer science and technology and the development together. Besides the computer science and artificial intelligence also involves information, cybernetics, automation, bionics, biology, psychology, logic, linguistics, medicine and philosophy and multi-discipline. Artificial intelligence research include: knowledge representation, automatic reasoning and search method, machine learning and knowledge acquisition and processing of knowledge system, natural language processing, computer vision, intelligent robot, automatic program design, etc. Practical application of machine vision: fingerprint identification,
课程名称现代文献检索与应用 实验项目人工智能及其发展运用 实验地点电教大楼0933机房 实验学时4实验类型设计型 指导教师李翠霞 专业计算机科学与技术班级2013级计算机本科学号201309024039姓名王斌 2016年4月18日 《人工智能及其发展运用》参考文献
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基于PLC的机械手控制系统 机械工业是国民的装备部，是为国民经济提供装备和为人民生活提供耐用消费品的产业。机械工业的规模和技术水平是衡量国家经济实力和科学技术水平的重要标志。因此，世界各国都把发展机械工业作为发展本国经济的战略重点之一(张志献，2002)。新世纪，生产水平及科学技术的不断进步与发展带动了整个机械工业的快速发展。现代工业中，生产过程的机械化，自动化已成为突出的主题。然而在机械工业中，加工、装配等生产是不连续的。单靠人力将这些不连续的牛产工序衔接起来，不仅费时而且效率不高。同时人的劳动强度非常大，有时还会出现失误及伤害。显然，这严重影响制约了整个生产过程的效率和自动化程度。机械手的应用很好的解决了这一情况，它不存在重复的偶然失误，也能有效的避免了人身事故(杨永清等，2008)。 在机械工业中，机械手的应用具有以下意义。 应用机械手，有利于提高材料的传送、工件的装卸、刀具的更换以及机器的装配等的自动化程度，从而可以提高劳动生产率，降低生产成本，加快实现工业生产机械化和自动化的步伐。 在高温、高压、低温、低压、有灰尘、噪声、臭味、有放射性或有其它毒性污染以及工作空间狭窄等场合中，用人手直接操作是有危险或根本不可能的。而应用机械手即可部分或全部代替人安全地完成作业，大大地改善了工人的劳动条件。同时，在一些动作简单但又重复作业的操作中，以机械手代替人手进行工作，可以避免由于操作疲劳或疏忽而造成的人身事故。 应用机械手代替人手进行工作，这是直接减少人力的一个侧面，同时由于应用机械手可以连续地工作，这是减少人力的另一个侧面。因此，在自动化机床和综合加工自动生产线上目前几乎都设有机械手，以减少人力和更准确地控制生产的节拍，便于有节奏地进行生产。 随着现代工业技术的发展，工业自动化技术也越来越高，工人工作环境和工作内容也要求理想化简单化，对于一些往复的工作由机械手远程控制或自动完成显得非常重要。这样可以避免一些人不能接触的物质对人体造成伤害，如冶金、化工、医药、航空航天等。对于机械手的研究国内外的水平不一，但代表当今最先进的技术在日本，他的自动化，人性化令人叹为观止，这些技术依赖于控制理论、新材料科学，它是融合各种尖端技术的现代机器。我国也陆续在工业中有所应用，对于自动控制，柔性制造系统中应用更为广泛，但我国的自动化水平有待提高，只相当于世界先进技术在八十年代的水平。随着工业现代化的发展，机械手技术也随之提高，发展的趋势是工作强度高，灵活性强，准确可靠，可以自动检测并下达动作命令，融入先进的人工智能，使人只作平时的简单的维护，这也是现代工厂的发展趋势。 目前国内机械手主要用于机床加工、铸锻、热处理等方面，数量、品种、性能方面都不能满足工业生产发展的需要。所以，在国内主要是逐步扩大应用范围，重点发展铸造、热处理方面的机械手，以减轻劳动强度，改善作业条件，在应用专用机械手的同时，相应的发展通用机械手，有条件的还要研制示教式机械手、计算机控制机械手和组合机械手等。同时要提高速度，减少冲击，正确定位，以便更好的发挥机械手的作用。此外还应大力研究伺服型、记忆再现型，以及具有
模拟神经网络的动态学习 模拟电子电路 摘要：在神经网络领域，许多应用模型已经提出了。一个神经芯片和一个人工视网膜芯片的开发，以包括生物医学视觉系统的神经网络模型及其仿真。以前的模拟神经网络模型的运算放大器和固定电阻。改变连接系数是很困难的。在这项研究中， 我们用模拟电子多路电路。连接权重描述输入电压。改变连接系数很容易。该模型的工作原理只有模拟电路。它可以完成学习过程中的一个非常时间短，这种模式将使更灵活的学习。 关键词：电子电路，神经网络，模拟电子 1.简介: 我们提出透过利用模拟神经电路进行神经网络的动态学习。这种模式会发展出一个包括模拟神经电路的全新的信号装置。其中一个研究目标是生物医学神经功能的建模。在神经网络领域中，许多应用模型已被提出,而且有许多硬件模型已经实现了。这些模拟神经网络模型，是由operational amplifier及fixed resistance 所组成的?这是个非常困难去改变这个连接系数的(指operational amplifier及fixed resistance) 1.1模拟神经网络 模拟神经网络是通过电压,电流或电荷的连续数量来表达的。而其最主要的优点是它不但可以透过时钟操作去建造连续时间系统,还可以建造离散时间系统。明显地actual neuron cell是模拟工作。使用模拟方法去模仿神经元细胞的运作是可行的。许多人工神经网络LSI就是用analog method来设计的。 很多processing units可以安装在single-chip上,因为每一个单元都可以由小数量的元件，加法，乘法，以及非线性变换来实现。还有使用super parallel calculation来操作是可行的。结论是,与神经网络算法相比高速工作是有其的好处的。在纯模拟电路中，最大的问题是奴何去实现模拟内存及如何记住模拟量。到目前为止也还没找到相应的解决方法。DRAM method是一些记录存在电容器的临时存储,因为它可以与CMOS processs通用。然而，当数据值保持长期的，也需要一个数字记忆。在这种情况下，我和一个一个/数转换使得开销问题。其他记忆方法的浮力门式装置，铁电存储器（FeRAM）和磁性物质的记忆（MRAM）提出了另一种硬件神经网络模型。它是利用脉冲神经网络。该模型具有良好的优势。特别是这个网络
文献信息： 文献标题：Research Priorities for Robust and Beneficial Artificial Intelligence（稳健和有益的人工智能的研究重点） 国外作者：Stuart Russell, Daniel Dewey, Max Tegmark 文献出处：《Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence》,2015,36(4):105-114 字数统计：英文2887单词，16400字符；中文5430汉字 外文文献： Research Priorities for Robust and Beneficial Artificial Intelligence Abstract Success in the quest for artificial intelligence has the potential to bring unprecedented benefits to humanity, and it is therefore worthwhile to investigate how to maximize these benefits while avoiding potential pitfalls. This article gives numerous examples (which should by no means be construed as an exhaustive list) of such worthwhile research aimed at ensuring that AI remains robust and beneficial. Keywords:artificial intelligence, superintelligence, robust, beneficial, safety, society Artificial intelligence (AI) research has explored a variety of problems and approaches since its inception, but for the last 20 years or so has been focused on the problems surrounding the construction of intelligent agents –systems that perceive and act in some environment. In this context, the criterion for intelligence is related to statistical and economic notions of rationality – colloquially, the ability to make good decisions, plans, or inferences. The adoption of probabilistic representations and statistical learning methods has led to a large degree of integration and cross-fertilization between AI, machine learning, statistics, control theory, neuroscience, and other fields. The establishment of shared theoretical frameworks, combined with the availability of data and processing power, has yielded remarkable
人工智能英文文献原文及译文
附件四英文文献原文 Artificial Intelligence "Artificial intelligence" is a word was originally Dartmouth in 1956 to put forward. From then on, researchers have developed many theories and principles, the concept of artificial intelligence is also expands. Artificial intelligence is a challenging job of science, the person must know computer knowledge, psychology and philosophy. Artificial intelligence is included a wide range of science, it is composed of different fields, such as machine learning, computer vision, etc, on the whole, the research on artificial intelligence is one of the main goals of the machine can do some usually need to perform complex human intelligence. But in different times and different people in the "complex" understanding is different. Such as heavy science and engineering calculation was supposed to be the brain to undertake, now computer can not only complete this calculation, and faster than the human brain can more accurately, and thus the people no longer put this calculation is regarded as "the need to perform complex human intelligence, complex tasks" work is defined as the development of The Times and the progress of technology, artificial intelligence is the science of specific target and nature as The Times change and development. On the one hand it continues to gain new progress on the one hand, and turning to more meaningful, the more difficult the target. Current can be used to study the main material of artificial intelligence and artificial intelligence technology to realize the machine is a computer, the development history of artificial intelligence is computer science and technology and the development together. Besides the computer science and artificial intelligence also involves information, cybernetics, automation, bionics, biology, psychology, logic, linguistics, medicine and philosophy and multi-discipline. Artificial intelligence research include: knowledge representation, automatic reasoning and search method, machine learning and knowledge acquisition and processing of knowledge system, natural language processing, computer vision, intelligent robot, automatic program design, etc.
英文原文 Artificial Intelligence Advanced Idea ,Anticipating Incomparability on Artificial Intelligence. Artificial intelligence(AI) is the field of engineering that builds systems ,primarily computer systems ,to perform tasks requiring intelligence .This field of research has often set itself ambitious goals, seeking to build machines that can outlook humans in particular domains of skill and knowledge ,and has achieved some success in this.The key aspects of intelligence around which AI research is usually focused include expert system ,industrial robotics,systems and languages language understanding ,learning ,and game playing,etc. Expert System An expert system is a set of programs that manipulate encoded knowledge to solve problems in a specialized domain that normally requires human expertise . Typically,the user interacts with an expert system in a consultation dialogue,just as he would interact with a human who had some type of expertise,explaining his problem,performing suggested tests,and asking questions about proposed solutions. Current experimental systems have achieved high levels of performance in consultation tasks like chemical and geological data analysis,computer system configuration,structural engineering,and even medical diagnosis.Expert systems can be viewed as intermediaries between human experts,who interact with the systems in knowledge acquisition mode ,and human users who interact with the systems in consultation mode. Furthermore ,much research in this area of AI has focused on endowing these systems with the ability to explain their reasoning,both to make the consultation more acceptable to the user and to help the human expert find errors in the system′s reasoning when they occur.Here are the features of expert systems: ①Expert systems use knowledge rather than data to control the solution process. ②The know is encoded and maintained as an entity separated from the control program.Furthermore,it is possible in some cases to use different