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numerical evaluation by models ofload and spark timing effects on the in-cylinder heat transfer of a

numerical evaluation by models ofload and spark timing effects on the in-cylinder heat transfer of a
numerical evaluation by models ofload and spark timing effects on the in-cylinder heat transfer of a

NUMERICAL EVALUATION BY MODELS OF LOAD AND SPARK TIMING EFFECTS ON THE IN-CYLINDER HEAT TRANSFER OF A SI ENGINE A.Sanli 1,C.Sayin 2,M.Gumus 2,I.Kilicaslan 1,and M.Canakci 1,3

1Department of Mechanical Education,Kocaeli University,Izmit,Turkey

2

Department of Mechanical Education,Marmara University,Istanbul,Turkey 3

Alternative Fuels R&D Center,Kocaeli University,Izmit,Turkey

The aim of this study is to examine numerically the effects of spark timing and load parameters on the in-cylinder heat transfer of a SI engine by using experimental engine test data.For the investigation,a four-stroke,air-cooled,single-cylinder SI engine was tested at different spark timings and loads at a single engine speed of 2000rpm.Woschni,Hohenberg,and Han models were employed to estimate the in-cylinder heat transfer coef?cient in the case of different test conditions because of being favorable models on the SI engine operations.The evaluations show that the in-cylinder heat transfer character-istics of the air-cooled SI engine strongly depend on the load while they slightly depend on the spark timing.

1.INTRODUCTION

In design of the internal combustion engines (ICEs),thermal behavior of the engine is an important topic because of its effect on indicated ef?ciency,power output,emissions,lubricant,and cooling capacity of the engine.Heat transfer to the combustion chamber walls in?uences the indicated ef?ciency because it reduces the cylinder pressure and temperature and thus the work done on the piston decreases per cycle.Heat loss to the cooling system of an ICE is approximately 30%of the total fuel energy supplied to the engine during the one working cycle.About half of this loss is due to the in-cylinder heat transfer and the rest is due to the cylinder head and to the exhaust port [1,2].

From the in-cylinder points of view,the heat transfer changes locally instantaneous temperatures that have exponential dependence on controlling the formation rate of nitric oxide emissions (NO x ).High temperatures lead to thermal

Received 4March 2009;accepted 7July 2009.

Experimental data used in this study were obtained from the project supported by The Scienti?c

Research Council of Marmara University,Project No.BSE-075=131102.The authors are grateful to the institutes and the individuals involved in making this work possible.

Address correspondence to Mustafa Canakci,Department of Mechanical Education,Kocaeli

University,Umuttepe Yerleskesi,Umuttepe,Izmit 41380,Turkey.E-mail:mustafacanakci@https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,

Numerical Heat Transfer,Part A ,56:444–458,2009Copyright #Taylor &Francis Group,LLC ISSN:1040-7782print =1521-0634online DOI:

10.1080/10407780903244312

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stresses of material,and impact on fatigue failure limits of various engine components,thereby causing the cracks in cylinder head or deforming cylinder bore dimension and valve stems.Keeping below the wall temperature of the combustion chamber from the certain limits is necessary to prevent the oil ?lm from deterioration or oxidizing and its viscosity from diminishing,so the oil ?lm temperature should not exceed about 200 C.In order to avoid from pre-ignition and knock risks result-ing from overheated spark-plug electrodes and exhaust valves in the spark ignition (SI)engines,the spark-plug and valves must be kept cool.In addition,the heat transfer to the in?owing air or charge reduces volumetric ef?ciency on account of reducing the in?owing ?uid density [3].

A number of experimental and theoretical studies concerning the effects of various engine operating parameters on the heat transfer to the combustion chamber walls have been published since the last decades.Alkidas and Myers [4]investigated the effect of the air-fuel ratio (18,16,14,and 11.5AFR)and volumetric ef?ciency (40,50,60%)on the heat ?ux and showed that the highest heat ?ux to the combus-tion chamber walls occurred at the near stoichiometric ratio (16AFR)and the increasing volumetric ef?ciency resulted in an increasing in the peak heat ?uxes.Alkidas [5]measured the heat ?ux at different engine speeds and loads and showed that the increasing engine speed and load increased the heat ?ux to the combustion chamber walls.He also compared the heat ?ux values obtained by the Woschni

NOMENCLATURE

a,C 1,C 2,C 3constants

D cylinder bore,m

h heat transfer coef?cient,W =m 2K

k thermal conductivity of the gas,W =m K

l connection rod length,m m exponent or air mass,kg

n exponent or engine speed,rpm Nu Nusselt number

P in-cylinder pressure,bar Pr Prandtl number q heat ?ux,MW =m 2

R gas constant,kJ =kg K Re Reynolds number S cylinder stroke,m T temperature,K

U p (2Sn =60)piston mean velocity,m =s

V volume,m 3

W effective gas velocity,m =s x distance from top dead center,m

ABDC after bottom dead center AFR air fuel ratio

ATDC after top dead center

BBDC

before bottom dead center

BTDC before top dead center CA rank angle

CVH

compound valve angle hemispherical combustion chamber

DOHC double over head camshaft rpm revolutions per minute SI spark ignition TDC top dead center

m dynamic viscosity of cylinder gases,Pa.s

q density of cylinder gases,kg =m 3h crank angle,o

k

the ratio of speci?c heats

Subscripts a air

c combustion

d displacement g gas in inlet

mg mean gas p piston r reference sp spark plug w

wall

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model with the experimentally measured ones and observed that the one obtained by the model was in good agreement with the experimental results.Karamangil et al [6].investigated parametrically how the convective heat transfer coef?cients (HTCs)for the gas and coolant side vary with different engine operating parameters,such as the engine speed,compression ratio,excess air coef?cient,combustion duration,inlet pressure,and temperature.Shojaefard et al [7].studied transient thermal analysis of an exhaust valve by using the ?nite-element method.The temperature distribution and resultant thermal stresses at each opening and closing time were obtained.Rakopoulos and Mavropoulos [8]disclosed to be the signi?cant differences between the overall and local HTC variations of an air-cooled direct injection (DI)diesel engine,and they also presented the effects of engine speed and load on the in-cylinder heat transfer.

In a previous study [9],the effects of engine speed and load on the in-cylinder heat transfer of a water-cooled,four-stroke diesel engine have been investigated.In this study,in-cylinder heat transfer characteristics of an air-cooled SI engine were investigated.However,this study is not presenting something new,but rather,it is intended to raise the awareness and importance of the in-cylinder heat transfer in the ICEs,and to present how the in-cylinder heat transfer characteristics of a SI engine are varying under different operating parameters by using some models in the light of engine test data.

2.CALCULATION OF THE IN-CYLINDER HEAT TRANSFER

In the development of ICEs,the heat transfer from the burning gases to the in-cylinder walls is the main subject of numerous investigations.Historically,Nusselt made pioneer attempts on the in-cylinder heat transfer based on the combustion experiments in a spherical bomb in 1923.It was intended to predict the steady-state or time-average heat ?ux,but it has often been used for the prediction of instan-taneous heat ?ux because it was expressed in terms of instantaneous P and T values.Then,Eichelberg [10]developed a model correlated in large-scale two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engines.It is preferred by most investigators owing to being simple relatively easy to use.However,when the unit analysis is made,it is shown that it does not rely on the theoretical bases and yield dimensionally consistent results [11].It is believed that the fault is stemmed from the experiments with poor technology in those years [12].Oguri [13]used the Eichelberg model to estimate the in-cylinder HTC of a water-cooled,single cylinder SI engine and observed that the model’s results coincided well with the experimental ones at the expansion stroke,but for the compression stroke it was not good.Therefore,he developed a new in-cylinder heat transfer correlation by making some variations in the Elser formula,including entropy change,speci?c heat under constant pressure change,and Nusselt relation.In the following years,an approach,including Nusselt,Reynolds,and Prandtl number relationships,has been suggested for the turbulent ?ow inside the circular tubes,as follows.

Nu ?a Re m Pr n

e1T

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Pr can be omitted if the ?uid is a gas.In this case,its effect might be included in the a coef?cient.Nu includes the HTC.So,by expanding Nu and Re numbers the equation becomes

hl

k ?a q U p l m

m e2T

The value of exponent m generally ranges from 0.7to 0.8for forced convection

with turbulent ?ow [14].By emphasizing that the exponent m is equal to 0.8,Woschni [15]developed the in-cylinder HTC below by using Eq.(2).

h eh T?aP eh T0:8T g eh Tà0:55D à0:2W eh T0:8

e3T

He assumed that the characteristic length l ,piston mean velocity U p ,and ?uid density q can be replaced,respectively,with the cylinder bore diameter D ,gas velo-city W ,and P =RT .Thermal conductivity k and dynamic gas viscosity m are pro-portional to T 0.75and T 0.62,respectively [3].Effective gas velocity W was expressed by Woschni as follows.

W eh T?C 1U p tC 2V d T r

r r

P eh TàP m eh TeT

e4T

where V d is the displacement volume,T r ,P r ,and V r are evaluated,respectively,as temperature,pressure,and,volume at any reference state,such as inlet valve closing or combustion start.(P (h )àP m (h ))is the pressure rise resulted from combustion.While P (h )is the ?ring pressure,P m (h ),calculated from the Watson-Janota model [16],is the motoring pressure at the same crank angle with P (h ).Values suggested for C 1and C 2are

C 1?6:18C 2?0for gas exchange period C 1?2:28C 2?0for compression period

C 1?2:28

C 2?3:24?10à3

for combustion and expansion period

Shayler et al.[17]investigated two methods of determining the rate of heat transfer from the combustion chamber of three SI engines,which are Ford’s 1.1L Valencia,1.6L CVH,and 2.0L DOHC at the different speed,load,spark timing,and AFR conditions.In the ?rst method that is an analysis based on the application of the ?rst law of thermodynamics.The instantaneous cylinder heat transfer rate was found to be subject to large errors stemmed from uncertainties in the gas properties.In the second method,the instantaneous cylinder heat transfer rates were calculated using the Woschni,Eichelberg,and Annand models and were integrated over the engine cycle to generate cycle-averaged heat transfer rates.The rates were compared with a cylinder heat transfer rate deduced from the difference between heat transfer to the coolant and heat transfer from the exhaust gases to the exhaust port surface.

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The comparisons showed that the best agreement was obtained with the Woschni correlation.The researchers note that this is important information about the models’comparison.From the results presented,it appears that the original coef?cient values (for a ,C 1,and C 2)proposed by Woschni can be applied without major adjustment.In addition,it should be noted that the Woschni formula not only includes the effect of convection but also includes radiation effect in a lumped form [2].

In the following years,Hohenberg [18]proposed an in-cylinder heat transfer equation by modifying the Woschni equation in the DI diesel engines with swirl.Equation (5)describes the in-cylinder HTC proposed by Hohenberg.

h eh T?aP eh T0:8T g eh Tà0:4V eh Tà0:06eU p t1:4T0:8

e5T

Zeng et al.[19]improved a method adding the capability of predicting the effect of engine spark-timing on the cylinder pressure and applied it to a SI engine.The cylinder pressure was reconstructed including the third input of spark timing along with speed and https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,parisons between measured and reconstructed cylin-der pressures demonstrated that the method was applicable over a wide range of the SI engine operating.The reconstructed cylinder pressure was used to achieve the in-cylinder heat transfer and heat release analyses.In order to study the heat trans-fer,they used the Hohenberg model.

Han et al.[20]successfully established a new in-cylinder heat transfer model for the SI engines based on the turbulent ?ow.They used 0.75for the value of the exponent m given in Eq.(2),taking into account the results of experiments carried out on 19different ICEs by Taylor and Toong [21].Consequently,the formula became as follows.

h eh T?C 1P eh T0:75T g eh Tà0:465D à0:25W eh T0:75

e6T

For the effective gas velocity W ,Han et al.assumed that an increase in the gas velocity during the combustion period was caused by the heat release revealed from the chemical reactions of gas https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,ing this assumption,the gas velocity W can be expressed as follows.

W ?C 2U p tC 3k P eh TdV tV eh TdP eT

e7T

The constants C 1,C 2,C 3and k values are 687,0.494,0.73?10à6,and 1.35,respectively.Any comparison has not been coincided between the Han model and another model in the literature.More comprehensive information dealing with the in-cylinder heat transfer models can be found in references [1–3,11,22].

It is well known that the in-cylinder heat transfer is strongly in?uenced by the combustion gas pressure and temperature.The main data to calculate these models are the pressure,temperature,and volume in the cylinder.Once the pressure is acquired,the temperature of the gases in the cylinder can be calculated using the pressure,assuming the ?rst law of thermodynamics.In the above equations,the instantaneous cylinder volume V (h )as a function of crank angle can be found using

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the following well-known formulas.

VehT?V ctp D2

4

xehTe8T

x(h)represents the distance from TDC,and thus according to the crank angle,

xehT?ltRàR cosehTt

?????????????????????????????????el2àR2sin2ehTTq

e9T

Applying the steady-state heat transfer assumption for the present study,the heat transfer on the inside surface of the cylinder is found from the Newton’s cooling law by multiplying the simultaneous HTC with the temperature difference,i.e.,

qehT?hehTeT gehTàT wTe10TFigure1illustrates both the convective and radiative components of the heat transfer between gas and in-cylinder wall,and conduction through the combustion chamber wall,and convection to the air for air-cooled engines[23].Mean gas temperature T mg is depicted with dotted lines.Heat from the burning gases is also transferred to the cylinder wall indirectly by conduction through the piston rings and skirts.However,it is beyond the scope of this study.In the present study,it is focused on the heat transfer between gas and in-cylinder wall.

As mentioned previously,the temperature of the gases in the cylinder can be calculated using the cylinder pressure and volume,applying the?rst law of thermodynamics.

T gehT?PehTVehT

mR

e11

TFigure1.Schematic view of the in-cylinder heat transfer process in an air-cooled engine. LOAD AND SPARK TIMING EFFECTS ON HEAT TRANSFER OF A SI ENGINE449

D

o

w

n

l

o

a

d

e

d

B

y

:

[

T

ü

B

T

A

K

E

K

U

A

L

]

A

t

:

1

3

:

4

3

2

8

S

e

p

t

e

m

b

e

r

2

0 9

where P is the instantaneous in-cylinder pressure,V is the instantaneous cylinder volume,m is the air mass in the cylinder,and R is the gas constant.

T w inside wall temperature of combustion chamber varies with the engine speed,load,equivalence ratio,start of combustion,charge motion,inlet tempera-ture,wall material,and the coolant and combustion temperatures.It involves appar-ently too sophisticated to predict the wall temperature.Therefore,T w was replaced with spark-plug temperature T sp in this study,as it was assumed in a heat transfer study,which was performed by Wu et al.[24]for an air-cooled SI engine.T sp is formulated as follows.

T sp e C T?a c 1àn áa c 2àn 2áa c 3àP in áa c 4tP 2in áa c 5tn áP in áa c 6

e12T

where n is engine speed (rev =s),P in is the intake manifold pressure (bar),and a ci

is the coef?cients obtained from curve ?tting by the reference.

3.EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

The experiments were performed on a single cylinder,air-cooled,four-stroke SI engine.Its speci?cations are given in Table 1.The engine was loaded by an elec-trical dynamometer rated at 10kW and 380volts.The load on the dynamometer was measured by means of a strain gauge load sensor.An inductive pickup speed sensor was used to determine the engine speed.The in-cylinder pressure was measured using a Kistler Model 6052B air-cooled piezo-quartz pressure sensor mounted on the cyl-inder head.The pressure signals were then passed into a Kistler Model 5644A charge ampli?er.Crankshaft position was obtained by a crankshaft angle sensor in order to determine cylinder gas pressure as a function of crank angle.The crank angle signal was attained through an angle-generating device mounted on the main shaft.The intervals of the cylinder pressure were 0.75 CA for all test cases and pressure average of the consecutive 100cycles was received.The start of combustion was accepted 2 CA after the spark instant because of a period of time delay between the spark instant and start of combustion.The engine was fueled with the commercial grade gasoline of 95research octane number.

Table 1.Engine speci?cations

Brand =model Briggs and Stratton =243431

Engine type Four stroke,single cylinder,air cooled Bore =stroke

77.79mm =82.55mm Compression ratio 10:1Connection rod length 110mm

Max.torque 30Nm at 2400rpm Max.power

7.35kW at 3600rpm Inlet valve opening 16 CA BTDC Inlet valve closing 44 CA ABDC Exhaust valve opening 45 CA BBDC Exhaust valve closing

15 CA ATDC

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The test engine gives the maximum brake torque (MBT)at the optimum spark timing that is 20 CA BTDC.The electrical spark is provided by means of a magneto.By changing the magneto position,the spark timings were adjusted to 17.5and 22.5 CA BTDC.All tests were conducted on a test-bench,as shown in Figure 2.Each of the tests was repeated three times and the average was taken.Before each test,the engine was carefully regulated according to the catalogue values and all data were collected after the engine was stabilized.The accuracy of the measurements and the uncertainty in the calculated results are given in Table 2.4.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Heat transfer rates generally increase during the compression and the expan-sion strokes,and the peak heat ?ux mostly occurs after TDC for a typical

engine.

Figure 2.Schematic diagram of the engine experimental setup.

Table 2.Accuracy of the measurements and the uncertainty in the calculated results Measurements Accuracy Load ?2Nm Speed

?25rpm Crankshaft position ?0.1 CA Charge ampli?er ?1%Temperatures ?0.1K Calculated results Uncertainty HTC ?2%Heat ?ux

?2.1%

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On the other hand,heat ?uxes might nearly decrease too small negative values during the intake and exhaust strokes.Therefore,the data,obtained between the period of intake valve closing and exhaust valve opening,are presented in Figures 3–9.The ?gures include HTC and heat ?ux values of the Woschni,Hohenberg,and Han models as a function of crank angle at different spark timings and loads for 2000rpm engine speed.

4.1.Evaluations of the Heat Transfer Models

The HTC and heat ?ux histories of three models examined are depicted in Figure 3as a function of crank angle at the MBT spark timing of the full load for 2000rpm engine speed.At ?rst it was observed that HTC and heat ?ux amounts of the Han model were somewhat higher than those from the Woschni and Hohenberg models.The peak value of the Han model is 30%higher than the Woschni model,37.6%higher than the Hohenberg model about the HTC;and the heat ?ux is 31%higher than the Woschni model,37.1%higher than the Hohenberg model.A reason as to why the Han model is higher than the others may be because the a constant has been correlated to 128in the Woschni and Hohenberg models;whereas,it has been correlated to 687in the Han model,provided that pressure is in the bar unit.On the other hand,exponent m in the Woschni and Hohenberg models is higher than that in the Han model,i.e.,0.8against to 0.75.However,it has been believed that the exponent m has not been as dominant as the constant a on the discrepancy.In view of the Hohenberg HTC and heat ?ux,when they were compared with those of Woschni,the Hohenberg model overestimates the HTC and heat ?ux of certain sections of the compression and expansion

periods;

Figure https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,parisons of Han,Woschni,and Hohenberg heat transfer correlations for the spark timing (20 CA BTDC)at full load—2000rpm.

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however it underestimates at only peak regions.As pointed out by Soyhan et al.[25],the Woschni model gives higher gas displacement velocity compared to the Hohenberg model during the combustion phase;whereas,the Hohenberg model gives a constant gas displacement velocity for the whole cycle.The heat transfer results are comparatively seen in Figure 3,which are very close to each other.Accordingly,in order to evaluate the spark timing and load effects on the in-cylinder heat transfer,the results of each model were presented separately as a function of the crank

angle.

Figure https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,parison of the Woschni HTCs and heat ?uxes for different spark timings at full

load.

Figure https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,parison of the Woschni HTCs and heat ?uxes for different spark timings at 50%load.

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4.2.Heat Transfer Behaviors at Different Spark Timings and Loads Figures 4and 5show the histories of the HTCs and heat ?uxes obtained from the Woschni model at different spark timings and load conditions.The peak HTC and heat ?ux values of Woschni at spark timings of 17.5,20,and 22.5 CA for full load are 1577,1606,and 1650W =m 2K,and 0.45,0.47,and 0.49MW =m 2,respect-ively;for the 50%load condition,they are 1421,1428,and 1460W =m 2K,and 0.37,0.38,and 0.40MW =m 2,

respectively.

Figure https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,parison of the Hohenberg HTCs and heat ?uxes for different spark timings at full

load.

Figure https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,parison of the Hohenberg HTCs and heat ?uxes for different spark timings at 50%load.

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The HTC and heat ?ux results of the Hohenberg model as a function of the crank angle at different spark timings and loads at 2000rpm can be seen in Figures 6and 7.At this speed,the peak HTC and heat ?ux magnitudes of the 17.5,20,and 22.5 CA BTDC spark timings of the full load which are 1482,1521,and 1551W =m 2K,and 0.43,0.45,and 0.465MW =m 2,respectively;whereas,at 50%load they are 1385,1406,and 1441W =m 2K,and 0.37,0.38,and 0.40MW =m 2,respect-ively,which are almost the same as the magnitudes of Woschni at the same

load.

Figure https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,parison of the Han HTCs and heat ?uxes for different spark timings at full

load.

Figure https://www.doczj.com/doc/557450597.html,parison of the Han HTCs and heat ?uxes for different spark timings at 50%load.

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Figures 8and 9show the histories of the HTCs and heat ?uxes obtained from the Han model for the spark timing variations at the full load and 50%load at the 2000rpm.At this speed,the peak values of the Han HTCs and heat ?uxes for the spark timings of 17.5,20,and 22.5 CA BTDC at full load are 2071,2093,and 2108W =m 2K,and 0.60,0.617,and 0.627MW =m 2,respectively;whereas,at 50%load they are 1935,1943,and 1985W =m 2K,and 0.522,0.528,and 0.545MW =m 2,respectively.In order to be seen easily,all peak values of the heat ?uxes and HTCs are listed in Table 3.

As can be seen in the above ?gures,in-cylinder HTCs and heat ?uxes of the SI air-cooled engine change with the variations of spark timing at the constant engine speed and load.Taking spark timing earlier or later with respect to the MBT spark timing at constant engine operating conditions causes the charge pressure and tem-perature to change near the TDC.Accordingly,in all models,earlier spark timing leads to a slight increase in the peak heat ?uxes and HTCs,and it leads the peak values to happen at earlier CA than those of MBT spark timing.On the other hand,later spark timing leads to a decrease in the peak heat ?uxes and HTCs,and it leads the peak values to happen at later CA than those of MBT spark timing.As for the load,the larger the load,the more the heat will be rejected to the combustion cham-ber walls.Since the increasing load means more fuel-rich mixture in the combustion chamber,the energy of the compressed mixture would increase and thereby increase the heat transfer to the cylinder walls.Furthermore,the histories of the HTCs and heat ?uxes obtained from the Woschni,Hohenberg,and Han models are illustrated to be on the same line until the spark instant in the compression period because the engine operating parameters are constant until that point,but they would vary with the spark timings.

At the 50%load,the peak heat ?ux and HTC values nearly remain constant at the spark timing variations from 20to 17.5 CA BTDC for each model,but at the full load the corresponding variations are comparatively noticeable.

In the middle of the expansion stroke,at the same crank angle,it can be said that the retarded spark timing gives higher HTC and heat ?ux compared with the advanced spark timing for all heat transfer models.However,from the spark instant until the peak HTC and heat ?ux points,it can be said that the advanced spark tim-ing gives higher HTC and heat ?ux compared with the retarded spark timing for all the heat transfer models.

Table 3.All peak heat ?ux and HTC values obtained in the tests

Full load

50%load

Spark timing ( CA BTDC)17.52022.517.52022.5h (W =m 2K)

Han 207120932108193519431985Woschni 157716061650142114281460Hohenberg 148215211551138514061441q (MW =m 2)

Han 0.600.6170.6270.5220.5280.545Woschni 0.450.470.490.370.380.40Hohenberg

0.43

0.45

0.465

0.37

0.38

0.40

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5.CONCLUSION

In this study,the effect of spark timing and load variations on the heat transfer between gas and in-cylinder wall of an air-cooled,four-stroke,single cylinder SI engine run at 2000rpm was investigated by using the Woschni,Hohenberg,and Han models.The conclusions given below are summarized from the present work.

When the spark timing is advanced from its original timing (spark timing for MBT),the in-cylinder HTC and heat ?ux increase slightly and their peak values occur at earlier crank angle than that of the original timing at constant load and speed conditions.In contrast to advanced timing,when the spark timing is retarded from its original timing,the in-cylinder HTC and heat ?ux decreases slightly and their peak values occur at later crank angle than that of the original timing.

The in-cylinder HTCs and heat ?uxes at constant spark timing vary with the changing of engine load.With increasing the load,both the HTC and heat ?ux magnitudes increase more than magnitudes occuring with variations of spark timing.

The Han model gives higher HTC and heat ?ux compared with the Woschni and Hohenberg models under the same engine operating conditions.

Hohenberg model overestimates the HTC and heat ?ux at certain sections of compression and exhaust period,while it underestimates peak HTC and heat ?ux at only peak regions compared with the Woschni model.

From the beginning of spark timing toward the peak point,each model gives higher HTC and heat ?ux relative to the original timing at the advanced spark timing,but at the retarded spark timing corresponding HTC and heat ?uxes have lower values.Toward the end of the compression stroke,each model gives lower HTC and heat ?ux values relative to the original timing at advanced spark timing,while at the retarding spark timing corresponding HTC and heat ?uxes have higher values.REFERENCES

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Spark-Ignition Engine,Bulletin of JSME ,vol.3,no.11,pp.363–369,1960.

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and Its In?uence on the Performance of Diesel Engines,Trans.of ASME––J.of Eng.for Gas Turbines and Power ,vol.110,pp.482–488,1988.

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of a Spark Ignition Engine for Heat Transfer and Heat Release Analyses,Proc.ASME,ICE Division Fall Tech.Conf.,Long Beach,CA,USA,pp.1–11,2004.

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Heat Transfer Coef?cient in Spark Ignition Engine,SAE Paper 972995,1997.

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Empirical Correlations to Estimate the In-Cylinder Heat Transfer Coef?cient,Proc.IMechE ,vol.220,pp.1765–1781,2006.

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458 A.SANLI ET AL.

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Tesla Model S底盘全透视..

水平对置、后置后驱、低重心、前双横臂后多连杆、全铝合金车架、5门5座,你以为笔者说的是保时捷新车型吗?那笔者再补充多几个关键词好了,后置的水平对置双电刷电动机、0油耗、藏在地板下的笔记本电池组,同时拥有这些标签的,便是Tesla第二款车型Model S。Model S是五门五座纯电动豪华轿车,布局设计及车身体积与保时捷Panamera相当,并且是目前电动车续航里程的纪录保持者(480公里)。虽然现在纯电动在我国远未至于普及,但是在香港地区却是已经有Tesla的展厅,在该展厅内更是摆放了一台没有车身和内饰,只有整个底盘部分的Model S供人直观了解Model S的技术核心。 图:Tesla Model S。

图:拆除车壳之后,Model S的骨架一目了然。

图:这套是Model S的个性化定制系统,可以让买家选择自己喜爱的车身颜色、内饰配色和轮圈款式,然后预览一下效果。可以看到Model S共分为普通版、Sign at ure版和Performance版,后面两个型号标配的是中间的21寸轮圈,而普通版则是两边的19寸款式。Signature版是限量型号,在美国已全部售罄,香港也只有少量配额。 图:笔者也尝试一下拼出自己心目中的Model S,碳纤维饰条当然是最爱啦。

图:参观了一下工作车间,不少Roadster在等着检查保养呢,据代理介绍,不同于传统的汽车,电动车的保养项目要少很多,至少不用更换机油和火花塞嘛,换言之电动车的维护成本要比燃油汽车要低。 Tesla于2010年5月进军香港市场,并于翌年2011年9月成立服务中心。由于香港政府对新能源车的高度支持,香港的电动车市场发展比起大陆地区要好得多。例如Tesla的第一款车型Roadster(详见《无声的革命者——Tesla Roadster Sport 》),在香港获得豁免资格,让车主可以节省将近100万港元的税款。在这样的优惠政策之下,Tesla Roadster尽管净车价达100万港元,但50台的配额已经基本售罄。而Model S目前在香港已经开始接受报名预定,确定车型颜色和配置之后约两个月左右可以交车。

特斯拉电动汽车动力电池管理系统解析(苍松书屋)

特斯拉电动汽车动力电池管理系统解析 1. Tesla目前推出了两款电动汽车,Roadster和Model S,目前我收集到的Roadster 的资料较多,因此本回答重点分析的是Roadster的电池管理系统。 2. 电池管理系统(Battery Management System, BMS)的主要任务是保证电池组工作在安全区间内,提供车辆控制所需的必需信息,在出现异常时及时响应处理,并根据环境温度、电池状态及车辆需求等决定电池的充放电功率等。BMS的主要功能有电池参数监测、电池状态估计、在线故障诊断、充电控制、自动均衡、热管理等。我的主要研究方向是电池的热管理系统,因此本回答分析的是电池热管理系统 (Battery Thermal Management System, BTMS). 1. 热管理系统的重要性 电池的热相关问题是决定其使用性能、安全性、寿命及使用成本的关键因素。首先,锂离子电池的温度水平直接影响其使用中的能量与功率性能。温度较低时,电池的可用容量将迅速发生衰减,在过低温度下(如低于0°C)对电池进行充电,则可能引发瞬间的电压过充现象,造成内部析锂并进而引发短路。其次,锂离子电池的热相关问题直接影响电池的安全性。生产制造环节的缺陷或使用过程中的不当操作等可能造成电池局部过热,并进而引起连锁放热反应,最终造成冒烟、起火甚至爆炸等严重的热失控事件,威胁到车辆驾乘人员的生命安全。另外,锂离子电池的工作或存放温度影响其使用寿命。电池的适宜温度约在10~30°C之间,过高或过低的温度都将引起电池寿命的较快衰减。动力电池的大型化使得其表面积与体积之比相对减小,电池内部热量不易散出,更可能出现内部温度不均、局部温升过高等问题,从而进一步加速电池衰减,缩短电池寿命,增加用户的总拥有成本。 电池热管理系统是应对电池的热相关问题,保证动力电池使用性能、安全性和寿命的关键技术之一。热管理系统的主要功能包括:1)在电池温度较高时进行有效散热,防止产生热失控事故;2)在电池温度较低时进行预热,提升电池温度,确保低温下的充电、放电性能和安全性;3)减小电池组内的温度差异,抑制局部热区的形成,防止高温位置处电池过快衰减,降低电池组整体寿命。 2. Tesla Roadster的电池热管理系统 Tesla Motors公司的Roadster纯电动汽车采用了液冷式电池热管理系统。车载电池组由6831节18650型锂离子电池组成,其中每69节并联为一组(brick),再将9组串联为一层(sheet),最后串联堆叠11层构成。电池热管理系统的冷却液为50%水与50%乙二醇混合物。

特斯拉整体介绍

Tesla Model S 特斯拉Model S是一款纯电动车型,外观造型方面,该车定位一款四门Coupe车型,动感的车身线条使人过目不忘。此外在前脸造型方面,该车也采用了自己的设计语言。另值得一提的是,特斯拉Model S的镀铬门把手在触摸之后可以自动弹出,充满科技感的设计从拉开车门时便开始体现。该车在2011年年中正式进入量产阶段,预计在2012年年内将有5000台量产车投放市场。 目录 1概述 2售价 3内饰 4动力 5车型 6技术规格 7性能表现 8荣誉 9对比测试 10车型参数 1概述

Tesla Model S是一款由Tesla汽车公司制造的全尺寸高性能电动轿车,预计于2012年年中投入销售,而它的竞争对手则直指宝马5系。该款车的设计者Franz von Holzhausen,曾在马自达北美分公司担任设计师。在Tesla汽车公司中,Model S拥有独一无二的底盘、车身、发动机以及能量储备系统。Model S的第一次亮相是在2009年四月的一期《大卫深夜秀》节目中 4 Tesla Model S 。 2售价 Model S的电池规格分为三种,分别可以驱动车辆行驶260公里、370公里和480公里。而配备这三种电池的Model S的售价则分别为57400美元、67400美元和77400美元。下线的首批1000辆签名款车型将配有可以行驶480公里的蓄电池。尽管官方尚未公布该签名款车型的具体售价,但据推测,价格将会保持在50000美元左右。 Tesla汽车公司称其将会对市场出租可以提供480公里行驶距离的电池。而从Model S中取得的收益将为第三代汽车的发展提供资金保障。 3内饰

基于4P-4C-4R理论的特斯拉电动汽车品牌营销策略探究

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详解特斯拉Model S

详解特斯拉Model S 1、Model S的核心技术是什么? 核心技术是软件,主要包括电池管理软件,电机以及车载设备的电控技术。最重要的是电池控制技术。 Model S的加速性能,续航里程、操控性能的基础都是电池控制技术,没有电池控制技术,一切都就没有了。 2、Model S的电池控制技术有什么特色? 顶配的Model S使用了接近7000块松下NCR 18650 3100mah电池,对电池两次分组,做串并联。设置传感器,感知每块电池的工作状态和温度情况,由电池控制系统进行控制。防止出现过热短路温度差异等危险情况。 在日常使用中,保证电池在大电流冲放电下的安全性。 其他厂商都采用大电池,最多只有几百块,也没有精确到每块电池的控制系统。 3、为什么要搞这么复杂的电池控制系统? 为了能够使用高性能的18650钴锂电池。高性能电池带来高性能车。因为18650钴锂电池的高危性,没有一套靠谱的系统,安全性就不能保证。这也是大多数厂商无论电力车,插电车,混合动力车都不太敢用钴锂电池,特别是大容量钴锂电池的原因。 松下NCR 18650 3100mah,除了测试一致性最好,充放电次数多,安全性相对较好以外,最重要的是能量大,重量轻,价格也不高。 由于能量大,重量轻,在轿车2吨以内的车重限制下,可以塞进去更多的电池,从而保证更长的续航里程。因为电池输出电流有限制,电池越多,输出电流越大,功率越大,可以使用的电机功率也就越大。电机功率越大,相当于发动机功率大,车就有更快的加速性能,而且可以保持较长的一段时间。 4、作为一辆车,Model S有哪些优点?这些优点是电动车带来的吗? 作为一辆车,Model S主要具有以下几个优点 (1)起步加速快,顶配版本0-100公里加速4秒多,能战宝马M5

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TESLA 硅谷工程师、资深车迷、创业家马丁·艾伯哈德(Martin Eberhard)在寻找创业项目时发现,美国很多停放丰田混合动力汽车普锐斯的私家车道上经常还会出现些超级跑车的身影。他认为,这些人不是为了省油才买普锐斯,普锐斯只是这群人表达对环境问题的方式。于是,他有了将跑车和新能源结合的想法,而客户群就是这群有环保意识的高收入人士和社会名流。 2003年7月1日,马丁·艾伯哈德与长期商业伙伴马克·塔彭宁(Marc Tarpenning)合伙成立特斯拉(TESLA)汽车公司,并将总部设在美国加州的硅谷地区。成立后,特斯拉开始寻找高效电动跑车所需投资和材料。

由于马丁·艾伯哈德毫无这方面的制造经验,最终找到AC Propulsion公司。当时,对AC Propulsion公司电动汽车技术产生兴趣的还有艾龙·穆思科(Elon Musk)。在AC Propulsion公司CEO汤姆·盖奇(Tom Gage)的引见下,穆思科认识了艾伯哈德的团队。2004年2月会面之后,穆思科向TESLA投资630万美元,但条件是出任公司董事长、拥有所有事务的最终决定权,而艾伯哈德作为创始人任TESLA的CEO。 在有了技术方案、启动资金后,TESLA开始开发高端电动汽车,他们选择英国莲花汽车的Elise作为开发的基础。没有别的原因,只是因为莲花是唯一一家把TESLA放在眼里的跑车生产商。

艾伯哈德和穆思科的共同点是对技术的热情。但是,作为投资人,穆思科拥有绝对的话语权,随着项目的不断推进,TESLA开始尝到“重技术研发轻生产规划、重性能提升轻成本控制”的苦果。2007年6月,离预定投产日期8月27日仅剩下两个月时,TESLA还没有向零部件供应商提供Roadster的技术规格,核心的部件变速箱更是没能研制出来。另一方面,TESLA在两个月前的融资中向投资人宣称制造Roadster的成本为6.5万美元,而此时成本分析报告明确指出Roadster最初50辆的平均成本将超过10万美元。 生意就是生意,尤其硅谷这样的世界级IT产业中心,每天都在发生一些令人意想不到的事情。投资人穆思科以公司创始人艾伯哈德产品开发进度拖延、成本超支为由撤销其

特斯拉电动汽车电池管理系统解析

1. Tesla目前推出了两款电动汽车,Roadster和Model S,目前我收集到的Roadster的资料较多,因此本回答重点分析的是Roadster的电池管理系统。 2. 电池管理系统(Battery Management System, BMS)的主要任务是保证电池组工作在安全区间内,提供车辆控制所需的必需信息,在出现异常时及时响应处理,并根据环境温度、电池状态及车辆需求等决定电池的充放电功率等。BMS的主要功能有电池参数监测、电池状态估计、在线故障诊断、充电控制、自动均衡、热管理等。我的主要研究方向是电池的热管理系统,因此本回答分析的是电池热管理系统 (Battery Thermal Management System, BTMS). 1. 热管理系统的重要性 电池的热相关问题是决定其使用性能、安全性、寿命及使用成本的关键因素。首先,锂离子电池的温度水平直接影响其使用中的能量与功率性能。温度较低时,电池的可用容量将迅速发生衰减,在过低温度下(如低于0°C)对电池进行充电,则可能引发瞬间的电压过充现象,造成内部析锂并进而引发短路。其次,锂离子电池的热相关问题直接影响电池的安全性。生产制造环节的缺陷或使用过程中的不当操作等可能造成电池局部过热,并进而引起连锁放热反应,最终造成冒烟、起火甚至爆炸等严重的热失控事件,威胁到车辆驾乘人员的生命安全。另外,锂离子电池的工作或存放温度影响其使用寿命。电池的适宜温度约在10~30°C 之间,过高或过低的温度都将引起电池寿命的较快衰减。动力电池的大型化使得其表面积与体积之比相对减小,电池内部热量不易散出,更可能出现内部温度不均、局部温升过高等问题,从而进一步加速电池衰减,缩短电池寿命,增加用户的总拥有成本。 电池热管理系统是应对电池的热相关问题,保证动力电池使用性能、安全性和寿命的关键技术之一。热管理系统的主要功能包括:1)在电池温度较高时进行有效散热,防止产生热失控事故;2)在电池温度较低时进行预热,提升电池温度,确保低温下的充电、放电性能和安全性;3)减小电池组内的温度差异,抑制局部热区的形成,防止高温位置处电池过快衰减,降低电池组整体寿命。 2. Tesla Roadster的电池热管理系统 Tesla Motors公司的Roadster纯电动汽车采用了液冷式电池热管理系统。车载电池组由6831节18650型锂离子电池组成,其中每69节并联为一组(brick),再将9组串联为一层(sheet),最后串联堆叠11层构成。电池热管理系统的冷却液为50%水与50%乙二醇混合物。 图 1.(a)是一层(sheet)内部的热管理系统。冷却管道曲折布置在电池间,冷却液在管道内部流动,带走电池产生的热量。图 1.(b)是冷却管道的结构示意图。冷却管道内部被分成四个孔道,如图 1.(c)所示。为了防止冷却液流动过程中温度逐渐升高,使末端散热能力不佳,热管理系统采用了双向流动的流场设计,冷却管道的两个端部既是进液口,也是出液口,如图 1(d)所示。电池之间及电池和管道间填充电绝缘但导热性能良好的材料(如Stycast 2850/ct),作用是:1)将电池与散热管道间的接触形式从线接触转变为面接触;2)有利于提高单体电池间的温度均一度;3)有利于提高电池包的整体热容,从而降低整体平均温度。

Tesla Model S电池组设计全面解析

Tesla Model S电池组设计全面解析 对Tesla来说最近可谓是祸不单行;连续发生了3起起火事故,市值狂跌40亿,刚刚又有3名工人受伤送医。Elon Musk就一直忙着到处“灭火”,时而还跟公开表不对Tesla“不感冒”的乔治·克鲁尼隔空喊话。在经历了首次盈利、电池更换技术·穿越美国、水陆两栖车等头条新闻后,Elon Musk最近总以各种负面消息重返头条。这位"钢铁侠。CE0在201 3年真是遭遇各种大起大落。 其中最为人关注的莫过于Model S的起火事故,而在起火事故中最核心的问题就是电池技术。可以说,牵动Tesla股价起起落落的核心元素就是其电池技术,这也是投资者最关心的问题。在美国发生的两起火事故有着相似的情节Model S 撞击到金属物体后,导致电池起火,但火势都被很好地控制在车头部分。在墨西哥的事故中,主要的燃烧体也是电池;而且在3起事故中,如何把着火的电池扑灭对消防员来说都是个难题。 这让很多人产生一个疑问:Model S的电池就这么不禁撞吗?在之前的一篇文章中,我跟大家简单讨论了一下这个问题,但只是停留在表面。读者普遍了解的是,Model S的电池位于车辆底部,采用的是松下提供的18650钴酸锂电池,整个电池组包含约8000块电池单元;钴酸锂电池能量密度大,但稳定性较差,为此Tesla研发了3级电源管理体系来确保电池组正常运作。现在,我们找到了Tesla的一份电池技术专利,借此来透彻地了解下Model S电池的结构设计和技术特征。 电池的布局与形体

FIG3 如专利图所示,Model S的电池组位于车辆的底盘,与轮距同宽,长度略短于轴距。电池组的实际物理尺寸是:长2.7m,宽1.5m,厚度为0.1 m至0.1 8m。其中0.1 8m较厚的部分是由于2个电池模块叠加而成。这个物理尺寸指的是电池组整体的大小,包括上下、左右、前后的包裹面板。这个电池组的结构是一个通用设计,除了18650电池外,其他符合条件的电池也可以安装。此外,电池组采用密封设计,与空气隔绝,大部分用料为铝或铝合金。可以说,电池不仅是一个能源中心,同时也是Model S底盘的一部分,其坚固的外壳能对车辆起到很好的支撑作用。 由于与轮距等宽,电池组的两侧分别与车辆两侧的车门槛板对接,用螺丝固定。电池组的横断面低于车门槛板。从正面看,相当于车门槛板"挂着。电池组。其连接部分如下图所示。 FIG, 4

特斯拉Model S电动汽车性能介绍

特斯拉Model S 特斯拉Model S并非小尺寸、动力不足的短程汽车——这是某些人对电动车的预期。作为特斯拉三款电动车中体积最大的车型,根据美国环保署认证,这款快捷、迷人的运动型轿车一次充电能够行驶265英里(426公里),不过特斯拉声称可以达到300英里。不管哪种情况,这肯定是电动车行业的新高。Model S Performance版本的入门级价格为94,900美元,我测试的版本价格为101,600美元(按照美国联邦税收抵免,可以在此基础上扣减7,500美元)。 在一次开放驾驶上,这款特斯拉汽车硕大的85千瓦时电池的确可以至少行驶426公里。电流来自于车底的电池组,里面有大约7,000颗松下锂电池,重量约为590公斤(1,300磅). 试驾的第二天是前往威斯康辛州,在行驶了320公里后电几乎用光,不过其中包括了在芝加哥的一场交通拥堵中无奈爬行的两个小时。这天的测试充满野心,更多是针对性能而非行驶里程,包括这款特斯拉汽车迅速地用4.4秒时间从0加速到时速97公里(0至60英里每小时),此外测试达到的最高时速为210公里。 我有没有提到,在0到时速100英里的加速时间方面,这款310千瓦(416马力)的特斯拉汽车将击败威力巨大、使用汽油的413千瓦(554马力)宝马M5?部分原因在于这款特斯拉汽车的同步交流电发动机能够即时提供600牛·米(443英尺磅)的扭矩。像电灯开关一样轻点特斯拉的油门,最大的扭矩已经准备就绪,一分钟内能够实现从0到5,100转。后悬挂、液冷式发动机可以保持1.6万转每分钟,通过一个单速变速箱将动力传导至后轮。 它就像一头冷酷的猛兽,在出奇安静之中让内燃机这个猎物消失于无形——安静到何种程度呢?来自轮胎和风阻的声音比在其他大部分豪华车中感受到的更加明显。安装于车底的电池让特斯拉获得与很多超级车相当的重心,这非常有利于稳定操控。Model S经过弯道的时候也能很好地保持贴地感。 尽管这款特斯拉汽车看起来并不笨重,但其重量达到2,108公斤;随着速度和重力的提升,这些多余的重量表露无遗。加大油门后,沉重的尾部会产生震动。在操控手感的愉悦性方面,特斯拉无法与宝马相提并论,甚至连马自达都赶不上。 美妙的试驾体验在你进入车内之前就开始了,你靠近汽车时,可伸缩的车门把手自动弹出。接着看到的是特斯拉标志性的驾驶室特色内容,一个43厘米(17英寸)电容触摸屏,看起来就像一对相互配合的iPad. 在其用铝合金加强的底盘和车身内,Model S可以容纳5人。一个可爱但是奇怪的按钮可以在车门位置增加脸朝车后的儿童座椅,从而实现最多承载7人。将第二排座椅向下折,可以扩展后座载货空间,可用于家得宝(Home Depot)采购之旅。由于引擎盖下面没有发动机,这些空间可以作为有用的前置行李箱,特斯拉将其称为“前备箱”(“frunk”),就像保时捷911一样。

特斯拉纯电动车

目录 一、特斯拉简介 (3) 二、特斯拉纯电动车主要功能特点 (3) (一)Model S 主要特点 (3) (二)Model X 主要特点 (9) (三)Model 3 主要特点 (12) 三、特斯拉的电池技术 (13) (一)特斯拉动力电池简介 (13) (二)85kwh电池板的拆解分析 (14) (三)单体电池的能量密度 (20) (四)电量的衰减性能 (22) (五)电池检测实验室:从源头保证锂电池单体一致性 (24) (六)动力电池系统PACK技术 (25) (七)电池管理系统(BMS) (27) 四、特斯拉的充电技术 (35) (一)家用充电桩 (35) (二)超级充电桩 (37) (三)目的地充电桩 (38) (四)计划使用太阳能为超级充电站供电 (38) 五、电机及电控的主要技术 (38) (一)感应电机与永磁电机的对比 (39) (二)Model S采用三相交流感应电机 (40)

(三)双电机可以有效减少高速时的效率降低,并延长续航能力 (41) (四)电机的结构改进提效并易于自动化 (41) (五)逆变器采用分散塑封IGBT,实现低散热要求 (43) 六、车身的主要技术 (46) (一)全铝车身 (46) (二)Model X的双铰链鹰翼门 (47) 七、安全方面的主要技术 (48) (一)车身的安全设计 (49) (二)电池的安全性 (50) (三)信息安全技术 (51) 八、智能化技术 (51) (一)空中升级 (51) (二)远程诊断 (52) (三)自动求助 (52) (四)交互关系 (52)

特斯拉纯电动车的核心技术分析 一、特斯拉简介 特斯拉(Tesla),是一家美国电动车及能源公司,产销电动车、太阳能板、及储能设备。总部位于美国加利福尼亚州硅谷帕洛阿尔托(Palo Alto)。 特斯拉第一款汽车产品Roadster发布于2008年,为一款两门运动型跑车。2012年,特斯拉发布了其第二款汽车产品——Model S,一款四门纯电动豪华轿跑车;第三款汽车产品为Model X,豪华纯电动SUV ,于2015年9月开始交付。特斯拉的下一款汽车为Model 3,首次公开于2016年3月,并将于2017年末开始交付。 2016年11月17日特斯拉电动车收购美国太阳能发电系统供应商SolarCity,使得特斯拉转型成为全球唯一垂直整合的能源公司,向客户提供包括Powerwall能源墙、太阳能屋顶等端到端的清洁能源产品。2017年2月1日,特斯拉汽车公司(Tesla Motors Inc.)正式改名为特斯拉(Tesla Inc.)。这意味着汽车不再是特斯拉的唯一业务。 二、特斯拉纯电动车主要功能特点 (一)Model S 主要特点 得益于特斯拉独特的纯电动动力总成,Model S 的性能表现十分出色,0-100公里/小时加速最快仅需2.7 秒。通过Autopilot 自动辅助驾驶(选装),Model S 还可以使高速公路驾驶更为安全且轻松,让你更好的享受驾驶乐趣。

深度揭秘特斯拉Model S底盘:电池组电机四驱

深度揭秘特斯拉Model S底盘:电池组/电机/四驱 特斯拉的第一代产品Roadster,用的是莲花Elise的底盘。这台车当时卖了2000多台。现在,这个经典的跑车底盘又被底特律电动车(Detroit Electric)拿来做另外一款“Roadster”了。 2012年,特斯拉发布Model S。底盘结构由特斯拉自主研发,并为其今后的车系奠定了基础。与燃油汽车不同,特斯拉一个底盘就可以涵盖所有级别的车型。比如将于2017年上市的Model 3,其底盘是在Model S的基础上缩短了轴距而已。 本期,我们来彻底解构下特斯拉Model S的底盘结构。共分为三部分来讲:电池组、电机,以及四驱。先从电池组说起。 特斯拉的电池,是特斯拉的核心专利技术之一,可以说是整台Model S最核心的一个零件。特斯拉一共拥有249项专利,其中有104项是跟电池有关的。与很多采用几个大的电池单元成电池组的布局不同,特斯拉采用的是与笔记本一样的电池。整台Model S的整备质量为2108kg(2.1吨),其中电池组的重量就占了600kg(0.6吨)。作为一辆D级豪华车,特斯拉Model S并没有超重。这在很大程度上得益于Model S的全铝车身。

由于电池组横贯于位于车辆底部,这使得Model S的重心得以降低,平衡了配重,从而提升了操控性。根据官方数据,Model S的前后配重比为48:52。 在Model S刚上市时,按照电池划分共有3款型号,分别是85kWh、60kWh,以及40kWh。2013年,由于40kWh车型销量惨淡,特斯拉决定停止销售。不久前,特斯拉又推出了70Kwh车型,来取代之前的60kWh版本。 值得一提的是,当年60kWh的车型与40kWh的车型,电池组其实是一样的;两者的区别在于,特斯拉将40kWh的电池进行了软件限制,从而在一个可容纳60kWh电量的电池组中,只有40kWh的电量可用。 而85kWh电池与60kWh电池的区别,主要是电池组中装配的电池单元数量。85kWh的电池组电压为400V,由一共16个电池包组成,每个电池包装配了444颗电池单元,所以这个电池组一共有7104颗电池组成。60kWh,则是由14个电池包,共计6216颗电池单元组成。这里所说的电池单元,是由松下提供的 NCR-18650A型电池。 18650是可充电锂离子电池的一种型号,它的命名来源于这种电池的尺寸 --18mm*65mm,但由于还要加入保护电路,所以电池的实际尺寸要略微大几零点几毫米。18650电池的主要用途,是笔记本电脑的电池,它有很多生产厂商;而特斯拉则选用了松下提供的18650电池,但要注意特斯拉使用的电池与笔记本中的电池还是有差别。18650只是一个统称。

特斯拉电动车2013全球销量

特斯拉电动车2013全球销量

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特斯拉的2013年:利润超1亿美元售车2.25万辆 2014年02月20日来源:第一电动网 特斯拉(NASDAQ:TSLA)将2013年一季度创出的盈利“奇迹”延续到了全年。按照特斯拉一贯采纳的非通用会计准则(Non-GAAP),特斯拉2013年赚得超过1亿美元的利润。特斯拉的电动汽车销量也大为增长,达到了约2.25万辆。 近日,特斯拉发布财务数据称,根据GAAP准则,即不计入股权奖励支出及其他一次性项目,特斯拉2013年营业收入为20.13496亿美元,对比2012年的4.13256亿美元,同比增长387.2%。而按照非GAAP准则,特斯拉2013年营业收入为24.77662亿美元,对比2012年的4.13256亿美元,同比增长499.5%。 根据GAAP准则,特斯拉去年亏损额为7401.4万美元,2012年则为39621.3万美元,同比削减81.3%。按照非GAAP准则,特斯拉去年实现利润10356.3万美元,2012年亏损34421.4万美元。 特斯拉汽车于美国时间本周三下午发布了2013年的致股东邮件。邮件显示,第四季度,特斯拉创纪录地销售了6892辆电动汽车,全年销量22477辆。 未来,特斯拉还计划在美国发展超级充电站网络和服务中心,推动汽车销售。此外特斯拉还预计,欧洲和中国市场将带来巨大销量。2014年的汽车总销量将达到3.5万辆,比今年的22477辆高55%。

特斯拉分析报告

特斯拉分析报告 Revised as of 23 November 2020

目录 特斯拉电动汽车国际发展分析报告 综合经营教育 组织:市场策划1301 班 指导老师:胡子娟 组长:符美丹 组员:徐宝怡、李嘉尊、张家梦、杨伟怡 华南农业大学珠江学院 电话: 乐享科技 2016-4-6

一、背景 (一)公司概况 2003年7月1日,马丁艾伯哈德与长期商业伙伴马克塔彭宁合伙成立特斯拉(TESLA)汽车公司,并将总部设在美国加州的硅谷地区2004年2月,埃隆马斯克向特斯拉投资630万美元,但条件是出任公司董事长、拥有所有事务的最终决定权,而马丁艾伯哈德作为特斯拉之父任公司的CEO。不可忽视的是,特斯拉的背后,站着众多超级投资人。其中包括谷歌创始人拉里佩奇、谢尔盖布林等人,还包括丰田、戴姆勒奔驰的子公司和松下等传统汽车巨头。松下是特斯拉的锂电池电芯供应商,而特斯拉汽车的部分设计也受益于奔驰的启发特斯拉刷新了世界对电动汽车的认知,从这一点出发,特斯拉可以称得上是一个改变了世界的公司。特斯拉当前的创新应该更多在商业模式以及对电动汽车的发展的推动上,是一个令人充满期待,并且值得让人敬佩的公司。从诞生之日起,特斯拉的品牌一直都与“环保”、“高科技”等标签贴在一起,时时闪现出高冷的明星气质。这的确在品牌初期为其吸引了众多支持者,并获得了意想不到的营销效果。而借助这层光环加持,特斯拉开始了自己的故事。在本土市场较为稳定之后特斯拉开始开拓中国市场。 (二)公司产品 1.T esla Roadster 2.T esla Model S 3.T esla Model X

(完整版)特斯拉汽车案例介绍

特斯拉汽车案例介绍 一、 1、发展背景 2003年在美国硅谷成立了一家汽车公司,这个在选址上独具一格的传统汽车公司名为特斯拉,在企业一开始发展的阶段就将公司的选址放在美国西部的科技圣地——硅谷,这个二十一世纪电子和计算机业的王国,突然诞生了一家汽车公司,于周围的企业显得格格不入,但就在这样的环境下,从硅谷走出了一辆通向未来的汽车。 在众多传统巨头坚持不住的时候,特斯拉默默无闻的坚持了下来,并且发展的如火如荼,目前特斯拉的股票突破了100美元大关,直追日本丰田,成为了美国股市之中为数不多的超过100美元的汽车公司,超越了众多的汽车行业巨头。这个不太出名的小汽车企业是如何发展起来的呢? 在1990年,由美国通用汽车研发并制造了第一款现代化电动汽车EV-1,这款低风阻、双门双座的电动汽车却采用租赁的方式对外进行,大多数租户第一次接触到现代电动汽车,对EV-1表现得尤为满意,但EV-1的结局却让人感慨万千,由于这款车的投入和产量不大,在生产一千多台后停止生产,1999年通用回收销毁EV-1,让租户们很不理解,大多数租户都愿意对租的车进行购买,最终全部被通用回收,分批销毁,最后只有几台放置在博物馆。参于EV-1的工程师不甘心失败,于是创建研究铅酸电池的AC Propulsion汽车公司,由于研发铅酸电池一直没大规模突破,马丁·艾伯哈德投资了15万美元,他希望尝试用笔记本电脑的锂电池作为电动汽车电池, 艾伯哈德劝说AC Propulsion公司为他制造一辆电动汽车,就这样科尼在无意成立汽车公司。艾伯哈德于是决定自己来。艾伯哈德在寻找创业项目时发现,停放跑车的私家车道上常有着丰田混合动力汽车的身影。艾伯哈德觉得,所以,有了将跑车和电动汽车结合的主意。2003年7月1日,马丁·艾伯哈德于长期商业伙伴马克·塔彭宁合伙成立特斯拉(TESLA)汽车公司,并将总部设在美国加州的硅谷地区。 2公司现状 特斯拉企旗下现售四款电动汽车,以经营高性能纯电动汽车为主,早在2016年年营业额突破了70亿,说起电动汽车,在这个领域内特斯拉却是行业中的大头,处于翘楚地位,无人驾驶技术较为先进成熟,量产出L3级高度驾驶系统,同样是搭载锂电池的特斯拉续航能力远远超越其他同类电动汽车,是目前新能源汽车领域的佼佼者,更是当前新能源行业的领头羊。在2018全球电动汽车销量排行中特斯拉汽车占据了前五位中的三个,市场份额就占据了整个市场中的11%,可以彰显出特斯拉在电动汽车行业的领导地位。

Tesla motor特斯拉电动汽车分析

Tesla Motors Norbert Binkiewicz Justin Chen Matt Czubakowski June 4, 2008

1SWOT Analysis Strengths ?Good engineering and technology research capability ?Able to raise large amounts of capital ?First mover advantage; the first company to offer a relatively practical fully electric car, customers include high-profile figures like Arnold Schwarzenegger, George Clooney, and Jay Leno ?Designs and builds many of the components in its cars, including the power electronics, motor and battery packs Weaknesses ?Doesn’t have much brand recognition among the general public ? A very small company with small sales volume, so no economies of scale ?Possible supply problems with components, especially if demand increases ?The Tesla Roadster hasn’t been on the market for very long, the longevity of fully electric cars remains to be proven Opportunities ?Moving towards the family sedan market and making a product that is meant for more of the automotive market ?Price of oil and gasoline skyrocketing, making the price premium for an electric car less of an issue ?Expanding into developing lithium-ion batteries and other energy technologies, partnering with a battery company to improve battery technology Threats ?Wrightspeed X1, a prototype high performance electric car that caters to the same market; the only direct competitor to Tesla that offers a similar product ?Large automobile companies entering the market with full and hybrid electric cars, the GM Volt and Toyota Prius ?The price of oil falling dramatically in the short run ? A competitor having a breakthrough in related energy technologies, like hydrogen powered cars, natural gas, or ethanol

特斯拉家用充电桩参数及规格

特斯拉家用充电桩参数及规格 目前,特斯拉在市场仅投放了MODEL S车型,根据配置的不同,其续航里程在442-502km之间。特斯拉Model S目前有四种充电方式:家用充电桩、目的地充电桩、超级充电站、通用移动充电器。 特斯拉电动车有三种充电形式,分别为: 1、传统110V电源,每小时充电30英里(约50km) 2、高效充电站,充电效率提高一倍 3、超级充电站,每小时充电300英里(480km) 所以,前两种都是可以从家庭的普通插座引出,特斯拉是考虑了家庭充电的需要的。 不过,需要注意的是,美国民用电的电压等级是AC 110V,进入中国后需要对电源适配器做改造。 特斯拉为旗下车型标配了一个家用充电桩,该充电桩使用的是220V的电压,其每小时充电可行驶里程约为40km。在2015年第三季度,特斯拉还将为用户提供高功率家用充电桩可选,其使用的是380V电压,每小时充电行驶里程可达100km左右。充电费用方面,220V 充电桩采用的是民用电价,380V充电桩则需要采用工业电价。 值得注意的是,特斯拉的所有充电桩都是没有密码锁或者其他锁定装置的,这意味着若该家庭充电桩被安装在开放式停车场,别的特斯拉车型可以随时用该充电桩进行充电。 在安装家用充电桩时,一般是需要有固定车位的,而对于没有固定车位的消费者,特斯拉也不会拒绝安装,其将会同物业协调争取专属的充电位置,作为暂时使用。 目前,特斯拉主要委托第三方服务商为客户提供充电桩的安装服务,在所有问题都协商好的情况下,特斯拉承诺在1周之内便可以完成家庭充电桩的安装工作。其安装服务已经覆盖到以全国21个主要城市为中心的350公里半径范围区域,涵盖了全国80%以上的主要城市。若用户不在服务范围内,特斯拉将会就近派遣工作人员前往安装,但是需要用户提

特斯拉各项技术的深入解析

特斯拉各项技术的深入解析 可以说特斯拉的电动汽车技术代表了世界的最高水平,在地球环境危机日益加重的背景下,世界上不缺少新的消耗着汽油、排放着污染物尾气、有着复杂传动装置的汽车,特斯拉决定站在科技、汽车、能源的交叉口,进行颠覆性的思考和研发。 1 特斯拉的技术路线及选择原因 特斯拉的首要任务不是要成为全球最大的汽车公司,而是要弥补电动汽车长期存在的若干缺陷,并通过惊艳的产品颠覆人们对电动汽车的看法,然后通过竞争使全球汽车巨头不得不去开发自己的电动汽车,其终极目标及公司的宗旨是“尽快在市场上推出大众市场接受的电动汽车,加速实现可持续交通”。特斯拉制订了“三步走”的商业计划: 第一阶段:向超级富豪推出高价、小批量汽车。推出第一款产品时价格很高,但确保汽车的高档品位,使其物有所值,即生产出的汽车足以媲美顶级性能车,那么定价为10 万美元也就不存在问题。 第二阶段:以中高端价位向更多相对富裕的消费者推出中等价位、中等批量生产的电动汽车。借助第一阶段获得的利润,开发第二阶段的汽车。第二阶段的汽车依然比较贵,但其竞争对象更像是7.5万美元价位的奔驰或宝马,而不再是法拉利。 第三阶段:向普通大众推出低价、量产的汽车。通过第二阶段获取的利润和积累的经验,开发更经济、更大规模量产的大众化电动汽车,其相对便宜的价格和保养的节省,使中产阶级完全可以负担得起。 2 特斯拉目前的技术优势 2.1 电池 特斯拉是唯一一家采用18650 型三元锂离子电池的电动汽车公司。这种类型电池曾一直用于笔记本电脑、数码相机、手机等电子消费产品中。针对电动汽车的应用环境,特斯拉使用的18650 型电池又不同于笔记本等数码设备所使用的18650型电池,其技术标准也要高于后者,例如在设计上特斯拉使用的18650型电池能量密度高于同时期其他类锂电池50%以上。 特斯拉选择松下18650 型电池的原因主要有:能量密度大,稳定性、一致性更高;技术较为成熟、出货量大、生产自动化程度高,可以有效降低电池系统成本;全球每年生产数10亿个18650型电池,安全级别不断提高;单体电池尺寸小但可控性高,可降低单个电池发生故障带来的影响,即使电池组的某个单元发生故障,也不会对电池整体性能产生影响,但车辆会显示出错误信息,对用户进行警示,这也是配备较多单体电池的好处。

一文详解特斯拉Model S底盘电机

一文详解特斯拉Model S底盘电机 目前,在电动汽车的电机方面,交流感应电机与永磁同步电机是采用较多的两种。与永磁电机相比,感应电机的成本略低;但同时,它的性能与效率也相对较差。其中,永磁同步电机需要用到稀土资源,目前全球市场绝大部分的稀土资源是由中国提供的。所以基于资源的控制,以及制造成本的考虑,欧美市场的大部分纯电动车或混动车型,采用的都是感应电机。 与这台感应电机搭配的,是一个电流逆变器。它将电池组的直流电转换为交流电,输入到感应电机中;而感应电机的动力则通过一个9.73:1的固定齿比变速箱,将动力创送至轮端。此外,与上述驱动机构搭配的,还有一个差速器--这是任何一辆车都必备的零件。电池、电机、逆变器,以及固定齿比的变速箱,构成了特斯拉Model S的动力总成。 我们知道,Model S是一款后置后驱的车型,它的驱动机构位于车辆后桥,这让其前轮仅负责转向。所以,对于一款标榜运动性的豪华D级车来说,还差那么一点--就是四驱系统。说起四驱系统,大家都会联想到quattro、X-Drive、4Matic这些四驱品牌,还会想到分动箱、差速器、差速锁,以及什么粘性联轴节之类的技术名词。 可以说,四驱系统不亚于发动机、变速箱,是各大汽车品牌的另外一个竞技场。然而电动化的进程却改变了一些事情--四驱结构似乎不必像现在这么复杂。无论是插电式混合动力车型,还是纯电动车型,四驱结构都变得相对简单。这是因为,电动单元的加入,让车辆可以同时拥有两个动力来源。而这两个来源,可以分别被安置在车辆的前后桥,来驱动前后轮。 比如某些插电式混动车型,选择在后桥加装一台电动机来构成四驱结构。而对于特斯拉来说,摆脱了燃油发动机、传统变速箱的束缚,实现四驱模式变得更加简单。所以,在2014年10月,配合驾驶辅助系统,特斯拉推出了全时四驱版的Model S。要知道,对于Model S这样的纯电动汽车,双电机四驱结构的应用,可不仅仅是实现四驱那么简单。 人们听到Model S上又加了一个电机,第一反应是电池的续航水平会不会下降?答案其实

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