Chapter 1 Ship Design
第一章船舶设计
Lesson 1 Introduction
第一课引言
1.1Definition
1.1 定义
The term basic design refers to determination of major ship characteristics affecting cost and performance. Thus basic design includes the selection of ship dimensions, hull form, power (amount and type), preliminary arrangement of hull and machinery, and major structure. Proper selections assure the attainment of the mission requirements such as good seakeeping, performance, maneuverability, the desired speed, endurance, cargo capacity, and deadweight. Furthermore, it includes checks and modifications for achievement of required cargo handling capability, quarters, hotel services, subdivision and stability standards, freeboard and tonnage measurement; all while considering the ship as part of a profitable transportation, industrial, or service system.
术语“基本设计”是指对影响造价和性能的船舶主要参数的确定。因此，基本设计包括船舶主尺度、船体线型、动力（数量和种类）的选取，以及船体、机械设备和主要结构的布置。恰当的选取可保证达到设计任务书的要求，例如良好的耐波性能，操纵性，预期的速度，续航力，舱容和载重量。进一步讲，基本设计还包括校核和修改，以满足货物装卸能力，居位舱，客房设施，分舱和稳性标准，干舷和吨位测量，所有这些都是将船舶当成运输、工业化或服务系统的一部分。
Basic design encompasses both concept design and preliminary design. It results in the determination of major ship characteristics, permitting the preparation of initial cost estimates. In the overall design process, basic design is followed by contract design and detail design. Contract design, as its name implies, develops plans and specifications suitable for shipyard bidding and contract award. Well prepared contract plans and specifications will be clear and in sufficient detail to avoid costly contingency items and protect bidders from obscure or inadequate description of requirements. Detail design is the shipyard’s responsibility for further developing the contract plans as required to prepare shop drawings used for the actual construction of the vessel.
基本设计包含概念设计和初步设计，可以确定船舶主要技术参数，为造价初步估计做准备。再整个设计过程中，基本设计之后紧接着就是合同设计和详细设计。合同设计，顾名思义，需要做出图纸和详细说明书，以便船厂去投标和签约。一套良好的合同图纸和详细说明书应当是非常清晰和详细的，以避免高成本的偶然性项目，并使投标者不出现模糊不请的或不充
分的描述。详细设计师船厂进一步完善合同设计的重要任务，以准备施工图用于船舶实际建造。
An understanding of the entire design sequence is essential to anyone seeking to develop a basic design. The four steps involved are illustrated in the Design Spiral, Evans (1959) as an iterative process working from mission requirements to a detail design. These steps are amplified further below:
了解整个设计顺序对任何做基本设计的人都是必要的。设计的4个阶段用设计螺线图表示，如图1所示，是从任务书要求到详细设计的循环工作过程，这4个阶段在下面作详细叙述
a.Concept Design. The very first effort, concept design, translates the mission
requirements into naval architectural and engineering characteristics.
Essentially, it embodies technical feasibility studies to determine such fundamental elements of the proposed ship as length, beam, depth, draft, fullness, power, or alternative sets of characteristics, all of which meet the required speed, range, cargo cubic, and deadweight. It includes preliminary light-ship weight estimates usually derived from curves, formulas, or experience. Alternative designs are generally analyzed in parametric studies during this phase to determine the most economical design solution or whatever other controlling parameters are considered determinant. The selected concept design then is used as a talking paper for obtaining approximate construction costs, which often determine whether or not to initiate the next level of development, the preliminary design.
a 概念设计
概念设计作为整个设计的第一阶段，是将任务书要求转换为船舶建造工程参数。它基本上包括技术可行性研究，确定船舶的基本参数如船长，船宽，船深，吃水，丰满度，动力，或可供选择的参数方案，所以这些应满足所要求的航速，航程，货舱舱容和载重量。这包括基于曲线、公式经验而进行的空船重量初步估算。在这一阶段，通常进过参数分析而进行多方案设计以寻求最经济的设计方案，或者任何其它控制也纳入考虑之中以确定最优方案。确定下来的概念设计就做为讨论文件以获得近似的建造成本，不论是否启动下一阶段的设计——初步设计。
b.Preliminary Design. A ship’s preliminary design further refines the major ship
characteristics affecting cost and performance. Certain controlling factors such as length, beam, horsepower, and deadweight would not be expected to change upon completion of this phase. Its completion provides a precise definition of a vessel that will meet the mission requirements; this provides the basis for development of contract plans and specifications.
b 初步设计
船舶的初步设计将进一步优化那些影响造价和性能的传播主要参数。一些控制参数如船长，船宽，功率和载重量，在该阶段完成之后不宜再变更。初步设计完成后将为船舶提供一个准确的描述，能够满足任务书要求，并为合同设计图纸和说明书提供基础支撑。
c.Contract Design.The contract design stage yields a set of plans and
specifications which form an integral part of the shipbuilding contract
document. It encompasses one or more loops around the design spiral, thereby further refining the preliminary design. This stage delineates more precisely such features as hull form based on a faired set of lines, powering based on model testing, seakeeping and maneuvering characteristics, the effect of number of propellers on hull form, structural details, use of different types of steel, spacing and type of frames. Paramount, among the contract design features, is a weight and center of gravity estimate taking into account the location and weight of each major item in the ship. The final general arrangement is also developed during this stage. This fixes the overall volumes and areas of cargo, machinery, stores, fuel oil, fresh water, living and utility spaces and their interrelationship, as well as their relationship to other features such as cargo handling equipment, and machinery components.
The accompanying specifications delineate quality standards of hull and outfit and the anticipated performance for each item of machinery and equipment.
They describe the tests and trials that shall be performed successfully in order that the vessel will be considered acceptable.
C 合同设计
合同设计阶段提供了一系列图纸和说明书，形成了一套船舶建造合同文件。它包括围绕设计螺旋的一个或多个环节，因为对初步设计作进一步优化。这一阶段更加准确地描绘船舶特征，如基于一套光滑线组成的船体线型，基于模型试验的主机功率匹配，船舶耐波性与操纵性，螺旋桨数量对型线的影响，结构细节，不同类型钢材的使用，肋骨间距和形式等。再合同涉及元素中最重要的是考虑了船舶各个主要分段设备的重量及其位置之后的船舶重量与重心的估算。最终的总布置图也是在这一阶段确定下来，这就将总体积、货物区域、机器设备、储物设备、燃油、淡水、居住与公用舱室以及几何相互关系固定下来。还包括与其它因素例如货物装卸装备、机器设备等的关系也都确定下来。补充说明书描述了船体和舾装的质量标准，以及各个机器、设备的预期性能。这些说明书还叙述了模型试验和实验情况，一表明船舶设计师成功的，船舶是可接受的。
表1.1列出了一艘大型船舶在合同设计中的典型图纸清单。小型船、不复杂的船客不要求具备表中所列的每一图纸，但该表确实显示了合同涉及中考虑的细致程度。
d.Detail design. The final stages of ship design is the development of detailed
working plans. These plans are the installation and construction instructions to the ship fitters, welders, outfitters, metal workers, machinery vendors, pipefitters, etc. As such, they are not considered to be a part of the basic design process. One unique element to consider in this stage of design is that up to this point, each phase of the design is passed from one engineering group to another. At this stage the interchange is from engineer to artisan, that is, the engineer’s product at this point is no longer to be interpreted, adjusted, or corrected by any other engineer. This engineering product must unequivocally define the desired end result and be producible and operable.
In summary, this chapter considers basic design as that portion of the overall ship design process which commences with concept design and carries preliminary design to the point where there is reasonable assurance that the major features have been determined with sufficient dependability to allow
the orderly development of contract plans and specifications. This development will form a basis to obtain shipyard prices within a predetermined price range that will result in an efficient ship with the requisite performance characteristics.
d 详细设计
船舶设计的最后阶段是绘制详细的施工图。这些图纸是供船舶装配工、焊工、舾装工人、金属制造工、主机供货方、管件工使用的安装与建造说明。这些图纸不属于基本设计过程的一部分。这一设计阶段的唯一共同之处是设计的每一阶段均从一个设计组传递到另一个设计组。在此阶段，交换仅限于设计工作于技术工人之间，也就是说，一个设计工程师的设计不再由任何其他工程师进行评判、调整或修改。这个设计必须明确表达希望的最终结果，并且是可制造的和可操作的。
概言之，本章将基本设计看作是整个船舶设计过程的一部分。从概念设计和初步设计到合同设计图纸与说明书，有效地保证船舶主要特征参数能足够可靠地确定下来。这个设计过程构成了使船厂建造价格在预先确定的价格范围之内的基础。
该价格也保证了充分有效地船舶性能。
表1.1合同涉及阶段典型图纸
侧视图，总布置图
纵剖面图，总布置图
所有甲板与船舱的总布置图
船员住舱布置图
型线图
舯横剖面图
钢材尺寸图
机舱布置图——俯视图
机舱布置图——侧视图
机舱布置图——横剖面图
主轴系布置图
动力与照明系统——布线图
甲板与侧面防火图
通风与空调设计图
所有管系的图表设计
热平衡与蒸汽流动图——在正常工作情况下的常规动力电路负载分析图
舱容图
船型曲线图
可浸长度曲线图
初始纵倾与初稳性手册
破舱稳性计算
1.2General Aspects
1.2 一般介绍
The late 1960’s and 1970’s saw a number of major new developments which in one way or another had an impact on the general basic design problem. Among the most significant was the computer. While the computer affects how basic design is performed, other changes have impacted on what constitutes the basic
design problem. For example, one revolutionary development was the change form breakbulk to containerized cargos in the liner trades. Other developments in other ship types created similar new considerations. For tankers, size mushroomed; the increasing demand for petroleum and other raw materials by the industrialized nations of the world has necessitated ever larger tankers and bulk carriers to meet the enormous demand at acceptable costs.
Man is looking increasingly to the sea for all major resources; offshore drilling for oil and gas has burgeoned from a small industry located mainly in the shallow areas of the Gulf of Mexico to a worldwide colossus moving into deeper water and more severe sea conditions. These developments have caused a revolution in the design of offshore supply boats, high powered towing vessels, pipe laying barges/ships, and countless other specialized craft. Future developments cannot be foretold, but it seems certain that other minerals will be sought from the sea necessitating entire new fleets of vessels designed for tasks not yet known.
Thus, the difficulty of basic ship design will vary with the degree of departure from past practice. Some ship operating companies are closely tied to successful previous designs, and they will permit little variation from these baselines in the development of replacement vessel designs. If the prospective mission appears to parallel, existing operations, this may be a sound approach. Consequently, in such situations, basic design may be limited to examination of minor modifications to dimensions, powering, and arrangements.
At the other extreme, totally new seagoing missions, such as the ocean transportation of liquefied natural gas (LNG), when first introduced, caused the designer to begin with a blank piece of paper and proceed through rational design with a blank piece of paper and proceed through rational design engineering with crude assumptions subject to frequent and painstaking revision and development.
在60年代后期和70年代，一些重要的新技术给普遍的基本设计问题在某种程度上带来一定的影响。其中最重要的是计算机。再计算机影响着基本设计的时候，其它一些变革已经在影响着基本设计的构成。例如，再班轮营运中一个革命性的进展是从散杂货向集装箱化货运运输方向发展。再其它类型船舶的另一些进展也产生了类似的新的问题需纳入考虑。以油船为例，尺寸迅速增大。世界上工业国家对石油和其它原料的需求的增长需要大型油船和散货船以可接受的成本来满足巨大的需求。
人类正在不断地向海洋探求各种重要资源，近海钻井以获取石油和天然气，从墨西哥湾浅水域的小规模工业迅速发展成巨人，进入到深水域和更加恶劣海况的水域中。这些发展对近岸钻井设备/船舶/模块的设计产生了变革，也对这样一个具有挑战性事业所必需的整个支撑船队产生变革。这包括交通艇、平台供应船，大马力拖船，铺管船/驳船，以及数不清的其它特殊的船艇。进一步的发展不可预知，但可以肯定的是，从海中寻找其它生成需要设计出完成此任务的全新船队。
因而，船舶基本设计的难度将依据对既往实践的背离程而变化。一些航运公司倾向于以前的成功设计，几乎不允许对以往设计进行改进。如果预期的运输任务与现有的业务类似，那么这种（固执）（保守）是一个不错的办法。因此在这些情形下，基本设计大体上上限于对主尺度、动力系统和布置微小修改。
再另一个极端，全新的海上业务，例如液化天然气海上运输，最开始的时候，设计者对此是
一片空白（一张白纸），通过不断地修正和完善，最终实现合理的工程设计。
Lesson 2 Ships Categorized
第二课船舶分类
2.1 Introduction
2.1前言
The forms a ship can take are innumerable. A vessel might appear to be a sleek seagoing hotel carrying passengers along to some exotic destination; a floating fortress bristling with missile launchers; or an elongated box transporting tanks of crude oil and topped with complex pipe connections. None of these descriptions of external appearance, however, does justice to the ship system as a whole and integrated unit----self-sufficient, seaworthy, and adequately stable in its function as a secure habitat for crew and cargo. This is the concept that the naval architect keeps in mind when designing the ship and that provides the basis for subsequent discussions, not only in this chapter but throughout the entire book.
In order to discuss naval architecture, it is helpful to place ships in certain categories. For purpose of this text, ships are classified according to their means of physical support and their designed purposes.
船舶的形状是多种多样的，一艘船可能是一个豪华的海上酒店，载着旅客游世界；也可能是一个浮动的堡垒，扬起导弹发射架；也可能是一个长箱，运输原油，甲板上布满了复杂的管线。这些外部特征的介绍绝不能准确地描述完整的集成的船舶系统——自给自足的，适航的和有足够稳性的，能为船员和货物提供一个安全的处所。这一概念是造船师再设计船舶时必须牢记再心中的，也是今后讨论的基础，不仅仅是在本案中，而是贯穿整本书。
为了探讨造船工程，将船舶分类是有益处的，本课的目的是将船舶按照其物理支撑方式和设计用途二分类
2.2 Ships Typed According to Means of Physical Support
The mode of physical support by which vessels can be categorized assumes that the vessel is operating under designed conditions. Ships are designed to operate above, on, or below the surface of the sea, so the air-sea interface will be used as the reference datum. Because the nature of the physical environment is quite different for the three regions just mentioned, the physical characteristics of ships designed to operate in those regions can be diverse.
Aerostatic Support
There are two categories of vessels that are supported above the surface of the sea on a self-induced cushion of air. These relatively lightweight vehicles are capable of high speeds, since air resistance is considerably less than water resistance, and the absence of contact with small waves combined with flexible seals reduces the effects of wave impact at high speed. Such vessels depend on lift fans to create a cushion of low-pressure air in an underbody chamber. This cushion of air must be sufficient to support the weight of the vehicle above the water surface.
The first type of vessel has flexible “skirts” that entirely surround the ai r cushion and enable the ship to rise completely above the sea surface. This is called an air cushion vehicle (ACV), and in a limited sense it is amphibious.
The other type of air-cushion craft has rigid side walls or thin hulls that extend below the surface of the water to reduce the amount of air flow required to maintain the cushion pressure. This type is called a captured-air-bubble vehicle (CAB). It requires less lift-fan power than an ACV, is more directionally stable, and can be propelled by water jets or supercavitating propellers. It is not amphibious, however, and has not yet achieved the popularity of the ACVs, which include passenger ferries, cross-channel automobile ferries, polar-exploration craft, landing craft, and riverine warface vessels.
Hydrodynamic Support
There are also two types of vessels that depend on dynamic support generated by relatively rapid forward motion of specially designed hydrodynamic shapes either on or beneath the surface of the water. A principle of physics states that any moving object that can produce an unsymmetrical flow pattern generates a lift force perpendicular to the direction of motion. Just as an airplane with (airfoil) produces lift when moving through the air, a hydrofoil, located beneath the surface and at tached by means of a surface piercing strut, can dynamically support a vessel’s hull above the water.
Planning hulls are hull forms characterized by relatively flat bottoms and shallow V-sections (especially forward of amidships) that produce partial to nearly full dynamic support for light displacement vessels and small craft at higher speeds. Planning craft are generally restricted in size and displacement because of the required power-to-weight ratio and the structural stresses associated with traveling at high speed in waves. Most planning craft are also restricted to operations in reasonably clam water, although some “deep V” hull forms are capable of operation in rough water.
Hydrostatic Support
Finally, there is the oldest and most reliable type of support, hydrostatic support. All ships, boats, and primitive watercraft up to the twentieth century have depended upon the easily attained buoyant force of water for their operation.
This hydrostatic support, commonly recognized as flotation, can be explained by a fundamental physical law that the ancient philosopher-mathematician Archimedes defined in the second century B.C. Archimedes’ Principle states that a body immersed
in a liquid is buoyed up (or acted upon) by a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced. This principle applies to all vessels that float (or submerge) in water---salt or fresh. And from this statement the name of the ships in the category are derived; they are generally called displacement hulls.
Although this ship type is very familiar, its subcategories warrant special discussion. For example, in some vessels reasonably high speed must be combined with the ability to carry light cargo or to move more comfortably in rough water than a planning hull. High-speed planning-hull characteristics can be modified to produce a semidisplacement hull or semiplaning hull. These compromise craft, of course not as fast as full-planing hulls but faster than conventional displacement hull, must have more power and less weight than the latter. Such types are obviously the result of “tradeoffs.”
The example cited above lies between clear-cut physically defined categories----it is not a good example of a variation of a true displacement-type ship. The latter must be recognized primarily as a displacement vessel, and its variations depend primarily on the distribution of buoyant volume----the extent of the depth and breadth of the hull below the water.
The most ubiquitous type of displacement ship can be generally classified as the common carrier, a seagoing vessel. It may be employed for passenger service, light cargo-carrying, fishing by trawling or for hundreds of other tasks that do not require exceptional capacity, speed, submergence, or other special performance. It is the most common and easily recognizable type of ship, with moderate displacement, moderate speeds, moderate to large lengths, and moderate capacities. It usually embodies the maximum in cruising range and seaworthiness. It is the “ship for all seasons.” It is the standard to which a ll other ship classifications in the displacement category may be referred.
The closest relative to this standard vessel, which plays a crucial role not only in world commerce but in the survival of the industrial world as well, is the bulk, oil carrier, the tanker, or supertanker. These terminologies are common but unspecific, and in this discussion they are inadequate, for what was called a supertanker several years ago is today not a supertanker. The industry itself has created a far more explicit nomenclature. Based upon the index of 1000000 tons oil cargo capacity, the size categories are LCC (large crude carrier), VLCC (very large crude carrier), and ULCC (ultra large crude carrier). Any tanker greater than 100000 tons but less than 200000 is a LCC, those between 200000 and 400000 are VLCCs, and those over 400000 are ULCCs. The current necessity for these designations becomes clear when we realize that before 1956 there were no tankers larger than 50000 tons, and not until the early sixties were any ships built larger than 100000 tons. In 1968 the first ship over 300000 tons was built. With their bulk and enormous capacity (four football fields can be placed end to end on one of their decks), these ships are designed and built to be profit-makers, enormously long, wide, and deep, carrying thousands of tons of crude oil per voyage at the least cost. Few of these elephantine tankers have more than one propeller shaft of rudder. Their navigation bridges are nearly one quarter of a mile from their bows. Their top service speed is so low that a voyage from an
Arabian oil port to a European destination normally takes two months.
Such vessels belong to a category of displacement ship that has a great range of buoyant support. They have a very large and disproportionate hull volume below the surface when fully loaded. Indeed, the cargo weight far exceeds the weight of the ship itself. The draft or depth of water required for a fully loaded VLCC runs to 50 or 60 feet and the ULCC may be 80 feet. Such ships belong in the exclusive category of displacement vessels called deep displacement ships.
There exists another type of displacement hull with extreme draft. However, it is similarity to the crude-oil carrier of the preceding discussion goes no further than that. This type of vessel is called the SWATH( small waterplane area twin hull). Briefly, this rather rare breed of ship is designed for relatively high speed and stable platform in moderately rough water. Its future is problematical, but the theory of placing the bulk of the displacement well below the surface and extending the support to the above-water platform or deck through the narrow waterline fins or struts is sound. Twin hulls connected by an upper platform provide the necessary operating stability. The most significant class of displacement hull for special application is the sub marine, a vessel for completely submerged operation. The nature of the submarine and a description of her various operational attitudes, both static and dynamic, is covered in subsequent chapters. It is only necessary here to emphasize that submerisible vessels are specifically displacement vessels applying the theory of Archimedes’ Principle and all that it implies.
Multihull Vessels
There is one other type of hull in common use that has not yet been mentioned, primarily because it fits into none of the categories described but rather can exist comfortably in any. This craft is the so-called multihull vessel----the catamaran and the trimaran. These vessels are most frequently displacement hulls in their larger sizes, such as the SWATH mentioned above, or more conventionally, ocean research vessels requiring stable platforms and protected areas for launching equipment. There are also the twin-hulled CAB vessels mentioned earlier and high-speed planning catamarans. Actually, the multihull ship is an adaptation of any of the basic hull categories to a special application that requires exceptional transverse stability and/ or the interhull working area.
2.3 Other Criteria
There are other criteria that justify the widely varied configurations of ship design. They are the result of trade-offs concerning cost, mission, speed, endurance, payload (cargo or weapons capacity), operating environment (stability, survivability, and port requirements), reliability, appearance, personal comfort and habitability, and political considerations. The relative importance of the various factors is dictated by the purpose of the vessel, which is set by the commercial firm, government, or individual who purchases the vessel. A useful classification based on purpose includes the following categories: merchant and commercial ships, naval vessels, and pleasure
craft.
Merchant and Commercial Ships
Merchant and commercial ships are generally bought to earn a profit. The previous discussed cargo ships are designed for the minimum (or at least competitive) “required freight rate,” which involves predicting the “life-cycle cost” of the ship, including the acquisition costs, the operating and maintenance costs, and anly salvage value remaining when the ship is sold. A “cashflow analysis” is made to establish what rate of return can be expected on the owner’s investment.
New designs of all commercial vessels, including cargo ships, passenger liners, fishing boats, offshore supply vessels, and tugboats, must compete economically with similar vessels available from the many worldwide shipbuilders. Government subsidies protecting the national shipbuilding industry from foreign competition can result in lower costs to the purchase, even when the actual ship construction costs are higher. Thus, political considerations can play an important role in the economics of commercial ship design and construction.
Appearance, personal comfort, and reliability are necessary for a luxury passenger liner to attract customers, whereas payload, endurance, and ability to survive a hostile sea environment are important considerations in the design of fishing vessels. Offshore supply vessels are concerned with speed for oil-rig crew transport or emergency services, but slower speeds may be acceptable when payloads such as drill pipe and drilling mud are the principal cargo. Operating environment includes both wind and wave conditions at sea and port and harbor capabilities ashore. Thus, deep-draft vessels may be excluded from certain geographic areas. Special-purpose cargo-handling devices such as the unloading ramps on roll-on/roll-off (Ro/Ro) ships may be necessary for quick turn around both at principal worldwide ports and those of underdeveloped countries. The latter ports impose other cargo-handling restrictions on the ship designer.
Naval and Coast Guard Vessels
Naval vessels are generally classified as combatants or auxiliaries, although there are special-purpose craft that do not fit easily into either category. For large combatant warships such as aircraft carriers, guided-missile cruisers, destroyers, and nuclear submarines, all of the previously mentioned factors become important---hence the enormous cost of such ships. Their military mission is of prime importance, but carrying out the mission depends on speed, endurance (possibly aided by at-sea replenishment for surface ships), weapons payload, and ability to operate and survive in hostile environments. Reliability under combat conditions, the appearance of military power, crew habitability that influences reenlistments, and the political importance of who becomes the prime contractor and principal weapons-system subcontractors: all these are factors that must be taken into consideration, making the construction and operation of warships very expensive for taxpayers.
Naval auxiliaries are more closely related to commercial ships in appearance, but their mission may involve operating with warships, which requires compatibility in
terms of speed, endurance, required payload, and the ability to conduct replenishment operations during poor sea conditions. Thus, one can expect the cost of such ships to be greater than that of their commercial counterparts. Oceanographic research vessels, Coast Guard cutters, and ice-breakers all have missions in which endurance, reliability, ability to operate in difficult environment, and habitability is important. Since smaller vessels have limited fuel capacity, there is a trade-off between speed and endurance; hence two types of power plant are frequently used to optimize both speed and endurance. The more exotic craft discussed in the previous sections generally sacrifice payload and endurance for speed.
Pleasure Craft
Pleasure craft, both motor powered and sail powered, come in a wide variety of size and shapes to suit individual requirements and tastes. The economic tradeoffs are based on what the potential buyer can afford or thinks he can afford. Appearance, speed, personal comfort and habitability, and stability are the major criteria for designs that satisfy the purpose of the craft, which is the enjoyment of leisure time.
Lesson 3 Principal Dimensions
Before studying in detail the various technical branches of naval architecture it is important to define various terms which will be made use of in later chapter. The purpose of this chapter is to explain these terms and to familiarize the reader with them. In the first place the dimensions by which the size of a ship is measured will be considere d; they are referred to as ‘principal dimensions’. The ship, like any solid body, requires three dimensions to define its size, and these are a length, a breadth and a depth. Each of these will be considered in turn.
3.1 Principal Dimensions
Length
There are various ways of defining the length of a ship, but first the length between perpendiculars will be considered. The length between perpendiculars is the distance measured parallel to the base at the level of the summer load waterline from the after perpendicular to the forward perpendicular. The after perpendicular is taken as the after side of the rudder post where there is such a post, and the forward perpendicular is the vertical line drawn through the intersection of the stem with the summer load waterline. In ships where there is no rudder post the after perpendicular is taken as the line passing through the centre line of the rudder pintles.
Chapter 1 Passage 1 Human Body In this passage you will learn: 1. Classification of organ systems 2. Structure and function of each organ system 3. Associated medical terms To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc. 了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。 Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article. 解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。本文描绘并阐述了各系统的主要部分。 The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made. 骨骼系统由骨、关节以及软骨组成。它对软组织及人体器官起到支持和保护作用，并牵动骨胳肌，引起各种运动。人体有206根骨头。骨形态不一，有长的、短、立方的、扁的及不规则的。许多长骨里有一个内层间隙，里面充填着骨髓，这即是血细胞的制造场所。 A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. 关节把骨与骨连接起来。颅骨不能运动，是由于骨与骨之间的连接太紧密。但其它的关节可允许活动，如一个平面上的前后屈伸运动，如肘关节；或是绕轴心旋转运动，如枢轴点允许头部转动。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里，大辐度的运动（如肩关节、髋关节）即成为可能。 Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult. 软骨是一种比一般骨更具韧性的物质。它是骨连结的保护、缓冲层。它把肋骨与胸骨连结起来，也是鼻腔与内耳的结构基础。一个婴儿的骨骼就是由软骨组成，然后不断生长、
期期末测试题 Ⅰ、Translate The Following Terms Into Chinese 、 1、entity concept 主题概念 2、depreciation折旧 3、double entry system 4、inventories 5、stable monetary unit 6、opening balance 7、current asset 8、financial report 9、prepaid expense 10、internal control 11、cash flow statement 12、cash basis 13、tangible fixed asset 14、managerial accounting 15、current liability 16、internal control 17、sales return and allowance 18、financial position 19、balance sheet 20、direct write-off method Ⅱ、Translate The Following Sentences Into Chinese 、 1、Accounting is often described as an information system、It is the system that measures business activities, processes into reports and communicates these findings to decision makers、 2、The primary users of financial information are investors and creditors、Secondary users include the public, government regulatory agencies, employees, customers, suppliers, industry groups, labor unions, other companies, and academic researchers、 3、There are two sources of assets、One is liabilities and the other is owner’s equity、Liabilities are obligations of an entity arising from past transactions or events, the settlement of which may result in the transfer or use of assets or services in the future、 资产有两个来源，一个就是负债，另一个就是所有者权益。负债就是由过去得交易或事件产生得实体得义务，其结算可能导致未来资产或服务得转让或使用。 4、Accounting elements are basic classification of accounting practices、They are essential units to present the financial position and operating result of an entity、In China, we have six groups of accounting elements、They are assets, liabilities, owner’s equity, revenue, expense and profit (income)、会计要素就是会计实践得基础分类。它们就是保护财务状况与实体经营
第二部分 控制理论 第1章 1.1控制系统的引入 人类控制自然力量的设计促进人类历史的发展,我们已经广泛的能利用这种量进行在人类本身力量之外的物理进程?在充满活力的20世纪中,控制系统工程的发展已经使得很多梦想成为了现实?控制系统工程队我们取得的成就贡献巨大?回首过去,控制系统工程主要的贡献在机器人,航天驾驶系统包括成功的实现航天器的软着陆,航空飞机自动驾驶与自动控制,船舶与潜水艇控制系统,水翼船?气垫船?高速铁路自动控制系统,现代铁路控制系统? 以上这些类型的控制控制系统和日常生活联系紧密,控制系统是一系列相关的原件在系统运行的基础上相互关联的构成的,此外控制系统存在无人状态下的运行,如飞机自控驾驶,汽车的巡航控制系统?对于控制系统,特别是工业控制系统,我们通常面对的是一系列的器件,自动控制是一个复合型的学科?控制工程师的工作需要具有力学,电子学,机械电子,流体力学,结构学,无料的各方面的知识?计算机在控制策略的执行中具有广泛的应用,并且控制工程的需求带动了信息技术的与软件工程的发展? 通常控制系统的范畴包括开环控制系统与闭环控制系统,两种系统的区别在于是否在系统中加入了闭环反馈装置? 开环控制系统 开环控制系统控制硬件形式很简单,图2.1描述了一个单容液位控制系统, 图2.1单容液位控制系统 我们的控制目标是保持容器的液位h 在水流出流量V 1变化的情况下保持在一定 可接受的范围内,可以通过调节入口流量V 2实现?这个系统不是精确的系统,本系 统无法精确地检测输出流量V 2,输入流量V 1以及容器液位高度?图2.2描述了这 个系统存在的输入(期望的液位)与输出(实际液位)之间的简单关系, 图2.2液位控制系统框图 这种信号流之间的物理关系的描述称为框图?箭头用来描述输入进入系统,以及
机械专业英语词汇 陶瓷ceramics 合成纤维synthetic fibre 电化学腐蚀electrochemical corrosion 车架automotive chassis 悬架suspension 转向器redirector 变速器speed changer 板料冲压sheet metal parts 孔加工spot facing machining 车间workshop 工程技术人员engineer 气动夹紧pneuma lock 数学模型mathematical model 画法几何descriptive geometry 机械制图Mechanical drawing 投影projection 视图view 剖视图profile chart 标准件standard component 零件图part drawing 装配图assembly drawing 尺寸标注size marking 技术要求technical requirements 刚度rigidity 内力internal force 位移displacement 截面section 疲劳极限fatigue limit 断裂fracture 塑性变形plastic distortion 脆性材料brittleness material 刚度准则rigidity criterion 垫圈washer 垫片spacer 直齿圆柱齿轮straight toothed spur gear 斜齿圆柱齿轮helical-spur gear 直齿锥齿轮straight bevel gear 运动简图kinematic sketch 齿轮齿条pinion and rack 蜗杆蜗轮worm and worm gear 虚约束passive constraint 曲柄crank 摇杆racker 凸轮cams 共轭曲线conjugate curve 范成法generation method 定义域definitional domain 值域range 导数\\微分differential coefficient 求导derivation 定积分definite integral 不定积分indefinite integral 曲率curvature 偏微分partial differential 毛坯rough 游标卡尺slide caliper 千分尺micrometer calipers 攻丝tap 二阶行列式second order determinant 逆矩阵inverse matrix 线性方程组linear equations 概率probability 随机变量random variable 排列组合permutation and combination 气体状态方程equation of state of gas 动能kinetic energy 势能potential energy 机械能守恒conservation of mechanical energy 动量momentum 桁架truss 轴线axes 余子式cofactor 逻辑电路logic circuit 触发器flip-flop 脉冲波形pulse shape 数模digital analogy 液压传动机构fluid drive mechanism 机械零件mechanical parts 淬火冷却quench 淬火hardening 回火tempering 调质hardening and tempering 磨粒abrasive grain 结合剂bonding agent 砂轮grinding wheel 后角clearance angle 龙门刨削planing 主轴spindle
Table of Contents Uuit 1 What is Geomatics? （什么是测绘学） (2) Unit 2 Geodetic Surveying and Plane Surveying（大地测量与平面测量） (6) Unit 3 Distance Measurement（距离测量） (10) Unit 4 Angle and Direction Measurement（角度和方向测量） (14) Unit 5 Traversing （导线测量） (17) Unit 6 Methods of Elevation Determination（高程测量方法） (21) Unit 7 Robotic Total Station （智能型全站仪） (25) Unit 8 Errors in Measurement（测量工作中的误差） (29) Unit 9 Basic Statistical Analysis of Random Errors (32) Unit 10 Accuracy and Precision （准确度和精度） (35) Unit 11 Least-Squares Adjustment (38) Unit 12 Geodesy Concepts (40) Unit 13 Geoid and Reference Ellipsoid (42) Unit 14 Datums, Coordinates and Conversions (44) Unit 15 Map Projection (46) Unit 16 Gravity Measurment (48) Unit 17 Optimal Design of Geomatics Network (50) Unit 18 Construction Layout （施工放样） (53) Unit 19 Deformation Monitoring of Engineering Struvture (56) Unit 20 Understan ding the GPS（认识GPS） (59) Uuit 21 Understanding the GPS (II) 认识GPS(II) (62) Unit 22 Competition in Space Orbit（太空轨道上的竞争） (64) Unit 23 GIS Basics（GIS 的基础） (69) Unit 24 Data Types and Models in GIS GIS中的数据类型和模型 (75) Unit 25 Digital Terrain Modeling（数字地面模型） (79) Unit 26 Applications of GIS (83) Unit 27 Developments of photogrammetry (87) Unit 28 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing （遥感的基础） (90) Unit 29 Digital Image Processing and Its Applications in RS (94) Unit 30 Airborne Laser Mapping Technology（机载激光测图技术） (99) Unit 31 Interferometric SAR(InSAR) (102) Unit 32 Brief Introduction toApplied Geophysics (104) Unit 33 Origon of Induced Polarization (105) Unit 34 International Geoscience Organization (108) Unit 35 Prestigious Journals in Geomatics (110) Unit 36 Relevant Surveying Instrument Companies (115) Unit 37 Expression of Simple Equations and Scientific Formulsa (116) Unit 38 Professional English Paper Writing (119) Unit 39 Translation Techniques for EST (127)
会计专业英语期末考试练习卷(new)
1. The economic resources of a business are called : B A. Owner ’s Equity B. Assets C. Accounting equation D. Liabilities 2. DTK Company has a $3500 accounts receivable from GRS Company. On January 20, GRS Company makes a partial payment of $210 0 to DTK Company. The journal entry made on January 20 by DTK Company to record this transaction includes: D A. A debit to the cash receivable account of $2100. B. A credit to the accounts receivable account of $2100. C. A debit to the cash account of $1400. D. A debit to the accounts receivable account of $1400. 3. In general terms, financial assets appear in the balance sheet at: A A. Face value. 账面价值 B. Current value. 现值 C. Market value. 市场价值 D. Estimated future sales value. 4. Each of the following measures strengthens intern al control over cash receipts except : D A. The use of a voucher system. B. Preparation of a daily listing of all checks received through the mail. C. The deposit of cash receipts intact in the bank on a daily basis. D. The use of cash registers. 5. Which of the following items is the greatest in dollar amount? D A. Beginning inventory B. Cost of goods sold. C. Cost of goods available for sale D. Ending inventory 6. Why do companies prefer the LIFO inventory 后进先出法method during a period of rising prices? B A. Higher reported income B. Lower income taxes C. Lower reported income D. Higher ending inventory 7. Which of the following characteristics would prevent an item from being included in the classification of plant and equipment? D A. Intangible
1、应力和应变 应力和应变的概念可以通过考虑一个棱柱形杆的拉伸这样一个简单的方式来说明。一个棱柱形的杆是一个遍及它的长度方向和直轴都是恒定的横截面。在这个实例中，假设在杆的两端施加有轴向力F，并且在杆上产生了均匀的伸长或者拉紧。 通过在杆上人工分割出一个垂直于其轴的截面mm，我们可以分离出杆的部分作为自由体【如图1(b)】。在左端施加有拉力P，在另一个端有一个代表杆上被移除部分作用在仍然保存的那部分的力。这些力是连续分布在横截面的，类似于静水压力在被淹没表面的连续分布。 力的集度，也就是单位面积上的力，叫做应力，通常是用希腊字母，来表示。假设应力在横截面上是均匀分布的【如图1(b)】，我们可以很容易的看出它的合力等于集度，乘以杆的横截面积A。而且，从图1所示的物体的平衡，我们可以看出它的合力与力P必须的大小相等，方向相反。因此，我们可以得出 等式(1)可以作为棱柱形杆上均匀应力的方程。这个等式表明应力的单位是，力除以面积。当杆被力P拉伸时，如图所示，产生的应力是拉应力，如果力在方向是相反，使杆被压缩，它们就叫做压应力。 使等式(1)成立的一个必要条件是，应力，必须是均匀分布在杆的横截面上。如果轴向力P作用在横截面的形心处，那么这个条件就实现了。当力P没有通过形心时，杆会发生弯曲，这就需要更复杂的分析。目前，我们假设所有的轴向力都是作用在横截面的形心处，除非有相反情况特别说明。同样，除非另有说明，一般也假设物体的质量是忽略的，如我们讨论图1的杆
一样。 轴向力使杆产生的全部伸长量，用希腊字母δ表示【如图1(a)】，单位长度的伸长量，或者应变，可以用等式来决定。 L是杆的总长。注意应变ε是一个无量纲的量。只要应变是在杆的长度方向均匀的，应变就可以从等式(2)中准确获得。如果杆处于拉伸状态，应变就是拉应变，代表材料的伸长或者延长如果杆处于受压状态，那么应变就是压应变，这也就意味着杆上临近的横截面是互相靠近的。 当材料的应力和应变显示的是线性关系时，也就是线弹性。这对多数固体材料来说是极其重要的性质，包括多数金属，塑料，木材，混凝土和陶瓷。处于拉伸状态下，杆的应力和应变间的线性关系可以用简单的等式来表示。E是比例常数，叫做材料的弹性模量。 注意E和应力有同样的单位。在英国科学家托马斯·杨(1773 ~ 1829)研究杆的弹性行为之后，弹性模量有时也叫做杨氏模量。对大多数材料来说，压缩状态下的弹性模量与处于拉伸时的弹性模量的一样的。 2、拉伸应力应变行为 一个特殊材料中应力和应变的关系是通过拉伸测试来决定的。材料的试样通常是圆棒的形式，被安置在测试机上，承受拉力。当载荷增加时，测量棒上的力和棒的伸长量。力除以横截面积可以得出棒的应力，伸长量除以伸长发生方向的长度可以得出应变。通过这种方式，材料的完整应力应变图就可以得到。 图1所示的是结构钢的应力应变图的典型形状，轴向应变显示在水平轴，对应的应力以纵坐标表示为曲线OABCDE。从O点到A点，应力和应变之间是
英语原文 NUMERICAL CONTROL Numerical control(N/C)is a form of programmable automation in which the processing equipment is controlled by means of numbers, letters, and other symbols, The numbers, letters, and symbols are coded in an appropriate format to define a program of instructions for a particular work part or job. When the job changes, the program of instructions is changed. The capability to change the program is what makes N/C suitable for low-and medium-volume production. It is much easier to write programs than to make major alterations of the processing equipment. There are two basic types of numerically controlled machine tools：point—to—point and continuous—path(also called contouring).Point—to—point machines use unsynchronized motors, with the result that the position of the machining head Can be assured only upon completion of a movement, or while only one motor is running. Machines of this type are principally used for straight—line cuts or for drilling or boring. The N/C system consists of the following components：data input, the tape reader with the control unit, feedback devices, and the metal—cutting machine tool or other type of N/C equipment. Data input, also called “man—to—control link”,may be provided to the machine tool manually, or entirely by automatic means. Manual methods when used as the sole source of input data are restricted to a relatively small number of inputs. Examples of manually operated devices are keyboard dials, pushbuttons, switches, or thumbwheel selectors. These are located on a console near the machine. Dials ale analog devices usually connected to a syn-chro-type resolver or potentiometer. In most cases, pushbuttons, switches, and other similar types of selectors are digital input devices. Manual input requires that the operator set the controls for each operation. It is a slow and tedious process and is seldom justified except in elementary machining applications or in special cases. In practically all cases, information is automatically supplied to the control unit and the machine tool by cards, punched tapes, or by magnetic tape. Eight—channel punched paper tape is the most commonly used form of data input for conventional N/C systems. The coded instructions on the tape consist of sections of punched holes called blocks. Each block represents a machine function, a machining operation, or a combination of the two. The entire N/C program on a tape is made up of an accumulation of these successive data blocks. Programs resulting in long tapes all wound on reels like motion-picture film. Programs on relatively short tapes may be continuously repeated by joining the two ends of the tape to form a loop. Once installed, the tape is used again and again without further handling. In this case, the operator simply loads and
机械专业英语 Assembly line组装线 Layout布置图 Conveyer流水线物料板 Rivet table拉钉机 Rivet gun拉钉枪 Screw driver起子 Electric screw driver电动起子Pneumatic screw driver气动起子worktable 工作桌 OOBA开箱检查 fit together组装在一起 fasten锁紧(螺丝) fixture 夹具(治具) pallet栈板 barcode条码 barcode scanner条码扫描器fuse together熔合 fuse machine热熔机 repair修理 operator作业员 QC品管 supervisor 课长 ME制造工程师 MT制造生技 cosmetic inspect外观检查 inner parts inspect内部检查thumb screw大头螺丝 lbs. inch镑、英寸 EMI gasket导电条 front plate前板 rear plate后板 chassis 基座 bezel panel面板 power button电源按键 reset button重置键 Hi-pot test of SPS高源高压测试V oltage switch of SPS 电源电压接拉键 sheet metal parts 冲件 plastic parts塑胶件 SOP制造作业程序 material check list物料检查表
trolley台车 carton纸箱 sub-line支线 left fork叉车 personnel resource department 人力资源部 production department生产部门 planning department企划部 QC Section品管科 stamping factory冲压厂 painting factory烤漆厂 molding factory成型厂 common equipment常用设备 uncoiler and straightener整平机 punching machine 冲床 robot机械手 hydraulic machine油压机 lathe车床 |刨床 planer |'plein miller铣床 grinder磨床 driller??床 linear cutting线切割 electrical sparkle电火花 welder电焊机 staker=reviting machine铆合机 position职务 president董事长 general manager总经理 special assistant manager特助 factory director厂长 department director部长 deputy manager | =vice manager副理 section supervisor课长 deputy section supervisor =vice section superisor副课长group leader/supervisor组长 line supervisor线长 assistant manager助理 to move, to carry, to handle搬运 be put in storage入库 pack packing包装 to apply oil擦油 to file burr 锉毛刺
《财会专业英语》期终试卷 I.Put the following into corresponding groups. (15 points) 1.Cash on hand 2.Notes receivable 3.Advances to suppliers 4. Other receivables 5.Short-term loans 6.Intangible assets 7.Cost of production 8.Current year profit 9. Capital reserve 10.Long-term loans 11.Other payables 12. Con-operating expenses 13.Financial expenses 14.Cost of sale 15. Accrued payroll II.Please find the best answers to the following questions. (25 Points) 1. Aftin Co. performs services on account when Aftin collects the account receivable A.assets increase B.assets do not change C.owner’s equity d ecreases D.liabilities decrease 2. A balance sheet report . A. the assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity on a particular date B. the change in the owner’s capital during the period C. the cash receipt and cash payment during the period D. the difference between revenues and expenses during the period 3. The following information about the assets and liabilities at the end of 20 x 1 and 20 x 2 is given below: 20 x 1 20 x 2 Assets $ 75,000 $ 90,000 Liabilities 36,000 45,000 how much the owner’sequity at the end of 20 x 2 ? A.$ 4,500 B.$ 6,000 C.$ 45,000 D.$ 43,000
机械制造专业英语文章 篇一：机械专业英语文章中英文对照 Types of Materials 材料的类型 Materials may be grouped in several ways. Scientists often classify materials by their state: solid, liquid, or gas. They also separate them into organic (once living) and inorganic (never living) materials. 材料可以按多种方法分类。科学家常根据状态将材料分为：固体、液体或气体。他们也把材料分为有机材料(曾经有生命的)和无机材料(从未有生命的)。 For industrial purposes, materials are divided into engineering materials or nonengineering materials. Engineering materials are those used in manufacture and become parts of products. 就工业效用而言，材料被分为工程材料和非工程材料。那些用于加工制造并成为产品组成部分的就是工程材料。 Nonengineering materials are the chemicals, fuels, lubricants, and other materials used in the manufacturing process, which do not become part of the product. 非工程材料则是化学品、燃料、润滑剂以及其它用于加工制造过程但不成为产品组成部分的材料。 Engineering materials may be further subdivided into: ①Metal ②Ceramics ③Composite ④Polymers, etc. 工程材料还能进一步细分为：①金属材料②陶瓷材料③复合材料④聚合材料，等等。 Metals and Metal Alloys 金属和金属合金 Metals are elements that generally have good electrical and thermal conductivity. Many metals have high strength, high stiffness, and have good ductility. 金属就是通常具有良好导电性和导热性的元素。许多金属具有高强度、高硬度以及良好的延展性。 Some metals, such as iron, cobalt and nickel, are magnetic. At low temperatures, some metals and intermetallic compounds become superconductors. 某些金属能被磁化，例如铁、钴和镍。在极低的温度下，某些金属和金属化合物能转变成超导体。 What is the difference between an alloy and a pure metal? Pure metals are elements which come from a particular area of the periodic table. Examples of pure metals include copper in electrical wires and aluminum in cooking foil and beverage cans. 合金与纯金属的区别是什么？纯金属是在元素周期表中占据特定位置的元素。 例如电线中的铜和制造烹饪箔及饮料罐的铝。 Alloys contain more than one metallic element. Their properties can be changed by changing the elements present in the alloy. Examples of metal alloys include stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel, and chromium; and gold jewelry which usually contains an alloy of gold