第一部分
摘要：
计算、通信和传感技术的快速进步给控制领域提供了前所未有的机会, 以适应国家的经济和国防需求从而扩大它的贡献。这份报告提出了一个专家小组特许检查的发现和建议。我们的报告包含控制的概述,成功和影响,并描述了它的新的挑战。我们不要试图覆盖整个领域。相反,我们关注的这些地区正在经历最快速变化，所以要求使用新的方法来满足社会面临的挑战和机遇。
控制的概述
本报告中控制定义指的是使用算法和反馈工程系统。最简单的方面,控制系统是一个用来通过计算和修改一个系统行为驱动的设备。控制系统工程的历史可以追溯到工业革命,离心调速器等设备,如图1.1所示。这个设备使用一个飞球机制,汽机的轮转速和调整蒸汽流入机器使用一系列的联系。因此通过调节涡轮的速度,它提供了安全、可靠、一致的操作需要使蒸汽动力工厂的迅速蔓延。
控制在技术的发展中扮演了至关重要的部分，比如电力，通讯，交通和制造。例子包括自动驾驶仪在军用和商用飞机（图 1.2A），调节和控制电力网，并在磁盘的读/写磁头定位精度高驱动器（图1.2B）。反馈是在各种应用领域的使能技术，已被彻底改造，并在不同环境下获得专利很多次。
图1.1，离心调速（一），在18世纪80年代开发的，是一个
成功的瓦特蒸汽机的推动者（二），这推动了工业革命。剑桥大学图提供者。
控制的现代观点认为反馈作为不确定性管理的工具。通过测量系统的操作，与参照相比较，调节可用的控制变量，我们可以使系统正确响应，即使其动态行为是不完全已知的，或者外部干扰导致它错误地响应。这是在工程系统中一个重要的特征，因为它们必须在各种条件下进行可靠和有效地操作。这个方面恰恰正是控制对于不确定性为了确保稳健性的一种手段，解释了在现代科技，世界为什么反馈控制系统都在我们身边。他们在我们的家、汽车和消费类电子产品里，在我们的工厂和通讯系统中，在我们的交通运输、军事和航天系统中。
控件的使用极其广泛，包括了许多不同应用程序。这些包括机电系统控制，计算机控制的执行器和传感器调节系统的行为；电子系统控制，反将被用来补偿元件或参数的变化，提供可靠的、
可重复的性能；信息和决策系统控制，基于未来需求的估计将有限的资源动态分配。控制原理也可以这些领域找到，例如生物学、医学、经济学，那里的反馈机制是永远存在的。随着时代的发展，控制在工程系统中也是关键型的任务功能：如果控制系统不能正常工作，系统将会失败。
对控制领域做出贡献的来自许多学科，包括纯数学和应用数学、航天、化工、机械和电气工程；运营研究和经济学，以及物理和生物科学。这些不同领域的互动是历史的一个重要组成部分和领域里的一种力量。
成就和影响
在过去的40年里，模拟和数字电子产品的出现，使控制技术远远传播超出了它最初的应用，并且使得它在许多应用中取得了使能技术。从过去的控制投资可见成果包括：
图1.2，控制的应用：（一）波音777飞行线控飞机
及（b）希捷Barracuda36ES2磁盘驱动器。照片提供者的波音公司与希捷科技。
●用于制造航天飞行器制导和控制系统，包括商业飞机、导弹、先进的战斗机、运载火
箭和卫星。这些控制系统提供稳定性，在大环境和系统的不确定性的情况下发出跟踪。
●制造业的控制系统，从汽车到集成电路。电脑控制的机器提供精确定位和装配所需的
高品质、高产量构成的制造和产品。
●工业过程控制系统，尤其是在烃和化学加工等行业。数百阀门，加热器，泵和其它执
行机构，为了保持产品的高品质，成千上万的传感器信号用来监视，并做出相应的调整。
●通信系统，包括电话系统，控制细胞电话和互联网。控制系统在发射器和中继器中调
节信号功率电平，管理数据包缓冲区的网络路由设备，并提供自适应噪声消除功能，以
应对不同传输线路特性。
这些应用都对现代社会的生产力产生巨大的影响。
除了其在工程应用中的影响，控制也取得了显著的智力贡献。由于需要制定激励可证明正确的技术反馈系统的设计，控制理论与工程师们严格的使用和对数学的贡献。他们一直是一致倡导“系统透视，”并制定可靠的技术进行建模、分析、设计和测试，设计和实施目前使用的各种非常复杂的工程系统。此外，对于接受这个系统的角度，希望掌握它涉及的大量集中的知识和技能的人来说，控制社会是一个主要来源和训练场地。
图1.3，现代网络系统：（一）美国加州电网和
（二）NSFNET互联网骨干网。图提供者加利福尼亚州和
国家中心的超级计算机应用程序（NCSA）。
未来的机遇和挑战
当我们展望未来，在控制急剧扩大的背景下，新应用的机遇将建立在控制的进步上。普遍存在、分布式计算，通信和传感系统的出现已经开始创造我们有机会获得大量数据和无法被想象20年前的方式处理和传达数据的能力的环境。这将对军事，商业和科学应用产生深远的影响，尤其是作为软件系统开始与集成度越来越高的物理系统联系起来。图1.3说明了两个系统中这些趋势已经明显。控制将是构建这样相互关联的一个越来越重要的元素。系统能够提供高性能，高可信度和可重配置操作中的不确定性因素依然存在。
在所有这些领域中，一个共同特点是，系统层面的需求远超过单个组分的可实现的可靠性。
这正是控制（在其最一般的意义上）发挥的主要作用，因为它允许系统这样操作以确保它是在检测当前状态的基础上通过校正它的动作实现其目标的。这个领域所面临的挑战是来自控制系统的传统观点，例如单个控制器的单一程序，为了确认控制系统作为一个物理与信息系统异类集合，具有复杂的相互联系和相互作用。
控制是防御系统的关键技术。在打击恐怖主义和非对称威胁的斗争日益重要。控制允许的自主操作和半自主无人系统困难而危险，还有先进的指挥和控制系统能够提供可靠的，可重构的决策系统。微控件和senosr网的使用将提高我们检测威胁的能力，在他们会损坏之前。反馈通信系统的新用途将提供可靠，灵活，安全的网络操作在动态的、不确定的、敌对的环境中。
为了实现控制的潜力施加到这些新兴的应用，必须制定新的方法和途径。其中目前的领域面临许多挑战，下面举几个例子预测未来的困难：
●符号和连续的动态控制系统。下一代系统将结合逻辑运算（如符号推理和决策）与连续
（如电压，位置，浓度）。目前的理论没有得到很好的处理，以应付此类系统，尤其是
我们扩展到非常大的系统。
●控制在分布式的，异步的，网络环境。分布式控制跨越多个计算单元，通过packetbased
互联通信，它将需要新的形式，以确保稳定性，性能和鲁棒性。这在应用中是特别真实
的，例如不能忽视在执行制操作计算和通讯方面的限制。
●高一级的协调和自主性。越来越多的反馈被设计成整个企业的决策系统，包括供应链管
理和物流，空域管理和空中交通管制，和C4ISRsystems。过去几十年的分析和设计坚
固的进步
控制系统必须扩展到这些较高层次的决策系统，如果他们要在现实环境可靠运行。
●控制算法的自动合成，汇集了核查和验证。未来的工程系统需要快速设计的能力，再设
计和实施控制软件。研究人员需要开发更强大的设计工具自动完成整个控制设计流程从模型开发到硬件在环仿真，包括系统级软件验证与确认。
●构建非常可靠的系统来自不可靠的部件。即使个别组件无法运行，多数大型工程
系统必须继续。越来越多地，这要求的设计，使系统自动重新配置自身，以便其性能逐渐下降，而不是硬生生地。
为了使结果严谨，务实，和广泛使用，所有这些挑战将需要研究界多年的努力。他们也将需要资助机构投资，以确保目前的进展情况，并继续那未来的技术得以最充分实现。
建议
为了应对这些挑战，并提供在控制领域的承诺，建议进行以下操作：
1.大幅增加研究旨在控制，计算机的集成科学，通信和联网。这包括原理、方法、用于建模
和高层次，网络化，分布式系统控制工具，和严谨可靠的技术，嵌入式，实时软件。
2.大幅提高控制在较高水平的决策研究，迈向企业级系统。这包括工作在动态资源、分配的
不确定性、学习和适应、人工智能的动态系统。
3.探索高风险，远程控制应用到新的领域，例如纳米技术，量子力学，电磁学，生物学和环
境科学。双向调查员，跨学科的资金可能是一个在此上下文中是特别有用的机制。
4.为维护理论与互动数学的支持，需要广义的解释。场的强度依赖于它与严格数学的亲密接
触，这将在未来变得越来越重要。
5.传播控制的概念和工具，投资新的方法来教育和宣传，以适应非传统的观众。科学家和工
程师用反馈和控件来改变系统的动力学原理和管理的不确定性，社会对他们来说起到了更广泛的教育。
控制是会通过许多应用程序产生影响,航空航天、交通、信息和网络、机器人和智能机器、材料和加工、生物学和医学。它将使我们能够构建更复杂的系统,并确保我们构建的系统是可靠的,高效和健壮的。该小组的建议是基于在不同控制严谨的工作传统，实现机遇的关键行动在一个信息丰富的世界的控制。
工业设计原著选读 优秀的产品设计 第一个拨号电话1897年由卡罗耳Gantz 第一个拨号电话在1897年被自动电器公司引入，成立于1891年布朗强，一名勘萨斯州承担者。在1889年，相信铃声“中央交换”将转移来电给竞争对手，强发明了被拨号系统控制的自动交换机系统。这个系统在1892年第一次在拉波特完成史端乔系统中被安装。1897年，强的模型电话，然而模型扶轮拨条的位置没有类似于轮齿约170度,以及边缘拨阀瓣。电话，当然是被亚历山大格雷厄姆贝尔（1847—1922）在1876年发明的。第一个商业交换始建于1878（12个使用者），在1879年，多交换机系统由工程师勒罗伊B 菲尔曼发明,使电话取得商业成功,用户在1890年达到250000。 直到1894年，贝尔原批专利过期，贝尔电话公司在市场上有一个虚拟的垄断。他们已经成功侵权投诉反对至少600竞争者。该公司曾在1896年，刚刚在中央交易所推出了电源的“普通电池”制度。在那之前，一个人有手摇电话以提供足够的电力呼叫。一个连接可能仍然只能在给予该人的名义下提出要求达到一个电话接线员。这是强改变的原因。 强很快成为贝尔的强大竞争者。他在1901年引进了一个桌面拨号模型，这个模型在设计方面比贝尔的模型更加清晰。在1902年，他引进了一个带有磁盘拨号的墙面电话，这次与实际指孔，仍然只有170度左右在磁盘周围。到1905年，一个“长距离”手指孔已经被增加了。最后一个强的知名模型是在1907年。强的专利大概过期于1914年，之后他或他的公司再也没有听到过。直到1919年贝尔引进了拨号系统。当他们这样做，在拨号盘的周围手指孔被充分扩展了。 强发明的拨号系统直到1922年进入像纽约一样的大城市才成为主流。但是一旦作为规规范被确立，直到70年代它仍然是主要的电话技术。后按键式拨号在1963年被推出之后，强发明的最初的手指拨号系统作为“旋转的拨号系统”而知名。这是强怎样“让你的手指拨号”的。 埃姆斯椅LCW和DCW 1947 这些带有复合曲线座位，靠背和橡胶防震装置的成型胶合板椅是由查尔斯埃姆斯设计，在赫曼米勒家具公司生产的。 这个原始的概念是被查尔斯埃姆斯（1907—1978）和埃罗沙里宁（1910—1961）在1940年合作构想出来的。在1937年，埃姆斯成为克兰布鲁克学院实验设计部门的领头人，和沙里宁一起工作调查材料和家具。在这些努力下，埃姆斯发明了分成薄片和成型胶合板夹板，被称作埃姆斯夹板，在1941年收到了来自美国海军5000人的订单。查尔斯和他的妻子雷在他们威尼斯，钙的工作室及工厂和埃文斯产品公司的生产厂家一起生产了这批订单。 在1941年现代艺术博物馆，艾略特诺伊斯组织了一场比赛用以发现对现代生活富有想象力的设计师。奖项颁发给了埃姆斯和沙里宁他们的椅子和存储碎片，由包括埃德加考夫曼，大都会艺术博物馆的阿尔弗雷德，艾略特诺伊斯，马尔塞布鲁尔，弗兰克帕里什和建筑师爱德华达雷尔斯通的陪审团裁决。 这些椅子在1946年的现代艺术展览博物馆被展出，查尔斯埃姆斯设计的新的家具。当时，椅子只有三条腿，稳定性问题气馁了大规模生产。 早期的LCW（低木椅）和DWC（就餐木椅）设计有四条木腿在1946年第一次被埃文斯产品公司（埃姆斯的战时雇主）生产出来，被赫曼米勒家具公司分配。这些工具1946年被乔治纳尔逊为赫曼米勒购买，在1949年接手制造权。后来金属脚的愿景在1951年制作，包括LCW（低金属椅）和DWC（就餐金属椅）模型。配套的餐饮和咖啡桌也产生。这条线一直
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. （Sales Promotion;E--Marketing；Internet；Strategic Planning ） 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies；More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.
forced concrete structure reinforced with an overviewRein Since the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance. Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency. 1、steel mechanical link 1.1 radial squeeze link Will be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linked Characteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.
Interaction design Moggridge Bill Interaction design，Page 1-15 USA Art Press, 2008 Interaction design (IxD) is the study of devices with which a user can interact, in particular computer users. The practice typically centers on "embedding information technology into the ambient social complexities of the physical world."[1] It can also apply to other types of non-electronic products and services, and even organizations. Interaction design defines the behavior (the "interaction") of an artifact or system in response to its users. Malcolm McCullough has written, "As a consequence of pervasive computing, interaction design is poised to become one of the main liberal arts of the twenty-first century." Certain basic principles of cognitive psychology provide grounding for interaction design. These include mental models, mapping, interface metaphors, and affordances. Many of these are laid out in Donald Norman's influential book The Psychology of Everyday Things. As technologies are often overly complex for their intended target audience, interaction design aims to minimize the learning curve and to increase accuracy and efficiency of a task without diminishing usefulness. The objective is to reduce frustration and increase user productivity and satisfaction. Interaction design attempts to improve the usability and experience of the product, by first researching and understanding certain users' needs and then designing to meet and exceed them. (Figuring out who needs to use it, and how those people would like to use it.) Only by involving users who will use a product or system on a regular basis will designers be able to properly tailor and maximize usability. Involving real users, designers gain the ability to better understand user goals and experiences. (see also: User-centered design) There are also positive side effects which include enhanced system capability awareness and user ownership. It is important that the user be aware of system capabilities from an early stage so that expectations regarding functionality are both realistic and properly understood. Also, users who have been active participants in a product's development are more likely to feel a sense of ownership, thus increasing overall satisfa. Instructional design is a goal-oriented, user-centric approach to creating training and education software or written materials. Interaction design and instructional design both rely on cognitive psychology theories to focus on how users will interact with software. They both take an in-depth approach to analyzing the user's needs and goals. A needs analysis is often performed in both disciplines. Both, approach the design from the user's perspective. Both, involve gathering feedback from users, and making revisions until the product or service has been found to be effective. (Summative / formative evaluations) In many ways, instructional
Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/4615814229.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>
外文文献： Risk Analysis of the International Construction Project By: Paul Stanford Kupakuwana Cost Engineering Vol. 51/No. 9 September 2009 ABSTRACT This analysis used a case study methodology to analyse the issues surrounding the partial collapse of the roof of a building housing the headquarters of the Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ). In particular, it examined the prior roles played by the team of construction professionals. The analysis revealed that the SAZ’s traditional construction project was generally characterized by high risk. There was a clear indication of the failure of a contractor and architects in preventing and/or mitigating potential construction problems as alleged by the plaintiff. It was reasonable to conclude that between them the defects should have been detected earlier and rectified in good time before the partial roof failure. It appeared justified for the plaintiff to have brought a negligence claim against both the contractor and the architects. The risk analysis facilitated, through its multi-dimensional approach to a critical examination of a construction problem, the identification of an effective risk management strategy for future construction projects. It further served to emphasize the point that clients are becoming more demanding, more discerning, and less willing to accept risk without recompense. Clients do not want surprise, and are more likely to engage in litigation when things go wrong. KEY WORDS:Arbitration, claims, construction, contracts, litigation, project and risk The structural design of the reinforced concrete elements was done by consulting engineers Knight Piesold (KP). Quantity surveying services were provided by Hawkins, Leshnick & Bath (HLB). The contract was awarded to Central African Building Corporation (CABCO) who was also responsible for the provision of a specialist roof structure using patented “gang nail” roof
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译原文：
DESIGN and ENVIRONMENT Product design is the principal part and kernel of industrial design. Product design gives uses pleasure. A good design can bring hope and create new lifestyle to human. In spscificity,products are only outcomes of factory such as mechanical and electrical products,costume and so on.In generality,anything,whatever it is tangibile or intangible,that can be provided for a market,can be weighed with value by customers, and can satisfy a need or desire,can be entiled as products. Innovative design has come into human life. It makes product looking brand-new and brings new aesthetic feeling and attraction that are different from traditional products. Enterprose tend to renovate idea of product design because of change of consumer's lifestyle , emphasis on individuation and self-expression,market competition and requirement of individuation of product. Product design includes factors of society ,economy, techology and leterae humaniores. Tasks of product design includes styling, color, face processing and selection of material and optimization of human-machine interface. Design is a kind of thinking of lifestyle.Product and design conception can guide human lifestyle . In reverse , lifestyle also manipulates orientation and development of product from thinking layer.
毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄
最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721
外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source：Marketing Management Author：Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is