《语言学教程》第三版胡壮麟主编配套笔记Stella 整理Chapter 1 What is language?
重点：design features of language ;
Why study language?
A tool for communication
An integral part of our life and humanity
If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.
[A] The origins of language
Some speculations of the origins of language:
① The divine source
The basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language. Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.
② The natural-sound source
The bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.
The ―Yo-heave-ho‖ theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.
Onomatopoeic sounds
③ The oral-gesture source
It is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication.
The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.
④ Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）
This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.
Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactions Physical adaptation:
Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.
Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.
The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.
The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.
The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.
Two major functions of language:
Interactional: a social function of language.
Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information [B] The properties of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
a) System: combined together according to rules
b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word ―pen‖ and the thing in the world which it refers to
c) V ocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages
d) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）
Communicative vs. Informative:
Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate something Informative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sent
Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication
① Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations)
我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西
② Arbitrariness（任意性）
There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.
E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)
Mansion (French)
房子(Chinese)
While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.
a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words
b) some compound words
③Creativity（创造性）
Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (novel utterances are continually being created.)
④ Cultural transition（文化传递性）
While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.
⑤ Discreteness（可分离性）
Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.
⑥ Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）
Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless.
The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)
the higher level ----words which are meaningful
the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.
The above 6 properties may be taken as the core features of human language.
V ocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.
[C] The development of written language
① pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）
Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.
Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogram
Hieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字
② Logograms（语标书写法）
When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.
―Arbitrariness‖—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence. Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)
Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.
Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system. Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.
③ Syllabic writing（音节书写法）
When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.
The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)
④ Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）
Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this rule
The Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the Romans
Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)
⑤ Rebus writing
Robus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.
Chapter 2 What is linguistics?
重点：some important distinctions in linguistics
[A] The definition of linguistics
Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a major branch of social science. Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.
Process of linguistic study: observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theory
① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;
② Hypotheses are formulated;
③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;
④ A linguistic theory is constructed.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. [B] The scope of linguistics
普通语言学General linguistics: the study of language as a whole
语音学Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)
音韵学Phonology:is essentially the description of the systems and patterns语音of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)
形态学Morphology:the study of the way in which are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form
句法学Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 语义学Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 抽象
语用学Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use使用情境
社会语言学Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning
Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics
[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics
① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive
They represent two different types of linguistic study.
规定式Prescriptive---a term used to characterize any approach which attempt to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used. （how they ought to be）描写式Descriptive---to describe the fact of linguistic usage as they are, and not how they ought to be, with reference to some real or imagined ideal state.（how things are）
② Synchronic vs. Diachronic
The description of a language at some point in time;
The description of a language as it changes through time.
Synchronic (linguistics)---languages are studied at a theoretic point in time: one describes a ?state‘ of language, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. Diachronic----languages are studied from point of view of their historical development–for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological音韵学的, grammatical语法的and semantic语义学terms.
T he description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the
description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. Most grammars are synchronic. That is, they try to give a description of how a language is used at the present day. Diachronic study may recall to us the changes a language has undergone, for example, what phonological, grammatical and semantic changes have taken place from Old English period to the present day English.
③ Speech and writing语言和言语
Spoken language is primary, not the written
1)Historically, speech is prior to writing.
2)Genetically, children learn to speak before they are able to write.
3）Functionally, spoken form is more important than written form in language use.
④ Langue and parole
Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)--―father of modern linguistics‖.现代语言学之父
现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure
提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语。Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community（the language system shared by a community of speakers）
Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use (the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.）
⑤Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用
Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)
语法创始人：Noam Chomsky
提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance
Competence---- a person‘s knowledge of his language, the system of rules which he has mastered so that he is able to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences, and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.
Performance---the actual realization of language knowledge, language seen as a set of specific utterances produced by language speakers, as encountered in a corpus. Chapter 3 Phonetics and phonology语音学和音韵学
重点：description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge about phonology Phonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. While both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetic
Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. （It studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.）Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phonology is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.
Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterance, to recognize a foreign accent, to make up new words.
音韵学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音韵学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
[A] The definition of phonetics语音学
Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‘s languages.
发音语音学Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.
声学语音学Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.
听觉语音学Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.
司法语音学Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.
[B] Organs of speech
发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成
V oiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.
V oiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.
All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).
The important cavities:
The pharyngeal咽喉cavity
The oral口腔cavity
The nasal鼻腔cavity
Lips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cords
[C] Orthographic representation of speech sounds
Broad and narrow transcriptions
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)
Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only
Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics
E.g.:
[l]à[li:f]--à a clear [l] (no diacritic)
[l]à[bild]--àa dark [l] (~)
[l]à[helW]--àa dental [l] ( )
[p]à[pit]--àan aspirated [ph](h)
[p]à[spit]--àan unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)
[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal [n] (7)
[D] Classification of English consonants辅音
In terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)
①爆破音Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly
[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]
②摩擦音Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month
[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [W]/[T], [F]/[V], [h] (approximant)
③破擦音Affricates: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives
[tF]/[dV]
④ Liquids: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth
[l]àa lateral sound; [r]à retroflex
⑤ Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)
Liquid + glides + [h]à approximants
⑥鼻音Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it
[m], ], [][
By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)
①双唇音bilabials: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]à(velar)
②唇齿音labiodentals: the lower lip and the upper teeth
[f]/[v]
③齿音dentals: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth
[W]/[T]
④齿槽音alveolars: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge
[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]
⑤上颚齿槽音alveo-palatals (palato-alveolars): tongue and the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge
[F]/[V], [t]/[d]
⑥上颚音palatal: tongue in the middle of the palate
[j]
⑦软颚音velars: the back of the tongue against the velum
[k], [g], [N] … [w]
⑧声门glottals: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx
[h]
[E] Classification of English vowels元音
Front
i: Central Back
Close i `
u:
u
Semi-close e E:
Semi-open E C:
Open A
B Q R
B:
① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back;
② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;
③ The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):
All the front, central vowels are 非圆唇unrounded vowels except [B]
All the back vowels, except [A:] are 圆唇rounded vowels
④ The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels 长元音和短元音
Larynx à (tense) or (lax)
Monophthongs, diphthongs
Cardinal vowels
[F] The definition of phonology音韵学
Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.
Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
[G] Phone, phoneme, and allophone
音素Phone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phoneme
the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic
communication are all phones.
It‘s a phonetic unit语音单位or segment. (in the mouth)
Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.
音位Phoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marks It’s a basic unit in phonological analysis. 语音分析
It is not any particular sound, but an abstract segment.
The phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.
e.g.Neither the sound [p] in pit or the sound [b] in bit is a phoneme.
同位音Allophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme
we refer to them as the allophones of that phoneme.
One phoneme may have several allophones, but the choice of an allophone is rule-governed.
Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones of that phoneme
[G] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair
Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they‘re in phonemic contrast.（如果两个音段出现在同一个语音环境中，而且产生了两个不同的单词）
E.g. pin & bin à /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe à /p/ vs. /b/
e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit];
互补分布Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment,besides they do not distinguish meaning.（如果两个基本相似的音段绝不会出现在相同的语音环境中，那么它们之间就是互补性分布的关系，如送气p绝不会出现在s之后，不送气的p绝不会出现在词首）
最小对立体Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.
When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.
When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair.
Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling.
Three requirements for a minimal pair:
same number of segment
one phonetic difference in the same place
different meaning
e.g. a minimal pair : lit-lip; phone-tone; pill-bill
a minimal set: beat, bit, bet, boot, but, bite
2.3Distinctive features
The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features.
Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.
Distinctive features are language-specific.
e.g. ―b a‖ (爸) ―p a‖(怕)
In Chinese, these two sounds are distinguished by aspiration , while in English they are distinguished by ―voicing‖
[H] Some rules in phonology
① sequential rules
Syllable
Onset rime
Nucleus coda
[Consonant] vowel [consonant(s)]
Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:
No1:
___/s/
___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/
___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/
No2:
The affricates [tF]/[dV] and the sibilants [s], [z], [F], [V] are not to be followed by another sibilants.
② assimilation rules 同化
Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.
Assimilation & elision元音省略effects
Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other
E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.
③deletion rule-Elision
Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation
E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant
[I] Suprasegmental features超切分音位
超切分特征Suprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation and tone.重读、语调、音调
①Stress
Word stress & sentence stress
The stress of the English compounds always on the first element
②Tone
Definition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.
Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.：Level, rise, fall-rise, fall
③Intonation语调
When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones
The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone Chapter 4 Morphology形态学
Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.
[A] The definition of morphology
Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Inflectional morphology
Derivational morphology (lexical morphology)
Morpheme: the smallest meaningful components of words
(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)
Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根）affix（词缀）and stem（词干）. [B] Free morphemes & bound morphemes
Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words
à Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.]
Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form
à派生语素Derivational morphemes----affix (suffix, infix, prefix) + root
a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words. There are
three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.
prefix: change meaning dis-; un-; mis-
suffix: change part of speech -ly; -ness; -tion
infix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.
à曲折语素Inflectional morphemes：a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.
E.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest ; John‘s
8 types of inflectional morphemes in English
Noun+ -‘s, -s [possessive; plural]
Verb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular; present participle; past tense, past participle]
Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]
[C] Derivational vs. inflectional
Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category;
Derivational morphemes are opposite
Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional
[D] Morphological Rules
N. +lyà a.; A. +lyà adv.; guard overgeneralization
[E] Morphs and allomorphs
Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes
Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.
[F] Word-formation process
① Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms
② Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages
Loan-translation (Claque)àa direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language
Stand alone to be the opposite of word-formation
③ Compoundingà a joining of two separate words to produce a single form Features of compounds
a) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.
b) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.
c) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.
d) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,
While the second element receives secondary stress.
④ Blendingà taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word
⑤ Clippingà a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form
⑥Back formationàa process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word
Hypocorismsàclipping or +ie
⑦ Conversionà category change, functional shift
⑧ Acronymsà new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words
⑨ Derivationà the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words
⑩ Abbreviationà a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form
Analogy
Chapter 5 Grammar
[A] Types of grammar
The study of grammar, or the study of the structure of expressions in a language, has a very long tradition.
①Mental grammar: a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. àPsychologist
② Linguistic etiquette: the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in
a language. à Sociologist
③The study and analysis of the structures found in a language, with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English, e.g. as distinct from the grammar of Russia or French. à Linguist
[B] The parts of speech
Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions
à the grammatical categories of words in sentences
[C] Traditional grammar (Categories and analysis)
Other categories: number, person, tense, voice and gender
Agreement:
English language?natural gender
Grammatical genderà French
[D] Types of grammar concerning analysis
The prescriptive approach: The view of grammar as a set of rules for the proper use of a language
The descriptive approach: analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used.
[E] Structural and immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis)
Structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms (e.g. morphemes) in a language
IC Analysis: how small constituents (Components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents
[F] Labeled and bracketed sentences
Hierarchical organization of the constituents in a sentence
Label each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art. N. NP
Chapter 6 Syntax句法学
重点：different treatment of sentence structure by different linguistic schools Syntax(句法学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.
[A] The definition of syntax
A subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language
is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.
Sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language,
The traditional view of a sentence:―a series of words in connected speech or writing, forming the grammatically compl ete expression of a single thought‖.
[B] The basic components of a sentence
Sentence
Subject Predicate
Referring expression comprises finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject
[C] Types of sentences
Simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
Coordinate (Compound) sentence:contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as ―and‖, ―by‖, ―or‖…
Complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other
Embedded clause?à matrix clause
① subordinator ②f unctions as a grammatical unit ③ may be complete
[D] The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences
When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence, which suggests the structure of a sentence is linear. But the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured; sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as NP or VP, grouped together.
Tree diagram of constituent structure
Brackets and subscript labels
[E] Some categories
Syntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate
e.g. subject, predicate, object etc.
Grammatical category: a class or group of items which fulfil the same or similar functions in a language.
e.g. Number, gender, case: for nouns, pronouns.
Tense, aspect, voice: for verbs
Lexical categories: (parts of speech)词性
Major lexical categories (open categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.
Minor lexical categories (closed categories):Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.
Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP
[F] Grammatical Relations
The structural and logical functional relations of constituents
It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb
Subject of and direct object of
Structural subject, structural object
Logical subject (the doer of the action), the logical object (the recipient of the action) These two groups of subjects and objects may have different positions
[G] Combinational rules
Are small in numberà Yield all the possible sentences
Rule out the impossible ones
① phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)
Sà NP VP
(A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)
NPà (Det.) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)
An optional determiner….and obligatory noun,
VPà V (NP) (POP) (S)
APà A (PP) (S)
PPà P NP
② the recursiveness of phrase structure rules
Significantly, the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.
③ X- bar theory
Headà an obligatory word that givers the phrase its name
XP or X-phrase
XPà (Specifier) X (complement)
Formula:
X‖à Spec X‘
X-bar theory (X-bar schema)
X‘à X compl
Tree diagram
X‖
Specifier X‘
X complement
[H] Syntactic movement and movement rules
Syntactic movement: occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new place
Transformational rules
① NP-movement and WH-movement
NP-movement: active voice & passive voice
Postposing, preposing
WH-movement: affirmative & interrogative
Leftward matter to the sentence initial-position
② Other types of movement
Aux-movement: the movement of an auxiliary to the sentence-initial position
③ D-structure and S-structure
Two levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:
One that exists before movement takes place
The other that occurs after movement takes place
Formal linguistic exploration:
D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexicon
Sentence at the level of D-structure
The application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from
D-structure level to S-structure level
Transformational-generative line of analysis
④ Move α– a general movement rule
Move any constituent to any place
Certain constituents can move to only certain positions
[I] Universal Grammar (UG)
Principles-and-parameters theory:
UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exits in the mind or brain of a normal human being and which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.
① general principles of UG
Case condition principle: a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V or P to the object position or by Aux to the subject position
Adjacency condition or Case assignment: a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacency to each other.
It is strictly observed in English well-formed sentences, not other languages (no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object)
The Adjacency condition must be subject to parametric variation in order to explain the apparent adjacency violations such as in French.
② The parameters of UG
Parameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.
[+strict adjacency]
Adjacency parameter
[-strict adjacency]
[Rightward directionality]
The Directionality Parameter à involves word order
[Leftward directionality]
En: VP word order VPà V NP
Jp: VP word order VPà NP V
Natural languages are viewed to vary according to parameters set on UG principles to particular values.
Chapter 7 Semantics语义学
Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.
[A] The definition of semantics
Definition: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view
[B] Some views concerning the study of meaning
① the naming theory: The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things.
② the conceptualist view: There‘s no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
Thought/reference （concept）
Symbol/Form (words) Referent (real object)
Proposed by Ogden & Richards
③ contextualism: John Firth
The situational context: in a particular spatiotemporal situation
Linguistic context (co-text): the probability of a word‘s co-occurrence or collocation with another word
Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.
④ behaviorism & Bloomfield based on contextualist view
Behaviorists define meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer
S: stimulus r: response
Jill Jack
S---------r………s---------R
(the small letters r, sàspeech)(the capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)
[C] Sense and reference
sense and reference——are the two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.
Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized. It‘s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations.
Reference----- means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
Linguistic forms having the same sense意思may have different references in different situations.
e.g. I was one bitten by a dog.
Mind you. There is a dog over there.
Here the two ―dog‖ bear the same sense, but have two different references in the two utterances.
Sometimes linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense
e.g. ―morning star‖ and ― evening star‖ can refer to the same star ―Venus‖
[D] Major sense relations
There are generally 3 kinds of sense relations: sameness relation,
oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation
① synonymy--- the sameness or close similarity of meaning
---- having the same semantic components
a. dialectal synonyms——synonyms used in different regional dialects
b. stylistic synonyms——synonyms differing in style
c. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
d. collocational synonyms
e. semantically different synonyms
② polysemy——one word that has more than one related meaning
③ homonymy
Homophones: when two words are identical in sound
Homographs: when two words are identical in spelling
Complete homonyms: when two words are identical both in spelling and in
Sound
Etymology
④ hyponymy—— inclusiveness
Hyponymy-----having all semantic components of another.
The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinator.
The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.
Co-hyponym
⑤ antonymy——oppositeness
Antonymy ----- having a contrasting component
Gradable antonyms
Complementary antonyms
Relational opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between
items
⑥ metonymy
Meaning based on a close connection in everyday experience, of which can be based on a container-contents relation, a whole-part relation, or a representative-symbol relationship
⑦ collocation
Organize the knowledge of words in terms of frequently occurring together
⑧ prototypes
The concept of a prototype helps explain the meaning of certain words, not in terms of component features, but in terms of resemblance to the clearest exemplar.
[E] Sense relations between sentences
① X is synonymous with Y同义
② X is inconsistent with Y不一致
③ X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) 限定
④ X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X) 假定，预料
e.g“Can I borrow your bike?‖ _______ ― You have a bike.‖
⑤ X is a contradiction矛盾
⑥ X is semantically anomalous语义不规则
1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B )
A: He has been to France.
B: He has been to Europe.
A: John picked a tulip.
B: John picked a flower.
Entailment is a relation of inclusion if x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y.
In term of truth value: If x is true, y is necessarily true; If x is false, y may be true or false; If y is true, x may be true or false, If Y is false, x is false.
In formula: A→B
-B→-A
2 Presupposition (A presupposes B)
A: The queen of England is old.
B: England has a queen.
A: Is your father at home?
B: You have a father.
It refers to the kind of meaning which the speaker doesn‘t assert but assumes the hearer can identify form the sentence.
In term of truth value: If A is true, B must be true. If A is false, B is still true; If B is true, A is either true or false. If B is false, no truth value can be said about A.
In formula: A→B
-A→B
3 A is inconsistent with B
A: John is married
B: John is a bachelor
In term of truth value: If A is true, B is false and if A is false, B is true.
4 A is synonymous with B
A: The boy killed the dog.
B: The dog was killed by the boy.
5 A is a contradiction
My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6 A is semantically anomalous
The table has bad intentions.
[F] Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaning
Semantic features: the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, or semantic features
Phoneme---distinctive features
Show how those words are related in meaning
e.g.
man : + HUMAN+ ADULT+ MALE
woman: + HUMAN+ ADULT- MALE
boy: + HUMAN- ADULT+ MALE
girl: + HUMAN- ADULT- MALE
words like father, mother, daughter and son, which involves a relation between two entities, may be shown as follows:
father = PARENT (X,Y) & MALE (X)
mother = PARENT (X,Y) & MALE (X)
verbs can also be analyzed in this way, for example
take = CAUSE (X, (HA VE (X,Y))
give= CAUSE (X, (HA VE (X,Y)))
[G] Predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning proposed by British linguist G. Leech
①the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total (of the meanings of all its components)
② Grammatical meaning and semantic meaning
Grammaticality selectional restrictions
Semantic analysis:
Predication (basic unit)à the abstract meaning of the sentence
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
《普通语言学教程》索绪尔 绪论 第一章语言学史一瞥 语法（规范）-语文学（过于注重书面语）-比较语文学或比较语法（只比较）-新语法学派（语言集团集体精神的产物） 第二章语言学的材料和任务；与毗邻科学的关系 语言学的任务是：a 对一切能够得到的语言进行描写并整理他们的历史，尽可能重建每个语系的母语；b 寻求在一切语言中永恒地普遍地起作用的力量，整理出能概况一切历史特殊现象的一般规律；c 确定自己的界限和定义。它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。 第三章语言学的对象 定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。语言和言语活动不能混为一谈，它只是言语活动的一个确定的部分，而且当然是一个主要部分，它既是言语机能的社会产物，又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这机能所采用的一整套必不可少的规约。语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。 语言在言语活动事实中的地位——言语循环重建：心理现象-生理过程-物理过程-生理过程-
心理现象 （c-i）这一主动过程称为执行部分，（i-c）这一被动过程称为接受部分，此外还有联合和配置的机能。语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。 语言的特征是：1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。4 语言这个对象在具体性上比言语毫不逊色。即是音响形象的堆叠，又可转为文字。 语言在人文事实中的地位：符号学——语言是一种表达观念的符号系统。符号在本质上是社会的。 第四章语言的语言学和言语的语言学
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
《普通语言学教程》读书笔记 10级汉语3班徐星星100322 本书著者是本世纪最著名、影响最深远的语言学家之一费尔迪南·德·索绪尔，在本书中，他对欧美语言学界所接触到的各种有关原理和方法的问题都作了总结，并且提出了自己独到的见解。这本书的影响也遍及世界。 首先在绪论的第三章中，索绪尔向我们阐释了语言的定义： 语言是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号。人们说话的机能只有借住集体创造和提供的工具才能运用，不管是天赋的或非天赋的。所以说，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，那绝不是什么空想。在索绪尔看来。语言是语言共同成员中的语法体系，言语则是人们平时说的那些话，是依赖于语法系统的说话行为。言语是语言的体现。语言学研究实际语言行为中所潜藏的形式系统，因此，在索绪尔看来，语言学的对象是语言而不是言语。 索绪尔认为，把语言和言语分开，我们就把什么是社会的，什么是个人的，什么是主要的，什么是从属的和偶然的区分开来了。照此看来，语言学家主要的研究对象应该是“语言”、确定构成“语言”的单位及其组合规则，而不是去描写言语活动。“语言”是一个符号的系统，在这个系统中，只有意义和音响的形象的结合是主要的。 索绪尔为了确立语言学的研究对象，区分出“语言”和“言语”，他的“语言”和“言语”理论不仅对本世纪的语言研究的方法产生了深刻的影响，而且还影响着文学和符号学研究。 在第一编中，索绪尔指出语言是一个符号系统。语言是符号学的一部分，他强调语言具有一般符号系统的主要特征。语言与其他一切同类的的符号系统有以下几点共同点。一是目的相同，各种符号系统虽然采用的手段不同，复杂程度不同，但目的都是一样的，都是为了传递信息。二是它们的内涵相同，一切符号系统之所以能传递信息是因为它们与意义相联系。意义是符号的内涵，是符号在使用该系统的人在头脑中激发的概念。三是构成元素相同，无论使用
第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：
I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar
语言学纲要讲义笔记 导言 一、语言的定义 语言是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具、是由音义结合的词汇和语法构成的一种符号系统。 二、语言学的对象和任务 语言学是研究语言的科学。 要把语言学跟语文学区分开来 中国传统语文学——“小学” 小学是我国古代语文学的统称，由训诂学、文字学、音韵学三部分组成。 在古印度，公元前4世纪，著名学者潘尼尼在整理、注释婆罗门教经典《吠陀》时，写了一本《梵语语法》，提出3996条规则，被人们称为最完备的语法书。在古希腊，伯拉图和亚里斯多德是从哲学的角度来研究语言的，他们讨论了词为什么具有意义等内容。 三、语言学在科学体系中的地位 语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学。 1、与社会科学、自然科学的联系 语言研究的成果是哲学、历史学、考古学、文学、政治学、经济学、逻辑学、社会学、民族学、计算机科学等学科所必须利用的，可见语言研究在这些社会科学中已占重要地位。 语言学与其他学科相交叉产生社会语言学、心理语言学、计算语言学、生物语言学、模糊语言学、实验语音学等。如：运用语言传递信息的过程，可分为五个阶段： 编码——发送——传递——接收——解码 对这一具体过程的解释需要结合物理学、生理学、心理学等其他学科的知识。三、语言学的基本类别 总体上，根据研究对象的不同，语言学可以分为理论语言学和应用语言学两大类。（一）理论语言学可分为： 1、一般/普通语言学
2、个别/具体语言学 具体语言学 （1）历时语言学 （2）共时语言学 （二）应用语言学 1、社会语言学：研究语言与社会集团的关系。如地域方言、社会方言、语言的接触、语言规划等。 2、心理语言学：研究儿童语言习得、语言的接收和发生过程，等。 3、神经语言学 最近二十年才从心理语言学中分离出来的一门新的学科，主要研究语言和大脑结构的关系，中心是大脑如何生成语言。 此外，还有数理语言学、统计语言学、实验语音学等。 第一章语言的功能 第一节语言的社会功能 一、语言的信息传递功能 信息传递功能是语言的最基本的社会功能。 人类还借助语言之外的其他形式传递信息，它们是文字，旗语，信号灯，电报代码，数学符号，化学公式等等。 身势等伴随动作等是非语言的信息传递形式。 身势等非语言的形式多半是辅助语言来传递信息； 文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的再编码形式； 旗语之类是建立在语言或文字基础之上的再编码形式； 语言是人类社会信息传递第一性的、最基本的手段，是最重要的交际工具。二、语言的人际互动功能 语言的社会功能的另一个重要方面是建立或保持某种社会关联，这就是语言的人际互动功能。互动包括两个方面：一个是说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图，另一方面这些又对受话者施加了影响，得到相应的语言或行动上的反馈，从而达到某种实际效果。
胡壮麟语言学重难点 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源 2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。 1. 语言的定义特征 1.1. 任意性 1.2. 二重性 1.3. 创造性 1.4. 移位性 1.5. 文化传递性 1.6. 互换性 2. 语言的功能 1.1. 信息功能 1.2. 人际功能 1.3. 施为功能 1.4. 感情功能 1.5. 寒暄功能 1.6. 娱乐功能 1.7. 元语言功能
3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法 2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。 1. 语音学及其三大领域 1.1. 语音学定义 1.2. 语音学三大领域 ①发音语音学 ②声学语音学 ③听觉语音学 2. 辅音 2.1. 辅音定义 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。 2.2. 发音方式 发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式 2.3. 发音部位 发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 3. 元音
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness 1.3.2 Duality 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement 1.4 Origin of language
费迪南德?德?索绪尔（Ferdinand de Saussure，1857-1913）是现代语言学的创始人。他是一位杰出的语言学家。作为一门新兴人文学科的开创者，他对语言哲学的影响也极为广泛深刻。 索绪尔出生于日内瓦，父亲是一位科学家。他从小受到自然科学的教育，同时也得到良好的语言教育和语言学教育，掌握法语、德语、英语和拉丁语，初通梵文。15岁时就写了一篇《语言论》。曾于日内瓦大学和莱比锡大学，研习物理、化学和希腊文。莱比锡大学当时是新语法学家的中心，在那的学习大致确定了索绪尔后来以语言学为业的道路。也就在这个时期，他发表了他的第一篇重要论文，《论印欧系语言中原因的原始系统》，引起学术界的重视，而那时他才年仅21岁。获得博士学位后，索绪尔移居巴黎，在高等研究学院讲授梵文、哥特语、古高地德语以及印欧语文学概况。1891年，他开始到日内瓦大学任教。日内瓦与巴黎的学术研究相比相对滞后。索绪尔穷究一生，不带任何传奇色彩。他在世时只是著名的语言学家，但他作为一个哲学家的地位，却是直到他死后才为人们所认可的。 索绪尔生前只发表过很少几篇相当专业的论文。1907-1911年期间，他在日内瓦大学担任普通语言学课程的教学。1913年他去世以后，他的学生和同事根据几本听课笔记才汇编成《普通语言学教程》一书，出版发行。索绪尔不仅吝于发表，他留下的笔记也很少，因此编辑这本书很不容易。因为，跟所有的老师一样，他讲课时也是有很多重复，甚至不一致的内容。难得的是编辑者们没有放弃，合并梳理成一本书，从而造就了一部惊世巨著。 《普通语言学教程》这部著作主要由绪论和附录两部分组成。绪论部分主要阐述了索绪尔对于语言系统的看法。索绪尔认为语言系统具有自主性和形式化这两个特点。他把语言现象划分为“内部要素”和“外部要素”两部分，并以此作为语言研究的前提。“内部要素”是指语言系统内符号与符号之间所形成的相互制约、相互对立的关系；“外部要素”则是指与语言有间接关系的政治、经济、文化、宗教、地理、历史等社会因素。因为索绪尔认为“内部要素”与“外部要素”之间无联系，且进行语言研究必须建立起一个界限清晰的“语言系统”。所以，他说：“我们关于语言的定义是要把一切跟语言的组织、语言的系统无关的东西，简言之，一切跟我们用‘外部语言学’这个术语所指的东西排除出去。”另外，索绪尔还阐发了“语言符号的价值决定于语言系统整体性质”的观点，并将此观点以及上面所提及的观点合在一起，共同支撑起关于语言系统具有自主性的说法。实际上，此举的真正目的是为语言学的研究对象下定义，且以此厘清语言和言语之间的关系。 语言是言语行为的社会部分，是个人被动地从社会接受而储存于头脑中的系统。它存在于个人意志之外，是社会每个成员共同具有的，是一种社会心理现象。言语是言语行为的个人部分，是个人对语言系统的运用。语言和言语紧密相连，互为前提。个人要说话使人理解，必须用语言，同时语言的存在又必须体现在言语当中，而且，使语言发生变化的也是言语。所以，语言既是言语的工具，又是言语的产物，但“这并不妨碍它们是两种绝对不同的东西” 在对语言学进行概述之后，《普通语言学教程》的附录部分进一步详细叙述了索绪尔的音位观、符号观以及结构主义研究方法论。他认为语言可为语音符号和文字符号，语音由心灵激活而被赋予意义，文字则只是语音的无生命的、随意的、可有可无的替代物。在符号观中，索绪尔对符号的“任意性”和“线条性”展开阐述，并且重点论述了符号的“不变性”与“可变性”特点。由此他不但揭
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 二、知识点 https://www.doczj.com/doc/3118953162.html,nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家 Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征design features
普通语言学教程笔记(索绪尔)
《普通语言学教程》索绪尔 绪论 第一章语言学史一瞥 语法（规范）-语文学（过于注重书面语）-比较语文学或比较语法（只比较）-新语法学派（语言集团集体精神的产物） 第二章语言学的材料和任务；与毗邻科学的关系语言学的任务是：a 对一切能够得到的语言进行描写并整理他们的历史，尽可能重建每个语系的母语；b 寻求在一切语言中永恒地普遍地起作用的力量，整理出能概况一切历史特殊现象的一般规律；c 确定自己的界限和定义。它与社会心理学、生理学、语文学相关。语言学也有实际用途，特别是对于那些利用文献的人，另外对一般修养也很重要。 第三章语言学的对象 定义——在任何时候，语言都是现行制度和过去的产物。我们的研究方法是一开始就站在语言的阵地上，把它当做言语活动的其他一切表现的准则。语言和言语活动不能混为一谈，它只是言语活动的一个确定的部分，而且当然是一个主要部
分，它既是言语机能的社会产物，又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这机能所采用的一整套必不可少的规约。语言本身是一个整体，一个分类的原则。它是一种约定俗成的东西，人们同意使用什么符号，这符号的性质是无关轻重的。对人类天赋的不是口头的言语活动，而是构成语言——即一套和不同的观念相当的不同的符号——的机能。人们说话的机能——不管是天赋的或非天赋的——只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用，所以，说语言使言语活动成为统一体，绝不是空想。 语言在言语活动事实中的地位——言语循环重建：心理现象-生理过程-物理过程-生理过程-心理现象
（c-i）这一主动过程称为执行部分，（i-c）这一被动过程称为接受部分，此外还有联合和配置的机能。语言是社会的、主要的，言语是个人的、偶然的、从属的。 语言的特征是：1 他是言语活动事实的混杂的总体中的一个十分确定的对象，是言语的社会部分。2 语言是人们能够分出来加以研究的对象。 3 言语是异质的，而规定下来的语言是同质的，它是一种符号系统，在系统中，只有意义和音响形象的结合是主要的，符号的两个部分都是心理的。 4 语言这个对象在具体性上比言语毫不逊色。即是音响形象的堆叠，又可转为文字。 语言在人文事实中的地位：符号学——语言是一种表达观念的符号系统。符号在本质上是社会的。 第四章语言的语言学和言语的语言学
Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics? 什么是语言学 [A] The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究) Process of linguistic study: ① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; ② Hypotheses are formulated; ③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations; ④ A linguistic theory is constructed. [B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics [C] Some important distinctions in linguistics ① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 ② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性） The description of a language at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. ③ Speech and writing 言语与文字 Spoken language is primary, not the written ④ Langue and parole 语言和言语 Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)
Chapter 1 What is language? [A] The origins of language Some speculations of the origins of language: ①The divine source The basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language. Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all. ②The natural-sound source The bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them. The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds. Onomatopoeic sounds ③The oral-gesture source It is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication. The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from
第2章音位学 2.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. Speech Organs 发音器官 2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels 辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则 3. Phonemes and Allophones 音位和音位变体 4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features 音系规则和区别特征 5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation 音节结构、重音和语调 本章考点： 1. 语音学 语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；
英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。 2. 音系学 音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；自由变体；音位的对立分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段音位学； 音节；重音(词重音、句子重音)；音高和语调。 本章内容索引： I. The phonic medium of language II. Phonetics 1. The definition of phonetics 2. Three research fields 3. Organs of speech ▼4. Voiceless sounds ▼5. Voiced sounds 6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions 7. Classification of English speech sounds (1) Definition (2) Classification of English consonants (3) Classification of English vowels III. Phonology
《普通语言学教程》读书笔记在十一长假期间，我结合课上教学笔记和申小龙等编着的《普通语言学教程》精读，对《普通语言学教程》的一些内容做了比较肤浅的了解，虽难窥全貌，却也对某些内容有一些感想。 《普通语言学教程》是索绪尔关于自己在语言学上思想最为系统的阐述。包含了其对语言符号、共时语言学和历时语言学、语言组合关系和聚合关系等的理解，开创了结构主义，是一部划时代的着作。 由于对语言学了解尚浅，只是谈一下读后对言语与语言关系以及语言符号系统的理解。 对于语言与言语的关系。在尚未学习语言学课程之前，如果问我它们之间的关系，我会这样认为，语言包含言语，它是在大的范围下人们话语的总和，而言语则是小范围的、偏个体的。而通过阅读《教程》，我们可以一言以蔽之，语言和言语最主要的区分在于社会性。在《教程》绪论的第三章，“在任何人的脑子里，语言都是不完备的，它只有在集体中才能完全存在”。还是在第三章，“语言...它既是语言机能的社会产物，又是社会集团为了使个人有可能行使这机能所采取的一整套必不可少的规约”。即语言是在社会条件下人们约定俗成的一种规则，是在整个社会集体中起作用的，即“自然的秩序”。而相对于语言，言语则具有一种个人性，即“个人永远是它的主人”。一方面你必须遵守社会语言习惯，另一方面你说话则是有个人自由的，不过是在语言规则下的自由。举个例子，在汉语中，你可以说“我喝茶”，也可以说“我吃茶”，符合汉语语言习惯，你的说话是自由的。但你不能说“我茶喝”，这就违反了约定俗成的语言习惯，别人就很难理解了。当然，这只是从汉语角度举的例子，不排除其他语言中有这样的表达。“只有借助于集体所创造和提供的工具才能运用”，索绪尔在此表述的工具毫无疑问就是语言，比如说你有“我、喝、茶”这三个语言材料。你可以说“我喝茶”、“茶喝我”、“我茶喝”等，但只有我喝茶是符合语言习惯的，才能被人理解，其他的表述没有借助于汉语语言规则，是不能被运用的。 其次让我感兴趣的是索绪尔对语言符号系统的解读。符号是一定形式与内容的统一体，即能指与所指。而语言符号中声音即能指，意义指所指。在第一编第一章，索绪尔提出：“能指与所指的联系是任意的......，语言符号是任意的”。即单个语言符号的发音与意义之间没有必然联系，如表达“母亲”的意义，英语为“mom”，汉语则为“ma ma”。这让我想到了语言作为一种“自然的秩序”的社会性，不同语言之间由于社会习惯的不同使发音与意义之间的联系不同。我认为索绪尔在此提出的语言符号的任意性与语言社会性相关联，更论证了他的语言社会性学说，是对之前语言学上自然主义和心理主义的极大突破。 索绪尔在此还提出了语言符号的线条性。索绪尔认为：“它体现一个长度”、“这长度只能在一个向度上测定：它是一条线”。即单个语言符号之间为线性组合，只能一个跟着一个依次出现。既然不同的符号组合会产生不同的意义，所以我们必须了解它们整体间的关系。这由此引出了索绪尔对语言组合、聚合关系的探索，继而结构主义随之产生。索绪尔的结构主义思想、整体论观点可以说是不仅为以后语言学的发展做出了重要贡献，而且还广泛影响到了20世纪的哲学以及其他学科，充分显示出了语言学的基础性，也可以看出索绪尔的巨大贡献。 在阅读了部分章节后，我感觉索绪尔举例较为生动，如在第一编第一章，他举了“汉人从前用三叩九跪拜见他们的皇帝”这个例子，平浅地显示了社会性的