Name of the text-book: An Introduction to Intercultural Communication
Author of the book: Hu Wenzhong
Publishing house: Foreign Langusge Eaching and Research Press
Instructor: Huang, Wu
Students: Junior English Majors
Schedule: Wednesday Morning
Duration: (from Week 4 to Week 19)
Week 1 Preparations for the Course
1.Group discussion (10 minutes)
1）What do you expect from this course?
2）How well have you prepared for the class?
2.Presentation by representatives from each group (20 minutes)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,mentaries made by the teacher
As a Confucian saying goes, human beings draw close to one another by their common nature, but habits and customs keep them apart. The study of intercultural communication is about change—changes in the world’s fabric of social relationships and how we must adapt to them.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economic and political systems, immigration patterns, and populations density have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, those interactions will continue to grow in both frequency and intensity. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in subtle and profound ways. Our cultural perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
As John F. Kennedy put it, “Our most basic common link is that we all inhabit this planet.”Though we humans of different parts of the world share much in common, we often behave in ways that we do not understand because of our cultural diversity. With or without our consent, the last six decades have thrust us into social and professional situations with people who often appear alien, exotic, and perhaps even wondrous. These people may live thousands of miles away or right next door.
This book gives a general notion of what intercultural is about, including five parts; a preface, some basic concepts; how intercultural communication is done; the core of intercultural communication; to enhance awareness to Failure in intercultural communication. This course is intended for English junior majors to have some notion to include encounters with people from cultures different from their own. We, therefore, deal with communication among international cultures in a more desirable way.
4.Written work:
Write an essay of about 300 words on how you are going to work hard at An Introduction to Intercultural Communication. A title is required to your writing. Week 2 Chapter one Communication between Cultures
1.What is Intercultural Communication?
Definition
Five phases of worldwide communication
2.Diversity in the interpretation of the concept
Marshall Singer: emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual;
Richard Porter & Larry Samovar: emphasis on quantity of differences in individuals;
Ron and Suzanne Scollon: emphasis on discourse.
3. Approach to the study of Intercultural Communication
3.1 The study of intercultural communication is a worthwhile pursuit
3.2 Communication and culture work in tandem, we should try to incorporate the basic principles from both topics throughout the study.
3.3 When the element of culture is added, the complexities of any systematic study of the two are compounded greatly.
3.4 The study is to give priority to mainstream cultures
4. Summary
5. Assignment: Discuss the three questions with your partner after class.
Week 3 Intercultural Communication
1. The development of the study of IC
1.1 The USA.
1.2 The Old Continent
1.3 China
2. The striking multi-disciplinary feature of International Communication
2.1 Ic derives its theory and content from many a discipline
2.1.1 anthropolgy, esp. intercultural anthropology
2.1.2 psychology, esp. social psychology and intercultural psychology
2.1.3 Propagation
2.1.4 sociology
2.1.5philosophy
2.1.6 linguistics
2.1.7 culture
3. Approach and theory of the reasearch
No single approach will be sufficient. The research of IC must be based on all areas and disciples for the progress.
Assignment:
Reading essays and books concerning culture and intercultural communication Week 4 Culture
1.Understanding Culture
Some people in Korea and China put dogs in their oven，but people in the US put them on their couches and bed. Why？The answer lies in culture.
People learn to think, feel, believe, and act as they do because of the messages that they have been communicated to them, and those messages all bear the stamp of culture. As Edward T Hall concludes that there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. Culture is everything and everywhere; culture governs and defines the conditions and circumstances under which various may or
may not be sent, noticed, or interpreted. From how much eye contract we employ in conversations to explanations of why we get sick, culture plays a dominant role in our lives.
Culture is both teacher and textbook. We are not born knowing how to dress, what toys to play with, what to eat, which gods to worship, or how to spend our money and our time.
As Hall puts it, “Culture is communication and communication is culture.”Communication and culture are inseparable. Because culture conditions us toward one particular mode of communication over another, it is imperative that we understand how culture operates as a first step toward improving intercultural communication. 2.Basic functions of culture
As the English writer Fuller wrote 200 years ago, “Culture makes all things easy.” There are two important reasons for culture making things easy. First, culture helps facilitate the transition from the womb to this new life by providing meaning to events, objects, and people---thus making the world a less mysterious and frightening place. Second, culture makes life less confusing because most of culture is automatic and subconscious.
Culture, using the family as its first of many conduits, teaches the child how to behave in a manner that is acceptable to adults and that garners them rewards.
In conclusion, the world is a confusing place until we can make some sense of it, so the basic function of culture is to explain the world to each new member of the culture. By telling us what to expect, culture reduces confusion and helps us predict the future.
3.Definitions` of culture
Culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional, complex, and all-pervasive. As is the case with communication, many definitions have been suggested for culture. We are to use this definition, advanced by Larry A Samovar, Richard E. Porter, and Lisa A Stefani, as follows:
“We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, timing, roles, spatial relationships, concepts of the universe, and material objects acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.”
Culture can therefore include everything from rites of passage to concepts of the soul. Your views on work, immigration, freedom, age, being graded by your teachers, cleanliness and hygiene, ethics, dress, property rights, etiquette, healing and health, death and mourning, play, law, magic and superstition, modesty, sex, status differentiation, courtship, formality and informality, bodily adornment, and the like are part of your cultural membership.
4.Major characteristics of culture
When we refer to culture, we are applying the term to the dominant culture found in each society. Although many discussions of culture use the terms umbrella culture, mainstream culture,and European Americans, we prefer the designate dominant, which clearly indicates that the culture we are talking about is the one in power.
The people in power are those who historically have controlled, and who still control, the major institutions within the culture: church, government, education, military, mass media, monetary systems, and the like.
Examining these characteristics will help you become a better communicator for two reasons. First, the strong connection between culture and communication is apparent. Second, most of culture is in the taken-for-granted realm and below the conscious level.
Seven characteristics of culture that most distinctly affect communication are that it is (1) learned, (2) transmitted from generation to generation, (3) based on symbols, (4) dynamic, (5) integrated, (6) ethnocentric, and (7) adaptive.
Culture Is Learned
Without the advantages of knowledge from those who lived before us, we would not have culture. Enculturation (also socialization, or learning culture) usually takes place through interaction (kissing or hugging), observation (gender roles), and imitation (having humor).
A number of points are clear. First, learning cultural perceptions, rules, and behaviors usually goes on without our being aware of it. second, the essential messages of a culture get reinforced and repeated. And third, we learn our culture from a large variety of sources.
Culture Is Transmitted from Generation to Generation
All the past is here. For a culture to exist and endure, it must ensure that its crucial messages and elements are passed on. Although there are countless universals, each culture is unique and therefore has a body of information that is not shared by all human societies.
Americans tell each generation always to look forward. In China, the message is to look to the past for guidance and strength. Americans tell each generation that competition is valuable. For Mexicans and Native Americans, the message is tht cooperation is more important than the contest. Americans tell each generation to value youth. In Korea, the message is to respect and treasure the elderly.
Each of these examples makes the same point: the content of culture is what gets transferred from generation to generation.
Culture Is Based on Symbols
The anthropologist Clyde Kluckhohn once wrote, “Human culture without language is unthinkable.”
The portability of symbols makes “the past remain the present.”(French novelist, Marcel Proust)
Culture Is Subject to Change
Cultures are dynamic systems. They are subject to change. Cultures change through three most common mechanisms: innovation, diffusion, and acculturation.
Although many aspects of culture are subject to change, the deep structure os a culture resists major alterations. That is, changes in dress, food, transportation, housing, and the like are compatible with the existing value system.
Culture Is Integrated (systemic)
Culture functions as an interrelated whole. As Hall said, “You touch a culture in
one place and everything else is affected.” Values towards materialism will influence family size, the work ethic, spiritual pursuits, and the like.
A complex example of the interconnectedness of cultural elements is the civil rights movement in the United States. This movement has brought about changes in housing patterns, discrimination practices, educational opportunities, the legal system, career opportunities, and even communication. Hence, this one aspect of culture has altered American attitudes, values, and behaviors.
Culture Is Ethnocentric
Anthropologists generally agree that ethnocentrism is found in every culture. Ethnocentrism is the technical name for the view of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. Culture Is Adaptive
As we have seen from our discussion of cultural change, cultures are quite adaptive. History abounds with examples of how cultures have changed because of laws, shifts, in values, natural disasters, wars, or other calamities. Changing sex roles in the United States is a case in point. Events in the last hundred years have scattered Jews throughout the world, yet their culture has adapted and survived. Japan’s government and economy were nearly destroyed during World War II, yet because they could adapt, their culture has endured and they are now a major political and economic force in the world.
5. Conclusion
The pull of culture is so strong because teaching begins at birth and continues throughout life.
Week 5 Communication
I.About the written assignment:
1. A specific title is a must
2. The essay should be well organized in five paragaphs (An outline comes
first)
3. The focus should be “my plan”: what I am going to do with the course.
4. The writing should be concise.
5. The language should be idiomatic.
6．We should have paid more attention to manuscript form and punctuation.
1) writing the title;
2) leaving margins;
3) paragraphing;
4) capitalizing
5) dividing
6) avoiding comma splice
II.Task for today:
A.Human Communication
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,munication is a dynamic, systemic process in which meanings are created
and reflected in human interaction with symbols.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,munication is dynamic; it is ongoing and ever changing.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,munication is contextual: message exchange always takes place in a
specific location, not a vacuum.
4.Understanding characteristics of communication common to all human beings
helps clarify how the process works.
5.We can never have mind-to-mind communication with another human being. We
can only infer what another is experiencing, and we do this by using the symbols that we and other people have produced.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,munication is also the way we define the world. We give meaning to events
and people, for example, so that we can function in various groups and be members of our society.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,munication is reflective: we watch ourselves and evaluate how we are
communicating while we are doing it.
8.The brain is an open system: we can learn from each encounter in which we find
ourselves.
9.Our communication behavior has consequences.
10.People are alike and different. We all face many of the same frustrations
resulting from our physical isolation from each other.
B.Culture (Revision)
1.The world is a confusing place until we can make some sense of it, so
the basic function of culture is to explain the world to each new
member of the culture. By telling us what to expect, culture reduces
confusion and helps us predict the future.
2.We define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs,
values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, timing, roles, spatial
relationships, concepts of the universe, and material objects acquired
by a group of people in the course of generations through individual
and group striving.
3.Seven characteristics of culture that most distinctly affect
communication are that it is (1) learned, (2) transmitted from
generation to generation, (3) based on symbols, (4) dynamic, (5)
integrated, (6) ethnocentric, and (7) adaptive.
C.Intercultural Communication
1. Intercultural communication is communication between people whose cultural
perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.
2. Interracial communication occurs when source and receiver are from different
races.
3. Interethnic communication refers to situations in which the parties are of the
same race but of different ethnic origins.
4. Intercultural communication is communication between members of the same
culture, including racial, ethnic, and other co-cultures.
D.Elements of Intercultural Communication
1.One element of intercultural communication is perception, “the
process by which an individual selects, evaluates, and organizes
stimuli from the external world.” Cultural perceptions are based on
beliefs, values, and attitude systems.
2.Another element of intercultural communication is verbal process:
how we talk to each other and think.
3.Nonverbal processes, the third element, involve the use of actions
to communicate. The meanings of these actions shift from culture
to culture.
4.The context of the communication event is influenced by culture. III.Assignment: Write an essay in 300 word, summarizing what we did in the last two classes.
Week 6 Verbal Communication
Our task in this chapter is to develop an understanding and appreciation of verbal language as it functions in intercultural communication.
Cultural diversity in language behavior is perhaps one of the most difficult and persistent problems encountered in intercultural communication. For this reason, this chapter is to deal with three prominent issue in language:
1)the link between language and culture,
2)language translation, and
3)language diversity among co-cultures.
I.The Importance of Language
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,nguage is how we reach out to make contact with our
surroundings.
2.We use words so that we can exercise some control over the
present.
3.We use words to form images of the future.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,nguage and culture
In its most basic sense, language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people.
If we want to communicate in another language, it is important for us to know not only the symbols (words) of the language, but also the rules for using those symbols.
1. Culture and meaning
We tend to look for meaning in words themselves, but we are incorrect if we think that words posses meaning. It is more accurate to say that people possess meaning and the words elicit (bring forth) these meanings.
A word can elicit many meanings. Linguists have estimated that the five hundreds most used words in the English language can produce over fourteen thousand meanings.
Culture exerts an enormous influence on language because culture teaches not only the symbols and the rules for using those symbols, but more important, the meaning associated with the symbols. Further, culture influences the way people use language.
2. Culture and the use of Language
Nothing more clearly distinguishes one culture from another than its language. Insight into the way a certain language is used helps us understand the culture of the
people. For example, many cultures in the Pacific Rim (edge) have commonalities in how they use language. Members of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Thai cultures use language cautiously because they favor moderate or suppressed expression of negative and confrontational (provoking) messages.
3. Summary
Language is inseparable from culture. Culture influences language symbols and rules for using those symbols. Meaning is culturally determined.
III.Foreign Language and Translation
The person who will have to play a major role in regulating the pendulum between global and local communication is the translator, who build bridges not only between languages but also between the differences of two cultures.
People tend to assume that text in one language can be accurately translated into another as long as the translator uses a good bilingual dictionary. Unfortunately, languages are not that simple, and direct translation in many cases are difficult if not impossible because
1)words have more than one meaning,
2)many words are culture-bound and have no direct equivalents,
3)cultural orientations can render a direct translation nonsensical, and
4) a culture may not have the background and understanding to translate
experiences specific to other cultures.
1. Problems of translation and Equivalence
Language translation is difficult and subject to countless misinterpretations.
1) V ocabulary or Lexical Equivalence
2) Idiomatic and Slang Equivalence
3) Grammatical-Syntactical Equivalence
4) Experiential-Cultural Equivalence
5) Conceptual Equivalence
2.Working with a Translator
The effective use of an interpreter requires the establishment of a three-way rapport: between the speaker and the interpreter; between the speaker and the audience; and between the interpreter and the audience.
IV.Summary
Language is important to human activity because it is how we reach out to make contact with others. It permits us to remember the past, deal with the present, and anticipate and plan for the future.
Language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. Symbols (words) and sounds for those symbols vary from culture to culture. The rules (phonology, grammar, syntax, and intonation) for using those symbols and sounds also vary. Language serves as a guide to how a culture perceives reality. It is impossible to separate our use of language from our culture.
The meanings we have for words are determined by the culture in which we have been raised. Word usage and meaning are learned, and all cultures and co-cultures have special experiences that frame usage and meaning. Each of us learns
and uses language as we do because of our cultural background.
As the world evolves into a global village, the importance of international communication and language translation takes on added significance. People tend to assume that text in one language can be accurately translated into another. Translation is often problematic because there are difficulties in linguistic equivalence such as vocabulary, idiomatic, grammatical-syntactical, experiential-cultural, and conceptual equivalence. Interpreters must be skilled in understanding not only a language’s vocabulary, but also emotive aspects, thought processes, and communication techniques.
Week 7 Nonverbal Communication:
The Message of
Action, Space, Time, and Silence
In human intercourse the tragedy begins not when there is misunderstanding about words, but when silence is not understood.
--
-- Henry David Thoreau
I. Aim: This chapter looks at the various ways culture and nonverbal communication work in tandem.
II. Content:
0.Revision: A sample of summary of the previous lecture
Language is important to human activity because it is how we reach out to make contact with others. It permits us to remember the past, deal with the present, and anticipate and plan for the future.
Language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. Symbols (words) and sounds for those symbols vary from culture to culture. The rules (phonology, grammar, syntax, and intonation) for using those symbols and sounds also vary. Language serves as a guide to how a culture perceives reality. It is impossible to separate our use of language from our culture.
The meanings we have for words are determined by the culture in which we have been raised. Word usage and meaning are learned, and all cultures and co-cultures have special experiences that frame usage and meaning. Each of us learns and uses language as we do because of our cultural background.
As the world evolves into a global village, the importance of international communication and language translation takes on added significance. People tend to assume that text in one language can be accurately translated into another. Translation is often problematic because there are difficulties in linguistic equivalence such as vocabulary, idiomatic, grammatical-syntactical, experiential-cultural, and conceptual
equivalence. Interpreters must be skilled in understanding not only a language’s vocabulary, but also emotive aspects, thought processes, and communication techniques. （236 words）
Verbal Communication
Language permits us to remember the past, deal with the present, and anticipate and plan for the future. Symbols and rules of language vary from culture to culture. Serving as a guide to how a culture perceives reality, language is inseparable from culture. The meanings of language are culturally determined. Like culture, word usage and meaning are learned. Translation is often problematic because of difficulties in linguistic equivalence such as vocabulary, idiomatic, grammatical-syntactical, experiential-cultural, and conceptual equivalence. Interpreters must be skilled in understanding not only a language’s vocabulary, but also emotive aspects, thought processes, and communication techniques. (95 words)
1.The Importance of Nonverbal Communication
1)We make important judgments and decisions about others based on their
nonverbal behavior.
2)We use the actions of others to learn about their emotional states.
2.Defining Nonverbal Communication
1)Nonverbal Communication involves all nonverbal stimuli in a communication
setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message values for the source or receiver.
2)Nonverbal messages may be both intentional and unintentional.
3.Functions of Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication has five basic functions: to repeat, to complement, to substitute for a verbal action, to regulate, and to contradict a communication event. 4.Nonverbal Communication: Guideline and Limitations
1)It is important to remember that we are all more than our culture.
2)In nonverbal communication, we often make differences more important than they
should be.
3)Nonverbal actions seldom occur in isolation.
When you are alone, you may have the feeling of lonliness or solitude.
5.Nonverbal Communication and Culture
1）Nonverbal communication and culture are similar in that both are learned, both are passed on from generation to generation, and both involve shared understandings.
2）Studying nonverbal behavior can lead to the discovery of a culture’s underlying attitudes and values.
3）Studying nonverbal behavior can also assist us in isolating our own ethnocentrism.
6.Body Behavior
Nonverbal messages are communicated by means of body movements (kinesics 身姿学and posture), dress, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, smell, and
para-language.
7.Space and distance
Cultures differ in their perception and use of personal space, seating, and furniture arrangement.
8.Time
1)We can underst and a culture’s sense of time by learning about how members of
that culture view informal time.
2)Attitudes toward time also appear in the ways people conceive of the past, present,
and future.
3)Cultural orientations toward time can be classified as monochromic or
polychromic.
9.Silence
1)The use of silence varies from culture to culture.
2)Generally, Eastern cultures value silence more than the use of words; in Western
cultures, the opposite is true.
III. Discussion Ideas: Give your culture’s interpretation of th e following nonverbal actions:
1.Two people are speaking loudly, waving their arms, and using a lot of gestures.
2. A customer in a restaurant waves his hand over his head and snaps his fingers
loudly.
3.An elderly woman dresses entirely in black.
4. A young man dresses entirely in black.
5.A n adult pats a child’s head.
6.Two men kiss in public.
IV. Assignment: Write an essay on today’s task in about 100 words.
Context and Communication
All human interaction is influenced to some degree by the social, physical, and cultural settings in which it occurs.
We start here by discussing the relationship between communication and context, and then we examine how it functions in the business setting.
I. Context and communication
Culturally derived rules specify (indicate/denote) how communication is to take palce by prescribing the appropriate behaviors in given contexts.
II. The International Business Context
1.Most nations and many multinational business organizations have international
facilities and do business on a global basis.
2.The most successful companies will be those who understand world economics
and global competitiveness, and who have the abilities to communicate effectively with their international counterparts.
3.The concept of management can be viewed differently from culture to culture.
III. Business Protocol (procedure/etiquette/code of behavior/set of rules)
The procedures for seeking business appointment, the ways in which people greet one another, and gift-giving practices differ from one culture to another.
IV. Negotiation
1.Strategies for negotiation differ from culture to culture.
2.There are many different kinds of truth in the world, and the source of “truth” for
a culture can influence business transactions.
3.Trust, on a global scale, should be factored into cross-cultural business issues.
4.People need to be cognizant of the roles and values placed on women in the
cultures in which they will be doing business.
V. The American Business Context
1. The American workforce is undergoing rapid cultural changes.
2. Major forces behind marketing as we enter the twenty-first century are diversity in
culture.
3. Cultures differ in their value orientations, and these differences sometimes cause
conflict in the workplace.
4. Issues such as religious practices, human rights, language diversity, sexual
harassment, and sexual and racial discrimination present potential areas of conflict in the workplace.
Chapter 7 .
Social Communication
I.Greetings
II. Farewells
III. Compliments and Modesty
IV. Gift-giving
V. Banquets
Old customs die hard.
A Brief Background
to the Chinese Ways of Life
---Relationships between Members.
I. Revision: Writing a summary an effective way
Communication, Culture,
and Intercultural Communication
This chapter deals with the concepts of human communication, culture and intercultural communication, major characteristics of these notions, and the relationship in between.
In its complex and multi-dimensional, sense, communication can be defined as a dynamic systemic process in which meanings are created and reflected in human
interaction with symbols. It is dynamic, contextual, and reflective.
Culture can be defined as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, timing, roles, spatial relationships, concepts of the universe, and material objects acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. Seven characteristics of culture most directly affect communication. They are that culture is learned, transmitted, symbol-based, dynamic, integrated, ethnocentric, and adaptive.
Intercultural communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. It occurs when source and receiver are from different races, when two parties are of the same race but of different ethnic origins, or when two parties are members of the same culture, including racial, ethnic, and other co-cultures. Elements of intercultural communication include perception, verbal processes, and nonverbal processes.
Communication and culture are inseparable. (195 words)
II. Group Cohesiveness in Contemporary China
China is the only country with a civilization stretching back continuously some five thousand years. Chinese civilization was built on agriculture; generations of peasants were tied to the land on which they lived and worked. Except in times of war and famine, there was very little mobility, either socially or geographically.
T he agrarian (dependent of the land) nature of ancient Chinese society accounts for the cultural traits and values that came to characterize that society, and that still characterize it today. Peasant families were cohesive units in which all members joined in the work of planting, raising, and harvesting. Often the entire population of a village was a clan or family group. Thus, family and clan membership was a key element in each peasant’s identity. The collective (group-oriented) nature of Chinese values is largely the product of thousands of years of living and working together on the land.
The principal cohesive groups (primary groups) within Chinese society today are family, school, work unit, and local community. The daily life of virtually every Chinese is deeply embedded in his or her relationships with the other people in these groups. Very few significant relationships occur beyond the boundaries of these primary groups.
At first glance the relationships within a Chinese family may seem similar to those within an American family. But close observation reveals important differences.
Chinese parents are highly protective of their children. Even grown children depend on their parents’financial support until they find employment; they live in their parents’ household until they are married, if not longer. Chinese children, even as adolescents, do not expect to earn their own money by means of part-time jobs and make no important decisions about their own daily comings and goings. Filial piety is one of the principal virtues counseled (admonished/persuade )by Confucius; this virtue is not an abstraction but one that continues to be played out on a daily basis as
--- demonstrate again and again that they are obedient to their parents and solicitous (attentive, caring) of their welfare.
Extended families in China cohesive. Geographical mobility is
low, so the vast majority of Chinese live close to their siblings, parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, and other relatives. Households that include three generations, though rapidly disappearing (especially in urban areas), are still far more common in China than in the United States. Family-centered values and physical closeness combine to insure that most Chinese have relationships with the members of their extended families that are durable and that involve frequent instances of aid and support given and received.
In school at any level, Chinese students are enmeshed (involved) in another important network--- that of peers. It is true that in the United States, peer relationships among young people are intense, too, but there is an important difference. In China, schoolchildren remain members of the same small group of students not only during each school day and year but also during all the years they attended a particular school. Called the “class collective”and numbering anywhere from fifteen to fifty students, this group constitutes a strong force stability and conformity (consistency). The class monitor, who is the leader of the class collective, bears responsibilities much broader than those of a class president in the US. The class collective attends classes together, organizes other study activities, and participates as a unit in extracurricular activities such as intramural sports.
Every Chinese student belongs to a class collective; joining is not a matter of personal choice. Nor does one have a choice as to which collective he or she will join. Students are assigned to collectives by school administrators on the basis of similarity of academic programs. A student who remains apart from the activities of his or her collective is looked upon by peers as antisocial and quite odd. Members of the classes are expected to take care of each other when misfortune strikes as well as to help each other in more ordinary ways. In spirit, a Chinese class collective is similar to an American sorority or fraternity. Relationships among Chinese classmates (especially those of the same sex) usually last indefinitely, becoming incorporated into each student’s lifelong network of trusted friends.
Regardless of occupation or profession, most urban Chinese belong to work unit or danwei. (Independent entrepreneurs, who are not attached to any danwei, are growing in numbers in China, but they still represent a small fraction of the population.) a Chinese danwei is quite different from employing organizations in the West. A work unit in China assigns productive tasks and pays wages, but it also administers all government regulations and policies that relate to its workers and their families and has responsibility for a variety of other aspects of the lives of its members. For instance, the work unit is responsible for seeing that each worker’s family is housed adequately. A large percentage of the Chinese population lives in housing (usually apartments) owned by the work unit; when such housing is unavailable, it is the work unit’s responsibility to help its members find something suitable. Larger work units typically own and operate a medical clinic as well as a day-care center and a kindergarten; the largest ones also include primary and secondary schools. Family disputes are occasionally brought before the leaders of a work unit for arbitration.
Picnics, weekend outings, and other forms of recreations are typically organized
by work unit administrators for workers and their family members. Large work unit may arrange for their employees to vacation at a summer resort. Some financially secure work units even own and operate hostels at famous resorts such as Beidaihe. When an employee or a member of his or her family is ill or injured, the work unit makes sure that medical care is provided. When employees retire, the work unit gives them gifts during the Spring Festival. Finally, when a worker dies, the work unit helps with funeral arrangements and organizes memorial services. With the possible exception of a few successful company towns, there is no counterpart in the US for the Chinese work unit.
The Chinese sometimes complain about their work units. An American might speculate (think) that the complaints arise because work units tend to interfere too much in people’s daily lives. On the contrary, the complaints most often arise because a work unit has not taken sufficient care of someone (for instance, has not provided that person with adequate housing) or has been unfair (for example, has seemed biased in its selection of members to go abroad.) most Chinese workers appreciate the close, nurturing atmosphere of the work unit as much as they do the caring and loving atmosphere of their family.
The neighborhood is another relatively close social unit. (In some cases it is difficult to differentiate clearly between the work unit and the neighborhood, since workers often live in a apartments located on the grounds of their work unit.) The great majority of the Chinese live in crowded conditions and interact frequently with neighbors. They are likely to share the same courtyard and hallway, and in older buildings they may share a common bathroom and kitchen. Even when housing is less crowded, as in rural areas, the relationship between neighbors remains close. If a family dispute erupts, neighbors are likely to come in to mediate. In cities, neighborhood committees find jobs for unemployed people and try to patch up severely strained family relationships. The type of connectedness typical of Chinese neighborhoods would be viewed by the great majority of Americans as encroaching upon their personal prerogatives (freedom and privilege) and privacy.
III. After reading the whole passage, pick the main points of it.
1.2.3.4.
10weeks
Cultural Influences on Context: The Educational Setting
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,cation is an important social context in which cultural influences are much in
evidence.
B.Systems of formal and informal education seek to meet the perceived needs of
societies.
C.Schools help to fashion the individual.
D.Schools are the primary means by which a culture’s history and traditions are
passed from generation to generation.
E.Schools are a primary vehicle for teaching cultural values.
Multicultural Education in the United States
A.Schools in the United States are becoming increasingly diverse/diversity.
B.Schools no longer teach only Eurocentric cultural values; instead, today schools
routinely teach the experiences and values of many cultures.
C.Despite/albeit improvements in multicultural education, there is still much
controversy about approaches to teaching multiculturally.
Learning Styles
A.Learning styles are particular ways that individuals receive or process
information.
B.Cognitive, communication and relational, and motivational learning styles have a
profound impact on classroom learning.
Language Diversity
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,nguage diversity is an important issue on the multicultural classroom.
B.Students who are limited in their English proficiency face various obstacles in the
classroom.
C.Several approaches to linguistic diversity have been incorporated into the
educational system.
D.Teachers can do a variety of things that will assist the learning of their students. Gender, Culture, and Classroom
Culture establishes norms regarding what is acceptable behavior for boys and girls, and these expectations extend to the educational environment.
Multicultural Teaching Competencies
A.Teachers should be aware of what they bring to the classroom.
B.Teachers should know as much about students’ cultural backgrounds as possible.
C.Assessing the acculturation (文化适应、交流、移入) levels of the students in the
classroom will help the teacher determine how much their students are involved in their own culture as well as the Anglo-American culture.
D.A key characteristic of the competent multicultural teacher is empathy (神入，移
情作用，感情移入).
Classroom of the Future
New technology has the potential to transform the educational environment and resolve some of the current problems in multicultural education such as language diversity, dropout rates, and different learning styles.
11week
The International Business Context
Most nations and
Five Differences between Chinese and American Negotiating
Types of Institutions represented
Although Chinese negotiators are clearly identified with a certain institution such as a manufacturing complex, a university, or an import-export company, they ultimately represent the interests and viewpoints of the government, frequently the central government in Beijing. American negotiators almost always represent private firms. Even those representing state universities in the US do not have the same kind of relationship to government that Chinese negotiators have.
As representatives of government, Chinese negotiators are keenly aware of national or regional pride, of the public interest as viewed by political authorities, and of the political ideology advocated by their governmental leaders. They are committed to maintaining political correctness at all times and rarely have the authority to make the final decision for the Chinese side regarding the proposals being debated at the negotiating table. Rather, they are obliged to seek approval at several levels up the administrative ladder for all agreements they tentatively make during the negotiations. Most American negotiators would be astonished or insulted by the suggestion that their points of view were adopted in order to be politically correct. Generally, American negotiators are preoccupied with the profitability of their company or the prestige of their university. Some Americans must obtain final approval from a chief executive officer or board of directors for the agreements they reach abroad, but many come to China with complete authority to make final decision.
Types of Relationships Envisioned (预见)
Chinese institutional representatives expect that negotiations will lead to a partnership characterized by trust, obligations of mutual support, and permanence. For them, negotiations are important social occasions, a basic purpose of which is to foster （cultivate）a relationship between the two sides that will take root, grow and flower during the present and long into the future. They need to convince themselves of the suitability of their counterparts; and once those counterparts are deemed (considered) suitable, they want to nurture the kind of interpersonal sensitivity, harmony, mutual obligation, and durability that ideally characterizes all Chinese relationships. Americans are hardly averse (reluctant) to good social relationships but rarely see the building of a permanent partnership as one of their principal goals. As negotiators in many part of the world have remarked, Americans are more inclined than any other national group of businesspeople to rush headlong (plunging/diving) into the process of making a deal, seemingly with little concern the level of trust established with their counterparts.
Americans believe they are protected by the binding legal nature of the contract and therefore give little weight to the development of positive and enduring personal relationships. Americans tend to view each contract as a separate and distinct transaction, a “done deal” that obliges them to carry out specific tasks over a limited or defined period of time but does not oblige them to develop personal relationships or continue them beyond the period of the initial agreement unless they believe that it would be advantageous to do so.
Believing that business must be conducted on the basis of mutual trust, Chinese negotiators closely observe the comportment of their foreign counterparts at all times. In contrast, Americans tend to believe that their professionalism, seriousness of purpose, and general civility are under inspection only, or at least primarily, when they are at the bargaining table. At other times---on sightseeing tours organized by their Chinese hosts, for instance---they often lapse (fall) into a customary informality of dress and behavior that undermines (damage) their image of competent professionalism, especially if it goes to the extreme of backslapping (flattering) ribaldry (下流的笑话). The Chinese use every information encounter to evaluate the
temperament, sincerity, and seriousness of their potential trading partners.
Basic Approaches to Negotiating
The Chinese are not nearly a legalistic as are Americans and do not completely share the Americans’view that a contract is a complete, binding, limiting set of specifications. Because the emphasis of the Chinese is more on the long-term possibilities inherent in the partnership and less on the specific transaction to be enshrined there in, there approach is to begin by discussing in broad terms the mutual interests that are shared, or could be shared, by the institutions involved. Their objective is typically to avoid discussing details in this early phase; instead, they want to reach an agreement on general principles governing the evolving relationship. Americans distrust talk of general principles, regarding it as too philosophical (theoretical) or merely rhetorical (abstract). To Americans, progress in negotiations is made by getting down to work on the details. A good relationship is the product of agreement on many specific items, a process facilitated by each side’s being willing and able to appreciate the other’s point of view, basic motives, and practical constraints (约束，拘泥，强迫).
Lucian Pye has drawn the following distinction between the two approaches. Americans tend to begin by enthusiastically promoting their best-case view of how the details could be worked out, then gradually pull back through a series of compromises to whatever arrangements appeal to the Chinese. The Chinese tend to begin with discussions of mutual interests and general principles. To the Chinese way of thinking, the durable and trusting relationship established in the early phase of the negotiations should remove any precise limits on what one party should do for the other.
Perspective on the Nature of Contracts held
Chinese negotiation usually arrive at the bargaining table either with no draft contract or with a rather simple one based on a standard pattern often used in China. American negotiations usually arrive with a long and complicated draft contract that is situation-specific and reflective of the highly legalistic nature of business in the US. It is not unusual for the Chinese to insist, without having read the Americans’ draft, that it be shortened and simplified. This request is not only for their own benefit but also for the benefit of the higher-ranking officials who must approve their positions at the bargaining table but who may be less well prepared by education and experience to understand American legalistic circumlocutions (啰嗦)。
The fundamental problem, though, is not the length and complexity of the document itself but rather differences in what each side sees as the nature and purpose of a contract. From the American point of view, a contract focuses in great detail on the specific rights and responsibilities of the two parties. A major purpose of a contract is to compel each side to do, within a limited and defined span of time, everything that it has promised to do. Another purpose is to deal in advance with the possibility of worst-case scenarios such as a breakdown in contractual (契约上规定的)relations. Amounts of Time Required to complete the Process
12week
Values: Core of Intercultural Communication
0ne of the most important functions of belief systems is that they are the basic of our values. Formally, a value may be defined as an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to another. According to Rokeach, values are a learned organization of rules for making choices and for resolving conflicts. These rules and guideposts are normative and teach us what is useful, good, right, wrong, what to strive for, how to live our life, and even what to die for.
Although each of us has a unique set of individual values, there also are values that tend to permeate a culture. These are called cultural values. Cultural values are derived from the larger philosophical issues that are part of culture’s milieu (setting, location). They are transmitted by a variety of sources (family, media, school, church, state, and so on) and therefore tend to be broad-based, enduring, and relatively stable. Most important, cultural values guide both perception and communication. That is, our values get translated into action. An understanding Of cultural values helps us appreciate the behavior of other people. Knowing, for instance, that the Japanese value detail and politeness might cause us to examine carefully a proffered (奉送的) Japanese business card, as the Japanese do, rather than immediately relegate （丢弃，束之高阁）it to a coat pocket or purse. An awareness of cultural values also helps us understand our own behavior. We can, for example, associate impatience with our value of time, aggressiveness with our value of competition, and self-disclosure (显示，开诚布公) with our twin values of friendship and sociability.
An individual’s cognitive structure consists of many values, which are arranged into a hierarchical order that is highly organized and that exists along a continuum (range/scale/band/field/gamut/ variety)?of relative importance. Values can be classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary values are the most important: they specify what is worth the sacrifice of human life. in the united States, democracy and the protection of one’s self and close family are primary values. Secondary values are also quite important. In the United States, the relief of the pain and suffering of others is a secondary value. The securing of material possessions is also a secondary value for most Americans. We care about such values, but we do not hold the same intense feeling toward them as we do with primary values. Tertiary values are at the bottom of our hierarchy. Examples of tertiary values in the United States are hospitality to guess and cleanliness. Although we strive to carry out these values, they are not as profound or consequential as values in the other two categories.
The Cultural Bases of American and Chinese Decision Making
I. Institutional Decision-Making Values in the United States
U.S. culture emphasizes individual initiative and personal achievement, making things work and getting things done, efficiency and timeliness of action, and making the lives of individuals more comfortable and convenient. These values are deeply implicated in the American of success. Making money is a factor in success, too, but money (profit) is usually viewed as resulting from the accomplishment of worthwhile
tasks in an efficient, effective, and productive manner.
Since accomplishing tasks is the paramount objective of most US institutions, matters are arranged within those institutions in a way that insures that many tasks are actually accomplished.
1.Responsibility for carrying out specific activities is delegated to individuals up
and down the status hierarchy.
2.Authority to make th necessary decisions and implement the necessary tasks is
delegated to those same individuals.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/3a17262872.html,rmation about policies and procedures is provided so that individuals can not
only carry out routine tasks but also deal with unusual occurrences, identify problems, effect solutions, and make autonomous decision within the scope of their responsibility.
Americans believe that responsibility, authority, and accurate information should be inextricably（纠缠不清）linked and at the disposal of individual employees. They believe an individual should be in charge of any important activity, even within an institutional setting. Within his or her scope of responsibility and within the guidelines and policies set by leaders and supervisors, each employee is expected to take initiatives, achieve goals, make things work efficiently, solve problems, and generally make progress for the company or institution.
Equally important, the employee should distinguish him- or herself as a person who is imaginative, energetic, competent, productive, and who is a decision-maker---in colloquial terms, a “self-starter,”a “doer,”a “go-getter.”Many jobs do not lend themselves perfectly to these individually oriented conditions and opportunities, but these are the ideals that people in the US hold dear and that, in some cases, are actually attained in practice.
Ambitious employees in the US institutional settings have as their objective moving up the status hierarchy. Higher and higher levels bring greater wealth, increased prestige, and ---more important for our purpose --- broader power enabling decisions to affect an ever wider sweep of people, material resources, procedures, and events. Although consultation with others regarding many decisions (especially large ones) is obligatory, most decisions, large or small, are traceable to a single individual. High-status individuals are those who make --- and are accountable for --- the big decisions. This is the meaning of power in the U.S.
Institutional Decision-Making Values in the People’s Republic
Chinese values accentuate the importance of the major primary groups to which each person belongs. The primary group is viewed as the basic unit of survival. While Americans stress actualization (现实性) of the individual, Chinese focus on actualization of the group. American assumptions reflect equality of opportunity; Chinese assumption focus on equality in the sharing of output.
Within this context, harmony in interpersonal relationships is of paramount importance and calls for enormous sensitivity to the needs, priorities, feelings, and sense of dignity of other group members. Harmony is promoted by deemphasizing individual needs and desires. Conformity to group norms is viewed positively; distinguishing oneself from other group members in any way that disrupts the smooth
最新英语专业全英原创毕业论文，都是近期写作 1 商务英语谈判的翻译技巧 2 浅析《宠儿》中人物塞丝的畸形母爱产生的根源 3 海明威在《永别了，武器》中的反战情绪 4 《呼啸山庄》中凯瑟琳的悲剧分析 5 中英姓氏差异及其原因探究 6 小说的织体－－论《了不起的盖茨比》的叙事线索和叙事艺术 7 从酒文化中透析中西文化差异 8 文档所公布均英语专业全英原创毕业论文。原创Q 799 75 79 38 9 等效原则视角下的汽车商标中译探析 10 衔接理论在高中英语阅读教学中的应用 11 简析文化意识在高中英语学习中的重要性 12 弗吉尼亚?伍尔夫《海浪》的叙事技巧分析 13 从《雾都孤儿》看查尔斯?狄更斯的善恶观 14 英汉禁忌语的文化内涵比较 15 论英语演讲开场的决定性因素和相关策略 16 论科技英语翻译中科学性与艺术性的和谐统一 17 英汉翻译中的增词技巧 18 福克纳《我弥留之际》的寓言意义 19 The Relationship Between Oscar Wilde and Dorian Gray 20 排比的修辞功能在政治演讲辞中的应用 21 广告英语的修辞特点 22 《莫比.迪克》中的象征意义 23 《榆树下的欲望》和《雷雨》中悲剧性的差异 24 An Analysis on Teacher Talk in EFL Classroom Context 25 从电视剧《绝望主妇》看委婉语的交际功能 26 观音与圣母之比较 27 广告英语的语言特征 28 论汉语缩略语的英译 29 从上海迪士尼的兴建看中西文化异同 30 影视字幕翻译原则——从文化角度进行研究 31 英汉“去除”类运动事件表达异同的对比研究 32 苔丝的悲剧命运分析 33 救赎之旅—浅析《麦田里的守望者》中霍尔顿?考菲尔德的成长经历 34 浅析简?奥斯丁在《傲慢与偏见》中的女性主义 35 关于英语口语纠错的研究与建议 36 学生英译汉翻译中的英式汉语及其改进方式 37 透析《洛丽塔》中的性 38 目的论视角下新闻标题汉译英研究 39 文化差异对中美商务谈判的影响 40 从中英文动物隐喻看中国与英语国家的文化差异 41 An Analysis of the Characters in the Call of the Wild from the Perspective of Social Darwinism
第一章 1 【单选题】(10分) 中西方文化交流的历史源远流长，历史上有一条连接东西方文明古国的通道被称之为“丝绸之路”。“丝绸之路”的得名是由（）提出的。 A. 张骞 B. 汉和帝 C. 汉武帝 正确 查看答案解析 10分 2 【多选题】(10分) 广义上的“丝绸之路”除了包括陆上丝绸之路外，还包括海上丝绸之路。海上丝绸之路由（）组成。 D. 北洋航线 正确 查看答案解析 10分 3 【多选题】(10分) “丝绸之路”曾作为连接中西方的重要通道发挥着重要的作用。其发挥的作用主要是指（）。 B. 军事作用 正确 查看答案解析
10分 4 【单选题】(10分) 通过“陆上丝绸之路”，于（）年粟特人将制造葡萄酒的技术传入中国。 B. 康熙九年 C. 崇祯十六年 D. 元和七年 正确 查看答案解析 10分 5 【单选题】(10分) 汉武帝时期，（）为开拓“丝绸之路”立下了汗马功劳，被誉为“中国走向世界第一人”。 A. 卫青 B. 霍去病 D. 司马迁 正确 查看答案解析 10分 6 【多选题】(10分) 鸠摩罗什把佛教从西方引入中国，将大量经书翻译成汉语，为佛教在中国的传播做出了巨大的贡献。他与（）和玄奘并称为中国佛教四大译经家。 B. 鉴真 C. 法显 正确 查看答案解析 10分 7 【单选题】(10分) （）17岁时跟随父亲和叔叔历时四年来到中国，与元世祖忽必烈建立了友谊。后由鲁斯蒂谦将其在中国见闻轶事整理并编着成游记，在欧洲广为流传，激起了欧洲人对东方的向往。
A. 查理·马特 C. 利玛窦 D. 阿基米德 正确 查看答案解析 10分 8 【多选题】(10分) 佛教传入中国后对中国文化的影响巨大。中国历史上就曾修建过许多反映佛教文化的石窟，其中敦煌莫高窟与（）并称为中国四大石窟。 A. 固原须弥山石窟 正确 查看答案解析 10分 9 【多选题】(10分) 利玛窦不仅将中国文化介绍到了西方，而且帮助中国人打开了视野，使中国人了解到了西方。正是由于他的到来，使中国人第一次接触到了（）。 D. 西方哲学 正确答案是:A,B,C 查看答案解析 10 【多选题】(10分) “丝绸之路”加强了东西方的贸易往来。通过“丝绸之路”中国将（）运输到东南亚、南亚、东非以及欧洲各国。
中国矿业大学徐海学院英语专业 《英语学术论文写作》课程论文 姓名：____王鲁楠_________ 班级：_____英语08-1______ 学号：_____22080409______ 成绩：__________________ 2011.10
论文开题报告 论文题目:浅析跨文化交际中的语用失误 论文题目:Analysis of Pragmatic Failure in Cross-culture Communication 一、本选题的国内外研究现状、水平和发展趋势 1. 研究现状 珍妮·托玛斯（Jenny Thomas）于1983年在其“跨文化语用失误”一文中首次提出了语用失误这一概念，这位跨文化语用失误及其原因的研究奠定了理论基础。 在国内，黄次栋于1984年在其“语用学与语用错误”一文中首次提出了“语用错误” 这一概念。他详细阐述了十种不同的语用错误并且指出，在语言学习中，除了要掌握必要的语言知识如语音、语法和词汇等外，更重要的是要掌握不同的语言形式在不同的非言语语境和背景下的运用。他还建议有关言语行为中的语用内容应该增加到大纲中并且教授给学生。自此，有关语用失误的研究日益增多，许多学者对学习者语用失误的原因进行了研究并提出了有效的减少语用失误的方法。 继黄次栋之后，何自然、严庄（1986）对语用失误进行了量的研究，他们以托玛斯的理论为基础，在其“中国学生在英语交际中的语用失误——汉英语用差异调查”一文中，对来自几所大学的79名语言教师在语言语用失误和社交语用失误方面的汉英差异进行了调查，结果表明，导致语用失误的主要原因是语言语用知识和社交语用知识的缺乏。由此，他们提出，在课堂教学中应该教授跨文化语用知识。他们的研究对于探索和分析中国学生的语用失误有极大的实际价值。他们所采用的问卷也为今后语用失误的研究提供了一个范例。此外，王得杏（1990）将语用失误的研究扩展到跨文化语用失误的研究，并且解释了语用失误的原因及减少语用失误的方法。贾玉新（1997）提出，正是文化差异导致了行为举止、问候语、社会价值观等方面的差异。戈玲玲（2002）认为语用失误主要源自不同的文化背景，由于说话者与听话者分别来自不同的文化背景，他们之间会产生不恰当的言语行为。戴伟栋、张红玲（2002）指出，文化迁移时导致语用失误的主要原因之一，他们认为，文化迁移有两种，即表层结构迁移和深层结构迁移，语言语用失误属于表层结构迁移，而社交语用失误属于深层结构迁移。郝钦海（2000）的“广告语言中的跨文化语用失误”中提出造成语用失误的主要原因是违反了语用规约。在语言教学方面，鲁健冀（1993）提出，我们在教学中总是忽略了汉语语言原则的变化，从而导致了母语的迁移，因此母语迁移特别是母语的负迁移是产生语言失误的主要原因。 2．水平和发展趋势 内学者对语用失误分别进行了质的研究和量的研究，并从不同的角度分析了语用失误产生的原因，综上所述，造成语用失误的主要原因有文化差异、文化迁移、母语迁移和违反语用规约，众多学者研究了言语行为或非言语行为方面的语言失误及其成因，他们的研究具有非常重要的实用价值。对语用失误成因的分析也非常具体，但是关于语用失误原因的分析仅限于文化方面，这些研究也没有同时对言语行为和非言语行为两方面的语言失误进行具体的研究，很多学者只是对语用失误原因进行了分析，
Ｖｏｌ．３３Ｎｏ．９ Ｓｅｐ．２０１２ 第33卷第9期2012年9月赤峰学院学报（汉文哲学社会科学版） ＪｏｕｒｎａｌｏｆＣｈｉｆｅｎｇＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ（Ｓｏｃ．Ｓｃｉ）在２１世纪全球经济合作一体化的今天，随着社会经济和信息技术的进步，各国在经济和文化方面的交流日益频繁。交流活动离不开语言的交流，然而在跨文化交流时，人们不免使用本民族语言的文化和语言习惯，这样一来，语用失误的现象普遍存在，造成了交流上的误解，严重影响了跨文化交流活动的顺利进行。因此，进一步分析跨文化交际中的语用失误，从而进一步提高语用能力是很有必要的。本文主要研究跨文化交流中语言误用的成因，以及针对这一现状如何在中学英语教学中提高学生的语用能力和跨文化意识。 一、跨文化交际和语用失误的含义（一）跨文化交际 跨文化交际是指具有不同文化背景的人（信息发出者和信息接受者）之间的交际。从心理学的角度讲，信息的编、译码是由来自不同文化背景的人所进行的交际，就是跨文化交际。 （二）语用失误 语用失误的概念首先是由英国的语言学家托马斯在“跨文化交际中的语用失误”一文中提出的。托马斯将人们在言语交际中无法达到完满的交际效果的差错称为语用失误。他将语用失误分为两类：一是语言本身的语用失误，包括两个方面。其一是不合符英语的本族人的语言习惯，误用英语的表达式；其二是不懂英语的正确表达，按母语的语义和结构套英语。二是社交语用失误， 指交际中因不了解谈话双方文化背景差异而影响语言形式选择的失误，它与谈话双方的身份、语域、话题熟悉程度 有关。语言是社会交流的工具，语言的使用离不开具体的社会环境，要明确地在这两类语用失误之间划一条明显的界线是不切实际的。 何自然认为在言语交际中，因没有达到完满的交际效果所出现的差错，称为语用失误。在学习英语的过程中，双方在交流的过程不能准确地运用语言或者正确地解释语言，就会造成误解。因此语用失误可以认为是语用者违反了人际规范，忽略了社会文化背景和交际的具体场合等得体原则所产生的后果。 二、语用失误的原因分析（一）中西方文化的差异 中国文化受到儒家思想和佛教、道教的深刻影响，注重大自然的和谐，追求精神上的满足和超脱，仁和孝是其核心思想，因此中国人在交往的过程中很重人情，情谊在他们的交往当中是最珍贵的东西。所以他们思考问题不会单纯从一个方面去考虑，而总是喜欢顾全大局，顾及长远的利益，在与人理解的过程中，会使简单的事情复杂化。而以美国文化为代表的西方文化，其思想基础是基督教，看重个人权利，追求人权和崇尚自由，注重实践与探索。 因此他们的思想比较单纯些，一就是一，二就是二，一码归一码，处理问题简单有效率。例如： ———Ｈｏｗｂｅａｕｔｉｆｕｌｙｏｕｒｄｒｅｓｓｉｔｉｓ！———Ｗｈｅｒｅ？Ｗｈｅｒｅ？ 这是典型的 “中国式”英语，中国人认为谦虚是美德，而他们却不懂得中国人的用意，他们只用ｔｈａｎｋｓ回答就好了，简单干脆利落。因此交流时容易发生误解。前不久，一则《美联航返沪航班拒载中 跨文化交际中的语用失误成因及改进对策 黄梅连 （赣南师范学院 外国语学院，江西 赣州 341000） 摘 要：语言是文化的载体，又是文化交流的工具。任何一种丰富的语言都蕴含着丰富的文化知识，因 此不同文化背景的人在进行言语交流的时候，由于彼此的思维方式、风俗习惯、价值观、语境和本民族的历史背景等不同， 往往会出现文化碰撞现象，这样人们就会误用语言或者不恰当地运用语言而使交际达不到预期效果。本文分析了造成跨文化交际中语用失误的种种原因,并提出了一些解决和避免这些失误的对策，为中学英语教师在英语教学实践中选择更好的教学方法和策略提出了一些建议。 关键词：跨文化交际；语用失误；语用能力中图分类号：Ｈ０３０ 文献标识码：Ａ 文章编号：１６７３－２５９６（２０１２）０９－０１９５－０３ １９５－－
浅析跨文化交际能力与外语教学- “ 【关键词】跨文化交际外语教学 【摘要】跨文化交际能力是指成功进行的跨文化交际所需要的能力和素质。当代外语教学不仅要帮学生解决词汇量和语法等语言问题，而且要把培养和提高学生的跨文化交际能力作为教学内容之一。 高校英语教师在教学过程中，经常遇到这样一些困惑：学生能熟记英语单词，语法也掌握得不错，但不知道美国南北战争；知道罗密欧和朱丽叶是爱情的象征，却不知道这两个人物出自于哪位作家的哪部作品；大学生喜欢过洋节，在万圣节时买搞怪面具，却不知道万圣节到底是何来历……。对于英语的习得，到底什么才是最重要的？是掌握四级要求的四千五百词汇和语法？还是提高语言能力进行跨文化交际？如果说语言只是一种工具，似乎不够全面，但是，任何对语言的定义都不会否定语言的这一重要功能。我们要利用这一工具在不同的文化背景中进行有效的交际。因此，提高跨文化交际的能力无疑是习得语言的一个重要目标。帮助学生提高交际能力理应成为外语教学的一项重要任务。 一、文化与跨文化交际 这里所说的文化是广义的文化，是指一个社会所具有的独特的政治经济制度、宗教信仰、风俗人情的总和。文化不是与生俱来的，而是后天习得的。一个人具有什么文化，并不取决于他的种族、肤色，而是取决于他生活的文化环境。文化是社会成员共有的。即使某个人掌握了特殊的行为方式，如果不为广大的社
会成员认可并共有那就不是文化。文化是传承的，是社会遗产。由于文化的传承，使得任何一个社会的文化都包含了历史的积淀。 交际指的是人与人之间相互往来和交流信息的过程。交际是多个构成要素相互影响的连续过程，当各个构成要素出现文化差异时，就是跨文化交际。跨文化交际即是不同文化背景的人之间的交际。交际不是在真空地带进行的，它总是在一定的社会、文化环境中展开。因此，交际的过程和各构成要素会不断地受到环境等因素的影响。文化的差异会对跨文化交际产生影响。文化的差异表现在文化的各个层面，如宗教信仰、价值观念、思维方式、生活方式、人际关系等。文化差异越大，跨文化交际时发生困难的可能性也越大。因此，了解双方文化差异将有助于减少误解和歧义，促进交际顺利进行。 二、跨文化交际能力 跨文化交际能力指的是成功进行的跨文化交际所需要的能力和素质。文秋芳（2005）认为“交际能力既可以指母语学习，也可以指外语学习。与母语交际不同，外语交际的双方往往存在着文化差异……为此，把外语水平定义为‘跨文化交际能力’更具有针对性，因为这一概念包括了处理文化差异的能力。”胡文仲、高一虹（1997）指出，外语教学的目的可分为微观、中观和宏观三个层面。在微观层面，外语教学的目的是“语言能力”。从知识的角度来看，语言能力包括语言单位各个层次的知识：语音、词汇、语法、篇章等。从语言技能来看，它包括听、说、读、写、译。在中观层面，外语教学的目的是“交际能力”，主要是语言交际能力的培养。在宏观层面，外语教学的目标是“社会文化能力”，即运用已有的知识和技能有效地加工社会文化信息，使人格向更
跨文化交际中的身势语 [摘要] 身势语是表达人类情感和态度的一种非常重要的方法。在跨文化交际活动中，学习和掌握身势语能起到很大的帮助作用。身势语帮助人们转换信息，在跨文化交际活动中是避免语言障碍的必不可少的工具。随着国际经济文化交流的快速发展，由于语言文化的差异产生了越来越多的交流障碍。因此，在跨文化交际中，消除障碍的最有效的方法就是了解身势语的含义。然而即使我们对常用的身势语有所了解，我们仍然很难掌握，因为身势语含义千变万化，即使同一身势语在不同的文化背景下都有着不同的含义。这就要求我们在跨文化交际中清楚的认识到这种非语言交际与文化间的关系。 [关键词] 身势语文化差异跨文化交际 引言 一般来说，人们往往更关注于语言交流的正确性和可接受性而忽略了非语言交流的影响和文化的差异。而在交流过程中如果忽略这些的话其实不是完全的交流。也许我们并没有意识到，当我们与他人交谈的时候，我们不仅仅在使用我们的口头语言,我们的眼神、脸部表情、手势或者身体的其它部位的活动也在传递着信息。身势语，就像我们的口头语言一样是我们文化的一部分。 一、身势语的重要性及功能 1、什么是身势语 所谓身势语是指由人体发出的具有表情达意功能的一套图像性符号。包括人的面部表情、身体姿势、肢体动作和身体位置的变化。身势语包含了很多人们无意识的细微动作，例如眨眼或轻微的眼球运动。身势语用完全区别于口头语言的表达方式传递着人们之间的信息。今天随着现代科技的迅速发展，全球化成为世界的主趋势，不同文化背景的人们需传递和交换信息。语言并不是唯一的方式，非语言的交流变得越来越重要。在商业活动中如果双方语言不通，他们就会运用肢体语言来进行交流并最终完成商业交易活动。拿我们身边随处可见的事情为例子。出售方常常用计算器来给出价格，而如果购买一方不满意这一价格，便会摇头并用一个放低的手势来还价。非常简单的身势便能完成整个的交易，身势语在商业活动中显得尤为重要。此外，在大量的跨文化人际交往过程中，要保持良好的人际关系，人们也必须了解并掌握身势语。语言是文化的载体和重要组成部分，学习相关文化的身势语还有助于我们更好的学习外语，让我们在跨文化交际中避免因文化不同而产生误会。心理学研究发现：在两个人之间的面对面的沟通过程中，50%以上的信息交流是通过无声的身体语言来实现的。从人们获取的信息渠道来看，只有11%的信息是通过听觉获得，而83％的信息是通过视觉获得的。这说明身势语在交际过程中十分重要。 2、身体语的主要功能
文化差异与跨文化交际 第一章单元测试 1、李希霍芬 2、东洋航线西洋航线南洋航线 3、贸易作用外交作用文化交流作用 4、贞观十四年 5、张骞 6、不空真谛 7、马可?波罗 8、天水麦积山石窟洛阳龙门石窟大同云冈石窟 9、西洋音乐西方油画机械钟表 10、瓷器茶叶丝绸 第二章单元测试 1、美国 2、牛仔鸡尾酒快餐 3、熊猫京剧长城 4、丝绸之路四大发明 5、语言饮食宗教 6、江南民居川西民居北京四合院书院建筑 7、巴洛克式建筑罗马式建筑哥特式建筑洛可可建筑 8、雕梁画柱飞檐斗拱亭台楼阁 9、伦敦圣保罗大教堂梵蒂冈圣保罗大教堂 10、洛可可式建筑 11、粤菜湘菜川菜鲁菜 12、勺子筷子盆子碗 13、红茶白茶黑茶绿茶 14、二锅头黄酒 15、豫剧黄梅戏京剧评剧 16、扬琴古琴 17、茶花女卡门图兰朵 18、最后的晚餐蒙娜丽莎 19、澳大利亚 20、BDCEA 第三章单元测试 1、全选 2、傅聪傅敏 3、Skype Twitter 4、文化背景年龄年龄 5、受众面广不受时空限制
7、叔侄关系 8、自然形成无需刻意建立恒久不变 9、宰相肚里能撑船。人非圣贤孰能无过？退一步海阔天空 10、全选 11、面试出席婚礼谈判 12、全选 13、合理的 14、包容的精神 15、机智幽默 16、清晨晚10点半以后 17、于约定时间前去朋友家做客 临时起意邀请朋友过来用餐 朋友婚礼赠送礼金 18、主人为客人夹菜相互劝酒客套表示谦虚 19、注重个人隐私把家视为私人的空间 20、于约定时间后五到十分钟到达准时到达 第四章单元测试 1、情景语境文化语境 2、是否已婚收入财产 3、百年好合 4、外语能力语用能力文化背景知识 5、口语交际书面语交际 6、含蓄隐晦间接 7、表情空间沉默 8、低语境国家 9、日本墨西哥 10、老乡观念强邻里关系紧密战友关系紧密对家族观念强 11、参与模式 12、全选 13、互动频繁可以当面争执 14、. 健康婚姻年薪 15、全选 第五章单元测试 1、非语言交际 2、音量的大小语速的快慢语速的轻重 3、品牌标识交通标识 4、口头形式文字形式 5、言谈 6、商务政务
跨文化交际语用错误举例
跨文化交际语用错误举例 【篇一：跨文化交际语用错误举例】 周刊２００７年第３３期先，人们认为，任何语境中词汇单位的正确意义，一般应当是最符合该语境的那个意义。就某种意义而言，这也就是说，对词语的正确解释即是给整个语境贡献最少的那个解释。换言之，正确的理解最大限度地依赖于语境，而不是最大限度地依赖于孤立的词语。我们如果根据词语的运用范围，即根据词汇单位所处语境的种类来研究词汇意义，便能清楚看到上述原则的重要意义。”（谭载喜，ｐ１４８）我们如果脱离了词语的上下文语境，只根据只字片语而想当然地按照自己的主观臆念得出结论，恐怕往往会与原文作者本义相悖。 参考文献：〔１〕ＡｐｐｒｏａｃｈｅｓｔｏＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ〔Ｍ〕．ＰｅｔｅｒＮｅｗｍａｒｋ，２００１ＳｈａｎｇｈａｉＦｏｒｅｉｇｎＬａｎｇｕａｇｅＥｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎＰｒｅｓｓ．〔２〕ＣａｍｂｒｉｄｇｅＩｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＷｉｔｈＣｈｉ－ｎｅｓｅＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ〔Ｍ〕．英汉双解剑桥国际英语词典．ＳｈａｎｇｈａｉＦｏｒ－ｅｉｇｎＬａｎｇｕａｇｅＥｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎＰｒｅｓｓ．〔３〕ＣｏｌｌｉｎｓＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＴｈｅＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＬａｎｇｕａｇｅ〔Ｍ〕，ＰａｔｒｉｃｋＨａｎｋｓＥｄｉｔｏｒ，ＣｏｌｌｉｎｓＬｏｎｄｏｎ＆Ｇｌａｓｇｏｗ．〔４〕ＬｏｎｇｍａｎＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＣｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＮｅｗＥｄｉｔｉｏｎ（Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ－Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ）〔Ｍ〕．ＴｈｅＣｏｍｍｅｒｃｉａｌＰｒｅｓｓ＆ＡｄｄｉｓｏｎＷｅｓｌｅｙＬｏｎｇｍａｎＣｈｉｎａＬｉｍｉｔｅｄ．１９９８．〔５〕ＴｈｅＮｅｗＯｘｆｏｒｄＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ〔Ｍ〕．Ｅｄ
调研报告习作 班级：研0504班姓名：毛毳日期：2005-10-27 题目：跨文化交际失误及原因 调研目的： 1. 研究跨文化交际失误的原因； 2. 进行跨文化交际实践，提高跨文化交际能力； 3. 学习调研报告的写法，为今后搞研究、写论文的取材及论证方法打下基础； 4. 实践跨文化交际学课程上所学理论和术语的应用。 调研时间： 1. 时间：2005年10月19日下午3点地点：教学楼阅览室 2. 时间：2005年10月22日上午9点地点：龙门石窟风景区 调研对象： 1. 姓名：Stuart 年龄：42岁国籍：英国职业：口语教师 2. 三个德国人 3. 姓名：Morag Brooks 年龄：68岁国籍：英国 职业：退休教师 4. 姓名：Richard Brooks 年龄：70岁国籍：英国 职业：退休教师 5. 姓名：Machteld Vah Boetzelaer 年龄：大约35岁国籍：瑞士，职业：公司职员，来中国旅游 调研方式：采访 调研提纲： 1. 东西方餐桌礼仪方面存在哪些差异？这些差异曾带来哪些不便甚至误解？ 2. 如果一位西方人要在中国一家企业投资，他最想了解关于这家企业的哪些信息？ 调研结论：东西方人属于不同的文化背景，在跨文化交际过程中易产生失误，原因不仅在于交际双方语言代码系统不同，还在于东方人和西方人由于不同的价值取向所造成的思维模式及人际关系方面存在的差异：东方文化思维有较强的具象性，而西方文化则有较强的抽象性；中国人是群体取向，而西方人崇尚个人主义。因此，要实现有效沟通，交际者必须掌握语言国的语言符号和行为符号的规则，同时必须了解语言国人们的思维模式、观念文化以及道德规范。 调研经过： 2005年10月19日，就上文所述的两个话题与外教展开讨论。 A ：笔者B：外教 A：您来洛阳后有没有跟中国朋友一起吃过饭？ B：吃过。 A：你觉得中国的饮食文化跟英国的相比最大的差别是什么？ B：中国人吃饭时用筷子，我们一般用刀叉。 A：除此之外，中国跟英国的饮品是不是也有很大的不同? S：对，我第一次跟中国朋友吃饭时，他们点了一种无色的液体，非常浓烈，我完全没有想到，它看上去就像一杯矿泉水。
跨文化交际与外语教学 一、跨文化交际研究的基本目的有三个。第一，培养人们对不同的文化持积极理解的态度。文化是有差异的，通过发现对方的不同点，反过来加深对我们自身文化的理解，从而做到客观地把握各自的文化特性。在发现差异的过程中，也要注意不可忽视大量的共同之处。第二，培养跨文化接触时的适应能力。初次与不同的文化接触时，往往会受到文化冲击(Cultule shock)，从而产生某种不适应。要使交际得以继续下去，必须设法减缓冲击、提高适应能力。第三，培养跨文化交际的技能。随着对外开放的进一步扩大，走出国门或留在国内参与跨文化交际的人越来越多，他们都需要学习、掌握与不同文化背景的人打交道时的实际技能。在美国，除了在大学里设有这方面的课程之外，社会上，如商业界也有许多机构专门负责跨文化交际技能的培养，以适应国际化社会的需要。可以说，正是基于这一点，跨文化交际研究的实践意义要大于理论意义。 跨文化交际的基本研究内容有三项。第一，有关世界观、价值观方面的研究；第二，言语行为的文化特性方面的研究；第三，非语言交际方面的研究。 在跨文化交际过程中，对于隐藏在文化深层里的价值观是回避不了的，人们恰恰是通过了解价值观的不同，来加深
对跨文化交际的理解。这是因为，跨文化交际过程中出现问题时，往往是不同的价值观念发生对立的时候。 关于言语行为的文化特性，这是跨文化交际中的又一重要课题。文化具有鲜明的个性，不同的文化之间自然会产生差异，文化差异反映到语言上，就成为语言上的差异。语言是文化的产物，又是文化的一种表现形式，语言的使用一定得遵循文化的规则。换言之，文化决定思维、决定语言的表达方式。我们设想一下外国人学习汉语的情况吧。外国人要学会正确使用“我说一点肤浅的意见，不对的地方请批评指正”这样的句子，除了需要语言本身的知识以外，还必须习得中国社会和文化方面的知识。不需要社会、文化背景知识而能造出的句子，几乎都是有关事实或状态方面的描写。例如：“我姐姐是一名大学生”、“天安门广场很大”等等，这些句子原样译成任何语言都说得过去。然而，有许多句子直译过去要么不通，要么不符合对方的社会、文化规则而不被理解。 最后一项是非语言交际方面的研究。非语言行为与语言行为一样，因文化的不同往往赋予不同的意义。在跨文化交际过程中，由于不同的文化对非语言行为的不同解释，往往会产生误解。非语言交际以往多被看作是体态语的代名词，其实它的范围远远超过了单纯的体态语。从人的身体特征到身上穿戴的服饰品，从搽的香水的味道到身体内散发出的体气，从声音的高低到房间的摆设、光线、色彩，从时间观
题目：跨文化交际中手势语的差异 ——以“翘拇指”“竖中指”“V”手势“OK”为例 摘要 非言语行为具有鲜明的文化特征，不同国家、民族对非言语行为的社会规范区别很大，甚至所表示的意义恰好相反。日常生活中人们进行交谈、沟通时，除了语言这个交际工具还有手势。手势语几乎随时随地伴着语言进行交往，起着关键的作用，有时也会代替语言甚至超越语言。人类的有些手势语具有相同性，但更多的手势语被赋予了文化的内涵，不同的文化背景赋予了不同的交际意义，以、翘大拇指、竖中指、“V”字形“OK”等手势为例解释说明。 Abstract Nonverbal behavior has distinct cultural characteristics,Different countries, ethnic groups are very different from the social norms of nonverbal behavior,even the express meaning is On the contrary. When People to talk and communicate in daily life,in addition to the language of communication tools there have gestures。Gesture language almost anywhere with the language of communication,plays a key
role.Sometimes it can transcend the language and even take the place of the language. human gestures have the same nature，but more signs are given the connotation of culture.different cultural backgrounds give different communicative meanings,wave、vertical thumb、“V”Shape as example to explain. 关键词：跨文化交际非言语行为手势语 Key words: intercultural communication nonverbal behavior gesture 手势语（gesture?language）是体态语中最基本也是最重要的一种。 法国心理学家休乐热强调手势语的重要作用：“人们交谈时说话本身的份 量只占7%，语调占38%，面部表情和手势占55%，有时候说千万句好听的 作为铺垫引出一个重点，但是一个不经意的手势就可以推翻之前所说的一切。”但是，不同的国家、民族、地区的手势语既有其同一性，更有其特 殊性。手势语的使用有习俗的差异，所以在交际中必须要小心使用，不然 就会引起冲突。下面举出一些常见的手势语在不同文化中的含义： 1.翘大拇指（?thumb up?） 翘大拇指的意思几乎在世界公认表示好、干的不错，一切顺利、非常 出色等类似的信息。家长对孩子、老师对学生、上级对下级常常会做出这 个手势表示认同鼓励。但竖大拇指的这个手势也有许多例外：在美国和欧 洲部分地区，如果你看到有人在公路上对开过来的车竖大拇指他的意思并 不是夸赞司机车技好，而是竖大拇指用来表示请求搭车；篮球比赛中，裁
本文内容详情如下： 1.1丝绸之路 1 中西方文化交流的历史源远流长，历史上有一条连接东西方文明古国的通道被称之为“丝绸之路”。“丝绸之路”的得名是由（D）提出的。 A、张骞 B、汉和帝 C、汉武帝 D、李希霍芬 2 “丝绸之路”曾作为连接中西方的重要通道发挥着重要的作用。不发挥的作用主要是指（B）。 A、贸易作用 B、军事作用 C、外交作用 D、文化交流作用 3
“丝绸之路”加强了东西方的贸易往来。通过“丝绸之路”中国没将（B）运输到东南亚、南亚、东非以及欧洲各国。 A、瓷器 B、茶叶 C、香料 D、丝绸 4 古代丝绸之路不仅指陆上丝绸之路，还包括海上丝绸之路。对 5 通过丝绸之路，中国人将四大发明传到欧洲；西方人将印度哲学、阿拉伯的历法和医术传入中国，促进了中西方文化的交流。对 1.2东西方文化传播 1 佛教传入中国后对中国文化的影响巨大。中国历史上就曾修建过许多反映佛教文化的石窟，其中下面那个不是敦煌莫高窟与（A）并称为中国四大石窟。 A、固原须弥山石窟 B、天水麦积山石窟 C、洛阳龙门石窟
D、大同云冈石窟 2 希腊著名数学家、物理学家阿基米德的《方法论》手稿重写本经美国科学家研究终于在X射线下回复了原有内容。A A、对 B、错 3 张骞第二次出使西域大获成功，受到了汉武帝的称赞，被封为太中大夫。A A、对 B、错 4 马可?波罗著的《马可·波罗游记》记述了他在东方最富有的国家——中国的所见所闻，激起了欧洲人对东方的热烈向往。后来这本书在欧洲非常畅销。错 5 公元3到13世纪，欧洲各国普遍使用羊皮纸书写文件，从14世纪起羊皮纸逐渐被中国的纸所取代，羊皮纸从此退出历史舞台。错
跨文化交际中的语用失误现象 当说话人在言语交际中使用了符号关系正确的句子，但说话不合时宜或者说话方式不妥，表达不合习惯等，具体说来，说话人不自觉地违反了人际规范、社会规约，或者不合时间和空间，不看对象，不顾交际双方的身份、地位、场合等，违背目的语特有的文化价值观念，使交际行为中断或失败，使语言交际遇到障碍，导致交际不能取得预期效果或达到完满的交际效果, 这种性质的错误就叫语用失误(何自然，1997 ；钱冠连，1997 ；张巨文，2000)。英国著名语用学家Jenny Thomas (1983) 对语用失误进行了定义和分类, 认为语用失误是不能理解话语的含义，并指出语法错误从表层上就能看出，受话者很容易发现这种错误。这种错误一旦发现，受话者便会认为说话者缺乏足够的语言知识，因此可以谅解。语用失误却不会被像语法失误一样看待。如果一个能说一口流利外语的人出现语用失误, 他很可能会被认为缺乏礼貌或不友好。他在交际中的失误便不会被归咎于语言能力的缺乏，而会被归咎于他的粗鲁或敌意。托马斯将语用失误划分成两类: 一类是语用—语言失误(pragmatic linguistic failure)，指非本族语者赋予某个话语的语用意义不同于本族语者通常赋予该话语的语用意义，或者是非本族语者把母语的言语行为策略不适当地迁移到目的语中来而产生的语用失误。另一类是社交—语用失误(socio pragmatic failure) , 指的是交际中不了解或忽视交际双方的不同社会文化背景差异而造成的语言表达失误。出现社会语用失误的根源在于不同的文化对什么是得体的语言行为看法不同。一般说来, 语用—语言失误往往比较容易得到人们的理解和谅解，他们通常被认为是说话人在语言知识和语言能力方面有所欠缺。然而，社交—语用失误却不为人们所接受或者忍受，它所产生的负面影响是难以消除的，因为它触及到了英语国家人们的个人隐私权和文化禁忌等。以下将通过中西方文化差异对比实例阐述跨文化交际中的语用失误现象，并指出原因。 称呼语是言语交际活动的第一关。在各种交际策略中，称呼是最基本的策略。中国文化非常重视宗亲关系。因此，中国人习惯将亲属称谓用作社交称谓, 即把亲属之间的称谓用于非亲属之间, 甚至用于称呼陌生人, 从“爷爷”、“奶奶”、“叔叔”、“阿姨”到“哥哥”、“姐姐”不一而足。这种称谓可以使交际双方感到亲近，缩小双方的距离，从而收到较好的交际效果。此外，在中国文化中，人们出自礼貌，在相互称呼时仍按“上下、贵贱、长幼”有别的传统来体现人际交往中的社会关系。而在西方国家，尤其是英美国家，强调人的独立性、平等性，这种称谓是不能接受的。一般来讲, 西方人际交往相互“称呼”时, 起决定作用的是社会地位, 即交际双方是“权势”关系还是“平等”关系。如果是“平等”关系, 双方将会采用对等交流，即双方都用名字称呼对方；但当交际双方之关系是一种“权势”关系,
1. 英文原声电影赏析与跨文化交际能力的培养 2. 跨文化非语言交际语用失误研究 3. 公示语翻译中的语用失误探析 4. 国内广告语言语用失误研究现状与分析 5. 全球化语境下跨文化交际失误语用归因 6. 跨文化交际中的语用失误类型及对策研究 7. 基于礼貌原则的跨文化语用失误分析 8. 跨文化言语交际中的语用负迁移 9. 浅析化妆品广告中的语用预设 10. 中西方饮食文化的比较研究 11. 中美时间观之对比 12. 浅析汉英问候语中的文化差异 13. 英汉词汇的文化内涵差异探析 14. 英语身体语的交际功能研究 15. 浅谈英汉身势语的表意功能之差异 16. 目标语文化的理解与跨文化交际 17. 中西文化差异对中国学生英语学生的影响 18. 跨文化交际中的文化误读 19. 浅析文化差异对商务谈判的影响 20. 英语禁忌语的文化内涵异同研究 21. 英语学习中的文化习得 22. 英汉思维模式的差异对跨文化交际的影响 23. 外语学习者的思辨能力与跨文化交际之成效 24. 培养英语学习者跨文化交际能力之策略 25. 英汉道歉语差异及原因 26. 中西跨文化礼貌语差异探析 27. 英汉语言中礼貌表达法之比较 28. 英汉习惯用语的文化内涵探源 29. 英语称赞语及其回应的异同研究 30. 中美（西）家庭教育理念的差异及其对孩子的影响 31. 中国英语学习者跨文化交际中的主要障碍研究 32. 试析跨文化交际中角色互动的作用 33. 本土文化与异国文化的冲突对跨文化交际的影响 34. 跨文化交际中的时间观差异 35. 论跨文化交际中的中西餐桌礼仪 36. 关于提升英语专业学生跨文化交际能力的培养 37. 涉外婚姻中的中西文化冲突 38. 论跨文化广告传播中食品商标的翻译 4 39. 多媒体教学与跨文化交际能力的培养 40. 中西方儿童文学的差异 41. 中西体育文化的差异及其受全球化发展的影响 42. 中西传统休闲文化及其价值观的对比分析 43. 简爱与林黛玉不同命运的文化透析 44. 国际商务活动中礼貌原则的应用 45. 论文化背景知识在外语阅读教学中的作用 46. 国际商务交际活动中的非语言交际 47. 浅析英汉汽车商标的特点及其翻译 48. 英汉隐喻差异的文化阐释 49. 文化语境下的英汉植物词 50. 文化语境下的英汉动物词 51. 从体态语探析中西文化差异 52. 浅析英汉颜色词的文化内涵 53. 文化视野下英语谚语的比较 54. 从广告语言特色看中西文化异同 55. 从数字喜好看中西文化差异 56. 中西非语言行为的文化内涵探析 57. 从中英文动物比喻的不同看中西文化差异 58. 英汉概念隐喻的文化认知对比分析 59. 英汉成语文化内涵比较研究 60. 从神话看中西文化异同 61. 文化视角下英汉时间隐喻比较研究 62. 英汉情感隐喻文化内涵对比研究 63. 从文化语境看英汉爱情隐喻 64. 英汉动物隐喻的文化内涵 65. 论中英文中颜色隐喻的差异及其文化根源 66. 英汉习语中中西文化差异探源 67. 从英汉委婉语中看中西文化心理差异 68. 文化视阈中的汉英典故 69. 美国俚语的基本特征与社会功能 70. 从旅游广告看中西文化差异 71. 英语学习中中国文化缺失对跨文化交际能力的影响 72. 正视中西文化冲突提高跨文化交际能力 73. 从跨文化交际中的语用负迁移反思英语教学 74. 情境教学法在跨文化交际教学中的应用 75. 从跨文化交际的角度解读中西方礼貌准则和策略 76. 英汉委婉语及其在跨文化交际中的
。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。 丝绸之路 1 中西方文化交流的历史源远流长，历史上有一条连接东西方文明古国的通道被称之为“丝绸之路”。“丝绸之路”的得名是由（D）提出的。 A、张骞 B、汉和帝 C、汉武帝 D、李希霍芬 2 “丝绸之路”曾作为连接中西方的重要通道发挥着重要的作用。不发挥的作用主要是指（B）。 A、贸易作用 B、军事作用 C、外交作用 D、文化交流作用 3
“丝绸之路”加强了东西方的贸易往来。通过“丝绸之路”中国没将（B）运输到东南亚、南亚、东非以及欧洲各国。 A、瓷器 B、茶叶 C、香料 D、丝绸 4 古代丝绸之路不仅指陆上丝绸之路，还包括海上丝绸之路。对 5 通过丝绸之路，中国人将四大发明传到欧洲；西方人将印度哲学、阿拉伯的历法和医术传入中国，促进了中西方文化的交流。对 东西方文化传播 1 佛教传入中国后对中国文化的影响巨大。中国历史上就曾修建过许多反映佛教文化的石窟，其中下面那个不是敦煌莫高窟与（A）并称为中国四大石窟。 A、固原须弥山石窟 B、天水麦积山石窟 C、洛阳龙门石窟
D、大同云冈石窟 2 希腊着名数学家、物理学家阿基米德的《方法论》手稿重写本经美国科学家研究终于在X射线下回复了原有内容。A A、对 B、错 3 张骞第二次出使西域大获成功，受到了汉武帝的称赞，被封为太中大夫。A A、对 B、错 4 马可波罗着的《马可·波罗游记》记述了他在东方最富有的国家——中国的所见所闻，激起了欧洲人对东方的热烈向往。后来这本书在欧洲非常畅销。错 5 公元3到13世纪，欧洲各国普遍使用羊皮纸书写文件，从14世纪起羊皮纸逐渐被中国的纸所取代，羊皮纸从此退出历史舞台。错
跨文化交际中的语用失误
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跨文化交际中的语用失误 Praｇmatic Failuｒes in Cross-ｃultuｒal Ｃｏmmｕniｃatioｎ 李静 内容提要 英语学习者由于对英语国家的社会文化背景了解不足或者不能够结合语境来理解和使用英语,以致于在跨文化交际中产生语用失误,也就是措辞不得体甚至不达意。近年来,大学英语教学在强调提高学生的语音、词汇、语法等语言能力的同时，也强调要培养学生在理解和使用英语时避免语用失误,从而进行成功有效的交际的能力。 关键词:语用失误社会文化背景语境英语教学 一、什么是语用学和语用失误? 语用学是研究语言的理解和使用的学问(Leeｃh, １98３）。要做到真正理解和恰当使用一门语言，仅仅懂得构成这门语言的发音、词汇和语法是不够的，我们还必须懂得这种语言与理解和使用这种语言的人之间存在的各种各样的关系，如词语的字面意义和隐含意义、话语的前提、说话人的意图、听话人的推断等等。跨文化交际是指不同文化背景的人们之间的交际(Gudykｕnst,１98４）。跨文化交际中有一个语言的文化差异的问题。对于中国学生来说，英语是外语，说英语时往往或多或少的带有汉文化的痕迹。英国语言学家Malinowski(1923)说过，语言深深地扎根于文化现实和该民族人民的习俗，语言研究离不开这一宽泛的语言行为环境。要理解语言,归根到底要懂得说话人的整个文化背景和生活方式。因此我们在英语使用
过程中,无论是正确的理解或正确的表达，都需要注意根据语境选择合适的词句。而在语言理解和表达中非常重要的一个问题就是要防止语用失误。 语用失误不是指一般的语言运用错误,而是说话不合时宜的失误，或者说话方式不妥、表达不合习惯等导致交际不能取得预期效果的失误。Ｔｈoｍａs（１98３）认为,在言语交际中,说话人没能根据标准的语法模式去遣词造句，他顶多被认为是“说得不好”（speakｉｎg badly）；但没有按照语用原则来处理话语，他就会被认为是“表现不好”(behaｖiｎg ｂadly）。Thomas将语用失误分为两类：语用语言方面的失误和社会语用方面的失误。 二、语言语用方面的失误 常见的语言语用方面的失误包括以下几种情况: （一）违反操英语本族人的语言习惯,误用了英语的其他表达方式。比如在应答“Tｈａｎks a ｌoｔ, that’s a ｇｒeat help.”时说：“N ｅver mｉnｄ.”或者“It doeｓn’t mattｅr.”在汉语中，人们对感谢的应答通常是“不客气”、“不用谢”，它们相应的英语表达应该是“Don’t mentiｏn ｉt．”或者“Yｏu aｒeｗｅlcomｅ.”。而“Nｅveｒｍind.”和“It dｏesn’ｔｍａtteｒ．”经常用来回复对方表示的道歉。(二)将汉语的表达方式直接套用在英语上。例如一位外国朋友说:“Ｍy ｍｏtｈerｉs ｓeｒiouｓly ill.”比较恰当的反应应该是：“I amｖerｙｓorry tｏhear ｔｈat.”而不是把汉语的表达“别担心”直接套