Creativity can seem like magic. We look at people like Steve Jobs and Bob Dylan, and we conclude that they must possess supernatural powers denied to mere mortals like us, gifts that allow them to imagine what has never existed before. They're 'creative types.' We're not.
But creativity is not magic, and there's no such thing as a creative type. Creativity is not a trait that we inherit in our genes or a blessing bestowed by the angels. It's a skill. Anyone can learn to be creative and to get better at it. New research is shedding light on what allows people to develop world-changing products and to solve the toughest problems. A surprisingly concrete set of lessons has emerged about what creativity is and how to spark it in ourselves and our work.
The science of creativity is relatively new. Until the Enlightenment, acts of imagination were always equated with higher powers. Being creative meant channeling the muses, giving voice to the gods. ('Inspiration' literally means 'breathed upon.') Even in modern times, scientists have paid little attention to the sources of creativity.
But over the past decade, that has begun to change. Imagination was once thought to be a single thing, separate from other kinds of cognition. The latest research suggests that this assumption is false. It turns out that we use 'creativity' as a catchall term for a variety of cognitive tools, each of which applies to particular sorts of problems and is coaxed to action in a particular way.
Does the challenge that we're facing require a moment of insight, a sudden leap in consciousness? Or can it be solved gradually, one piece at a time? The answer often determines whether we should drink a beer to relax or hop ourselves up on Red Bull, whether we take a long shower or stay late at the office.
The new research also suggests how best to approach the thorniest problems. We tend to assume that experts are the creative geniuses in their own fields. But big breakthroughs often depend on the naive daring of outsiders. For prompting creativity, few things are as important as time devoted to cross-pollination with fields outside our areas of expertise.
Let's start with the hardest problems, those challenges that at first blush seem impossible. Such problems are typically solved (if they are solved at all) in a moment of insight.
Consider the case of Arthur Fry, an engineer at 3M in the paper products division. In the winter of 1974, Mr. Fry attended a presentation by Sheldon Silver, an engineer working on adhesives. Mr. Silver had developed an extremely weak glue, a paste so feeble it could barely hold two pieces of paper together. Like everyone else in the room, Mr. Fry patiently listened to the presentation and then failed to come up with any practical applications for the compound. What good, after all, is a glue that doesn't stick?
On a frigid Sunday morning, however, the paste would re-enter Mr. Fry's thoughts, albeit
in a rather unlikely context. He sang in the church choir and liked to put little pieces of paper in the hymnal to mark the songs he was supposed to sing. Unfortunately, the little pieces of paper often fell out, forcing Mr. Fry to spend the service frantically thumbing through the book, looking for the right page. It seemed like an unfixable problem, one of those ordinary hassles that we're forced to live with.
But then, during a particularly tedious sermon, Mr. Fry had an epiphany. He suddenly realized how he might make use of that weak glue: It could be applied to paper to create a reusable bookmark! Because the adhesive was barely sticky, it would adhere to the page but wouldn't tear it when removed. That revelation in the church would eventually result in one of the most widely used office products in the world: the Post-it Note.
Mr. Fry's invention was a classic moment of insight. Though such events seem to spring from nowhere, as if the cortex is surprising us with a breakthrough, scientists have begun studying how they occur. They do this by giving people 'insight' puzzles, like the one that follows, and watching what happens in the brain:
A man has married 20 women in a small town. All of the women are still alive, and none of them is divorced. The man has broken no laws. Who is the man?
If you solved the question, the solution probably came to you in an incandescent flash: The man is a priest. Research led by Mark Beeman and John Kounios has identified where that flash probably came from. In the seconds before the insight appears, a brain area called the superior anterior temporal gyrus (aSTG) exhibits a sharp spike in activity. This region, located on the surface of the right hemisphere, excels at drawing together distantly related information, which is precisely what's needed when working on a hard creative problem.
Interestingly, Mr. Beeman and his colleagues have found that certain factors make people much more likely to have an insight, better able to detect the answers generated by the aSTG. For instance, exposing subjects to a short, humorous video─the scientists use a clip of Robin Williams doing stand-up─boosts the average su ccess rate by about 20%.
Alcohol also works. Earlier this year, researchers at the University of Illinois at Chicago compared performance on insight puzzles between sober and intoxicated students. The scientists gave the subjects a battery of word problems known as remote associates, in which people have to find one additional word that goes with a triad of words. Here's a sample problem:
Pine Crab Sauce
In this case, the answer is 'apple.' (The compound words are pineapple, crab apple and apple sauce.) Drunk students solved nearly 30% more of these word problems than their sober peers.
What explains the creative benefits of relaxation and booze? The answer involves the surprising advantage of not paying attention. Although we live in an age that worships focus─we are always forcing ourselves to concentrate, chugging caffeine─this approach can inhibit the imagination. We might be focused, but we're probably focused on the wrong answer.
And this is why relaxation helps: It isn't until we're soothed in the shower or distracted by the stand-up comic that we're able to turn the spotlight of attention inward, eavesdropping on all those random associations unfolding in the far reaches of the brain's right hemisphere. When we need an insight, those associations are often the source of the answer.
This research also explains why so many major breakthroughs happen in the unlikeliest of places, whether it's Archimedes in the bathtub or the physicist Richard Feynman scribbling equations in a strip club, as he was known to do. It reveals the wisdom of Google putting ping-pong tables in the lobby and confirms the practical benefits of daydreaming. As Einstein once declared, 'Creativity is the residue of time wasted.'
Of course, not every creative challenge requires an epiphany; a relaxing shower won't solve every problem. Sometimes, we just need to keep on working, resisting the temptation of a beer-fueled nap.
There is nothing fun about this kind of creativity, which consists mostly of sweat and failure. It's the red pen on the page and the discarded sketch, the trashed prototype and the failed first draft. Nietzsche referred to this as the 'rejecting process,' noting that while creators like to brag about their big epiphanies, their everyday reality was much less romantic. 'All great artists and thinkers are great workers,' he wrote.
This relentless form of creativity is nicely exemplified by the legendary graphic designer Milton Glaser, who engraved the slogan 'Art is Work' above his office door. Mr. Glaser's most famous design is a tribute to this work ethic. In 1975, he accepted an intimidating assignment: to create a new ad campaign that would rehabilitate the image of New York City, which at the time was falling apart.
Mr. Glaser began by experimenting with fonts, laying out the tourist slogan in a variety of friendly typefaces. After a few weeks of work, he settled on a charming design, with 'I Love New York' in cursive, set against a plain white background. His proposal was quickly approved. 'Everybody liked it,' Mr. Glaser says. 'And if I were a normal person, I'd stop thinking about the project. But I can't. Something about it just doesn't feel right.'
So Mr. Glaser continued to ruminate on the design, devoting hours to a project that was supposedly finished. And then, after another few days of work, he was sitting in a taxi, stuck in midtown traffic. 'I often carry spare pieces of paper in my pocket, and so I get the
paper out and I start to draw,' he remembers. 'And I'm thinking and drawing and then I get it. I see the whole design in my head. I see the typeface and the big round red heart smack dab in the middle. I know that this is how it should go.'
The logo that Mr. Glaser imagined in traffic has since become one of the most widely imitated works of graphic art in the world. And he only discovered the design because he refused to stop thinking about it.
But this raises an obvious question: If different kinds of creative problems benefit from different kinds of creative thinking, how can we ensure that we're thinking in the right way at the right time? When should we daydream and go for a relaxing stroll, and when should we keep on sketching and toying with possibilities?
The good news is that the human mind has a surprising natural ability to assess the kind of creativity we need. Researchers call these intuitions 'feelings of knowing,' and they occur when we suspect that we can find the answer, if only we keep on thinking. Numerous studies have demonstrated that, when it comes to problems that don't require insights, the mind is remarkably adept at assessing the likelihood that a problem can be solved─knowing whether we're getting 'warmer' or not, without knowing the solution.
This ability to calculate progress is an important part of the creative process. When we don't feel that we're getting closer to the answer─we've hit the wall, so to speak─we probably need an insight. If there is no feeling of knowing, the most productive thing we can do is forget about work for a while. But when those feelings of knowing are telling us that we're getting close, we need to keep on struggling.
Of course, both moment-of-insight problems and nose-to-the-grindstone problems assume that we have the answers to the creative problems we're trying to solve somewhere in our heads. They're both just a matter of getting those answers out. Another kind of creative problem, though, is when you don't have the right kind of raw material kicking around in your head. If you're trying to be more creative, one of the most important things you can do is increase the volume and diversity of the information to which you are exposed.
Steve Jobs famously declared that 'creativity is just connecting things.' Although we think of inventors as dreaming up breakthroughs out of thin air, Mr. Jobs was pointing out that even the most far-fetched concepts are usually just new combinations of stuff that already exists. Under Mr. Jobs's leadership, for instance, Apple didn't invent MP3 players or tablet computers─the company just made them better, addi ng design features that were new to the product category.
And it isn't just Apple. The history of innovation bears out Mr. Jobs's theory. The Wright Brothers transferred their background as bicycle manufacturers to the invention of the airplane; their first flying craft was, in many respects, just a bicycle with wings. Johannes
Gutenberg transformed his knowledge of wine presses into a printing machine capable of mass-producing words. Or look at Google: Larry Page and Sergey Brin came up with their famous search algorithm by applying the ranking method used for academic articles (more citations equals more influence) to the sprawl of the Internet.
How can people get better at making these kinds of connections? Mr. Jobs argued that the best inventors seek out 'diverse experiences,' collecting lots of dots that they later link together. Instead of developing a narrow specialization, they study, say, calligraphy (as Mr. Jobs famously did) or hang out with friends in different fields. Because they don't know where the answer will come from, they are willing to look for the answer everywhere.
Recent research confirms Mr. Jobs's wisdom. The sociologist Martin Ruef, for instance, analyzed the social and business relationships of 766 graduates of the Stanford Business School, all of whom had gone on to start their own companies. He found that those entrepreneurs with the most diverse friendships scored three times higher on a metric of innovation. Instead of getting stuck in the rut of conformity, they were able to translate their expansive social circle into profitable new concepts.
Many of the most innovative companies encourage their employees to develop these sorts of diverse networks, interacting with colleagues in totally unrelated fields. Google hosts an inte rnal conference called Crazy Search Ideas─a sort of grown-up science fair with hundreds of posters from every conceivable field. At 3M, engineers are typically rotated to a new division every few years. Sometimes, these rotations bring big payoffs, such as when 3M realized that the problem of laptop battery life was really a problem of energy used up too quickly for illuminating the screen. 3M researchers applied their knowledge of see-through adhesives to create an optical film that focuses light outward, producing a screen that was 40% more efficient.
Such solutions are known as 'mental restructurings,' since the problem is only solved after someone asks a completely new kind of question. What's interesting is that expertise can inhibit such restructurings, making it harder to find the breakthrough. That's why it's important not just to bring new ideas back to your own field, but to actually try to solve problems in other fields─where your status as an outsider, and ability to ask naive questions, can be a tremendous advantage.
This principle is at work daily on InnoCentive, a crowdsourcing website for difficult scientific questions. The structure of the site is simple: Companies post their hardest R&D problems, attaching a monetary reward to each 'challenge.' The site features problems from hundreds of organization in eight different scientific categories, from agricultural science to mathematics. The challenges on the site are incredibly varied and include everything from a multinational food company looking for a 'Reduced Fat Chocolate-Flavored Compound Coating' to an electronics firm trying to design a solar-powered computer.
The most impressive thing about InnoCentive, however, is its effectiveness. In 2007, Karim Lakhani, a professor at the Harvard Business School, began analyzing hundreds of challenges posted on the site. According to Mr. Lakhani's data, nearly 30% of the difficult problems posted on InnoCentive were solved within six months. Sometimes, the problems were solved within days of being posted online. The secret was outsider thinking: The problem solvers on InnoCentive were most effective at the margins of their own fields. Chemists didn't solve chemistry problems; they solved molecular biology problems. And vice versa. While these people were close enough to understand the challenge, they weren't so close that their knowledge held them back, causing them to run into the same stumbling blocks that held back their more expert peers.
It's this ability to attack problems as a beginner, to let go of all preconceptions and fear of failure, that's the key to creativity.
The composer Bruce Adolphe first met Yo-Yo Ma at the Juilliard School in New York City in 1970. Mr. Ma was just 15 years old at the time (though he'd already played for J.F.K. at the White House). Mr. Adolphe had just written his first cello piece. 'Unfortunately, I had no idea what I was doing,' Mr. Adolphe remembers. 'I'd never written for the instrument before.'
Mr. Adolphe had shown a draft of his composition to a Juilliard instructor, who informed him that the piece featured a chord that was impossible to play. Before Mr. Adolphe could correct the music, however, Mr. Ma decided to rehearse the composition in his dorm room. 'Yo-Yo played through my piece, sight-reading the whole thing,' Mr. Adolphe says. 'And when that impossible chord came, he somehow found a way to play it.'
Mr. Adolphe told Mr. Ma what the professor had said and asked how he had managed to play the impossible chord. They went through the piece again, and when Mr. Ma came to the impossible chord, Mr. Adolphe yelled 'Stop!' They looked at Mr. Ma's left hand─it was contorted on the fingerboard, in a position that was nearly impossible to hold. 'You're right,' said Mr. Ma, 'you really can't play that!' Yet, somehow, he did.
When Mr. Ma plays today, he still strives for that state of the beginner. 'One needs to constantly remind oneself to play with the abandon of the child who is just learning the cello,' Mr. Ma says. 'Because why is that kid playing? He is playing for pleasure.'
Creativity is a spark. It can be excruciating when we're rubbing two rocks together and getting nothing. And it can be intensely satisfying when the flame catches and a new idea sweeps around the world.
For the first time in human history, it's becoming possible to see how to throw off more sparks and how to make sure that more of them catch fire. And yet, we must also be honest: The creative process will never be easy, no matter how much we learn about it. Our inventions will always be shadowed by uncertainty, by the serendipity of brain cells
making a new connection.
Every creative story is different. And yet every creative story is the same: There was nothing, now there is something. It's almost like magic.
─Adapted from 'Imagine: How Creativity Works' by Jonah Lehrer, to be published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt on March 19. Copyright ? 2012 by Jonah Lehrer.
创
造力似乎显得很神奇。看到史蒂夫?乔布斯(Steve Jobs)和鲍勃?迪伦(Bob Dylan)这样的人，我们会断定他们一定拥有我们这些凡夫俗子所没有的超自然力量，天赋让他们能够想象出过去根本不存在的东西。我们觉得他们是“创造型人”。而我们则不是。
Philip Montgomery for The Wall Street Journal; Illustrations by Serge Bloch 创造力既不是我们与生俱来的特质，也不是天使赐予的奇迹，而是一种能力。任何人都可以学会创造，也可以提高创造能力。
但创造力并非魔力，也不存在所谓的创造型人。创造力既不是我们与生俱来的特质，也不是天使赐予的奇迹，而是一种能力。任何人都可以学会创造，也可以提高创造能力。新的研究为我们带来了启示，让我们得以了解改变世界面貌的产品是如何发明的，最棘手的问题又是如何解决的。在什么是创造力，以及如何在我们自己身上和工作中激发创造力的问题上，我们已经获得了非常多的具体经验。
有关创造力的科学还是一门比较新的学问。在启蒙运动(Enlightenment)之前，人们总是将想象与神力画上等号。创造曾意味着与缪斯沟通和表达神灵的旨意（“灵感”一词的字面意思是“被吹气”）。即便在现代，科学家也很少关注创造力的来源问题。
但这种状况在过去十年里开始出现变化了。人们曾认为想象力是独立的事物，与其他类型的认知活动不相干。而最新的研究显示，这种假设是错误的。我们其实是把“创造力”作为一个囊括多种认知工具的笼统概念，每一种工具都适用于特定的问题，并须以特定方式激活。
Serge Bloch 做做白日梦
我们遇到的难题该如何解决？是依靠瞬间的灵感，认识的飞跃，还是可以循序渐进、一步一步地解决？这个问题的答案通常决定了我们是应该喝杯啤酒放松一下，还是来罐红牛(Red Bull)提提神，是花很长时间冲个淋浴，还是在办公室里加班加点。
新的研究还揭示了什么是解决棘手问题的最佳途径。我们往往认为，某一领域的专家是他们所在领域的创造天才。但重大突破常常来自圈外人幼稚而大胆的想法。要增强创造力，花些时间涉猎本行之外的领域，发展跨专业技能是非常重要的。
让我们从最难的问题谈起，这些难题乍看似乎根本无法解决。但这类问题只要能解决，一般都是在灵感迸发的一瞬间迎刃而解的。
我们来看看3M公司纸制品部门工程师阿瑟?弗赖(Arthur Fry)的例子。1974年冬季，弗赖参加了粘合剂工程师谢尔顿?希尔弗(Sheldon Silver)的一场报告会。希尔弗发明了一种粘性极小的胶，这种胶粘合力太弱，只能勉强将两张纸粘在一起。和在场的其他人一样，弗赖耐心地听了报告，但不知道这种化合物有什么实际用途。一种不粘的胶能有什么用呢？
但在一个寒冷的星期天早晨，这种胶再次浮现在弗赖的脑海中，虽然是在一个八杆子打不着的场合。弗赖在教堂的唱诗班里唱歌，喜欢把小纸片夹在赞美诗集里标示他要唱的歌。不幸的是这些小纸片经常会掉出来，因此弗赖不得不在礼拜仪式上疯狂地翻书，以找到正确的页面。这个问题似乎根本解决不了，就像我们不得不天天面对的很多烦心事一样。
Serge Bloch 人们在观看一小段独角喜剧视频后，他们解决脑筋急转弯问题的数量会增加约20%。
但在一次特别无聊的布道会上，弗赖脑海中突然灵光一闪，想出了这种粘性很弱的胶有什么用处：可以把它涂在纸上，制成能重复使用的书签！由于这种胶不怎么粘，所以它既能粘在书页上，又不致在撕下来的时候把书页扯坏。弗赖在教堂里意外的顿悟最终促成了一种新发明，这就是如今全球使用最广的办公用品之一──便利贴。
弗赖的发明是灵感突现的典型例证。尽管灵感似乎是凭空产生的，就好像大脑皮层突然迸发出让我们惊讶不已的重大突破一样，但科学家已经开始研究它们的产生机理了。他们让试验对象做脑筋急转弯题目，并观察他们的大脑会发生什么变化，以下就是一道这样的题目：
在一个小镇上，有一个男人跟20个女人结了婚。这些女人现在仍然健在，而且没有一个人离婚。这个男人没有触犯任何法律。请问这个男人是谁？
如果你解决了这个问题，那么答案很可能是像耀眼的火花一样突然闪现在你脑海中的，答案就是：这个男人是一个牧师（注：英文中“marry”一词既有与某人结婚的意思，也有主持婚礼的意思）。由马克?比曼(Mark Beeman)和约翰?库尼奥斯(John Kounios)主持的研究已经发现这束火花可能来自何方。在灵感出现前的几秒钟里，大脑中一个叫前颞上回(superior anterior temporal gyrus, 简称aSTG)的区域活动会急剧增加。该区域位于大脑右半球表面，其远距离联想功能出色，而将关系很远的信息联系在一起正是解决创造性难题所必需的。
有意思的是，比曼和他的同事们发现某些因素会让人更容易产生灵感，能更好地发现aSTG 生成的答案。比方说，让实验对象看一小段幽默视频──科学家们节选了一段罗宾?威廉姆斯(Robin Williams)表演的独角喜剧──可以使平均成功率提高20%左右。
Serge Bloch 一项新的研究显示，当志愿者坐在五平方英尺的工作间之外做一项创造力标准测试时，成绩会显著提高，也许是因为人们的思维因此而得以“打破了条条框框”。教训是什么？小隔间拖了你的后腿。
酒精也有助于提高创造力。今年早些时候，伊利诺伊大学(University of Illinois)芝加哥分校的研究人员对清醒的学生和有醉意的学生在解答脑筋急转弯时的表现进行了比较。科学家们给受试者出了一系列名为“远距离联想测验”(remote associates)的词汇问题，受试者必须找到另外一个单词，将一组三个单词联系起来。下面我们举一个例子：
Pine（松树）Crab（螃蟹）Sauce（果酱）
在这个例子中，答案是“apple”（苹果）。这一组单词加上“apple”就组成了“pineapple” （菠萝）、“crab apple”（海棠果）和“apple sauce”（苹果酱）。有醉意的学生解决的问题比清醒的学生多出近30%。
放松和喝酒为什么能让人更有创造力呢？部分原因要归结于分心会为人们带来意想不到的优势。尽管我们生活在一个崇尚专注的时代──我们总是迫使自己集中精力，用咖啡因来提神──但这样做可能会抑制想象力。我们也许是专注的，但很可能把注意力集中到了错误的答案上。
这就是为什么放松会有所助益：只有当身心在淋浴时得到舒缓，或者让独角喜剧暂时打断思绪，我们才能将注意力的聚光灯转向内心，暗中倾听大脑右半球表面展露的所有随机联系。当我们需要灵感时，这些联系常常就是答案的来源。
这项研究还解释了为何如此多的重大突破都是在毫不相干的场合产生的，例如，阿基米德(Archimedes)在浴盆中发现了浮力定律，据说物理学家理查德?费曼(Richard Feynman)会在一家脱衣舞俱乐部演算方程式。这就显示出谷歌(Google)在休息室摆放乒乓球台的明智之处，也证明了做白日梦的实用性。爱因斯坦(Einstein)曾说，“创造力是浪费掉的时间的残余物。”
当然，并不是所有的创造性难题都要依靠顿悟来解决；冲澡放松也不能解决所有问题。有时候，我们需要的就是坚持工作，抗拒喝点啤酒、打个小盹的诱惑。
这种类型的创造力是枯燥无味的，它的主要成分是汗水和失败。它是书页上的红叉、弃置的草图、扔进垃圾堆的样品以及失败的初稿。尼采(Nietzsche)将其称为“拒斥过程”(rejecting process)，他指出，尽管创造者喜欢吹嘘自己的重大顿悟，但他们的日常工作绝没有这么浪漫。他写道，“所有伟大的艺术家和思想家都是伟大的劳动者。”
这种通过持之以恒的努力而产生的创造力在传奇平面设计师米尔顿?格拉泽(Milton Glaser)身上得到了很好的体现，他在自己办公室的门上刻了一句格言──“艺术就是劳作”。格拉泽最著名的设计便是这种职业操守的体现。1975年，他接受了一项令人生畏的任务：为纽约市策划一系列新的广告，重塑纽约市的形象。
于是格拉泽开始尝试各种字体，用各种有亲和力的字体来设计这句旅游口号。经过几周的努力，他完成了一项很讨人喜欢的设计，草体的“I Love New York”（我爱纽约）放在纯白的背景上。他的设计方案很快就通过了。格拉泽说，“人人都喜欢这项设计。如果我是个普通人的话，这个项目我就不会再想下去了。但我不能到此为止。有些东西感觉就是不大对。”
超级创造力的秘密
长期关注心理学与神经科学的美国作家Jonah Lehrer认为，人分“创造型”和“非创造型”的传说纯属──传说。在接受《华尔街日报》Gary Rosen采访时，他解释了为什么每个人都有潜力成为下一个乔布斯或马友友。于是格拉泽继续揣摩这项设计，花了很多时间来琢磨这个本已完成的项目。就这样他又工作了几天。一天他乘坐出租车时在市中心遇到了堵车。他回忆说，“我常常会在口袋里准备些纸，于是我把纸拿出来开始画图。我一边想一边画，然后我知道该怎么设计了。我脑海中浮现出了整体设计图。我看到了字体的样子，一颗圆形的大红心显眼地放在中间。我知道就应该这样设计。”
格拉泽在出租车上想象出的标志自此之后成为全球平面设计行业模仿最多的创意之一。正因为格拉泽不愿停止思考，他才创造出了这一设计。
但有一个明显的问题摆在了我们面前：如果解决不同的创造性问题需要不同的创造性思维，那么我们该如何保证自己在适当的时候以正确的方式思考呢？我们什么时候该做做白日梦，散步放松一下，什么时候又应该继续写写画画，尝试各种可能性呢？
好在人类的大脑天生具有一种令人惊叹的能力，能够判断出我们需要哪一种创造力。研究人员把这类直觉称为“知晓感”(feelings of knowing)，当我们猜测自己只要继续思考就能找到答案时，这种感觉就会产生。已有大量研究显示，当问题不需要依靠灵感来解决时，大脑能够非常巧妙地判断出一个问题得以解决的可能性──了解我们在找到解决方案之前有没有“热起来”。
这种判断思考进程的能力是创造过程的重要组成部分。当我们感觉没什么进展时──也就是说，我们碰壁了──我们很可能需要灵感。如果没有“知晓感”的话，我们能做的最有建设性的事情就是先把工作放在一边。但如果“知晓感”告诉我们答案已经快找到的话，我们就需要继续努力。
当然，无论是依靠灵感来解决的问题，还是靠持之以恒的努力来解决问题，其前提假设都是，我们试图解决的创造性问题的答案已经存在于大脑中的某个地方了。我们要做的不过是把答案调出来而已。但还有一种创造性问题，对于这类问题，你的大脑中并没有解决问题所需要的原材料。如果你想变得更有创造性，你能做的最重要的事情之一就是扩大你接触的信息量和信息种类。
乔布斯有句名言是，“创造无非就是把事物联系起来”。尽管我们认为发明家取得的突破性成果是凭空想象出来的，但乔布斯指出，即便是最不可思议的创意通常也不过是对已有事物进行的新组合。比方说，苹果公司(Apple)并没有在乔布斯的领导下发明MP3播放器或平板电脑，而只是对它们进行了改进，为这类产品添加了新的设计功能。
苹果并不是唯一的例子。创新史印证了乔布斯的理论。莱特兄弟(Wright Brothers)以他们掌握的自行车制造技能为基础发明了飞机；他们最初发明的飞行装置从很多方面来看只不过是带翼的自行车而已。约翰内斯?古登堡(Johannes Gutenberg)以自己掌握的葡萄压榨机知识为基础，发明了能够大量印制文字的印刷机。再来看看谷歌：拉里?佩奇(Larry Page)和谢尔盖?布林(Sergey Brin)将学术论文排序方法（引用次数与影响力成正比）应用于互联网的海量信息，发明了著名的搜索算法。
人们怎样才能更好地建立这类联系呢？乔布斯称，最好的发明家会寻找“多元化的经验”，收集许多未来有机会联系在一起的信息点。他们不会局限于狭窄的专业领域，而是会接触广泛的信息，比方说，他们会研究书法（乔布斯就是这样），或者与来自不同领域的朋友交流。他们不知道答案会来自哪里，所以愿意从方方面面寻找答案。
近期的研究佐证了乔布斯的智慧。例如，社会学家马丁?吕夫(Martin Ruef)对斯坦福商学院(Stanford Business School) 766名毕业生的社交与业务交往状况进行了研究，这些学生均在毕业后进行了自主创业。他发现，人际关系最为多元化的创业者在一项创新指标上的得分较其他人高三倍。他们不会拘泥于陈规，而是能够将广泛的社交圈转化成为可带来丰厚利润的新创意。
有许多极富创新力的公司会鼓励员工建立这类多元社交网络，让他们与来自完全不相关的领域的同事交往。谷歌会主办一个名为“疯狂搜索创意”(Crazy Search Ideas)的内部会议，该会议是一种面向成年人的科学挑战赛，会上张贴的几百份海报来自你能想到的所有领域。在3M公司，工程师们一般每隔几年就会到一个新的部门轮岗。有时这类轮岗能够带来巨大回报，比方说，3M公司认识到，笔记本电脑电池寿命短在很大程度上是因显示屏耗电太快导致的，于是该公司的研究人员运用了他们在透明粘合剂方面的知识，发明了一种可向表面聚光的光学薄膜，而后生产出了一种可节能40%以上的显示屏。
这类解决方案叫“思维重建”，因为只有在有人提出全新的问题之后，难题才能得到解决。有意思的是，专业技能会抑制这种重建，令取得突破的难度加大。这就是为什么既要在自己的专业领域借鉴新理念，又要尝试解决其他领域的问题──你的外行身份和提出幼稚问题的能力都会是极大的优势。
InnoCentive每天都在运用上述原则，这是一个通过“众包”(crowdsourcing)方式来解决疑难科学问题的网站。该网站的结构很简单：公司发布他们最难解决的研发问题，并为每个“挑战”设置相应的奖金。在该网站提问的有来自八个不同学科的数百家机构，从农业科学到数学都有。网站上的难题也是五花八门，比方说，一家跨国食品公司想做一种“低脂巧克力味合成糖衣”，一家电子公司则试图设计一款太阳能电脑。
然而，InnoCentive最突出的优势是它的效率。哈佛商学院(Harvard Business School)教授卡里姆?拉哈尼(Karim Lakhani)从2007年开始对该网站发布的几百个问题进行分析。根据拉哈尼的数据，发布在InnoCentive上的难题有近30%在六个月内得到解决。有时，问题在网上发布几天之内就得到了解决。其奥秘就在于外行思维：在InnoCentive上解决问题的人处理与他们专业领域交叉的问题时效率是最高的。化学家没有解决化学问题；他们解决了分子生物学问题。反之亦然。这些人所具备的专业知识使他们能够理解难题，但他们又不是太内行，不致被知识羁绊，也就不会碰到与比他们更专业的人相同的绊脚石。
像初学者一样解决问题、抛开所有先入之见、不惧失败的能力正是创造力的关键。
1970年，作曲家布鲁斯?阿道夫(Bruce Adolphe)第一次在纽约的茱莉亚音乐学院(Juilliard School)见到马友友。马友友当时只有15岁（不过他已经在白宫为肯尼迪总统演奏过）。阿道夫刚刚创作了自己的第一部大提琴作品。他回忆道，“不幸的是，我根本不知道自己在干啥，我以前从来没有谱过大提琴曲。”
阿道夫曾把乐稿拿给茱莉亚音乐学院的一位教师看，这位教师告诉他，作品中有一个和弦是无法演奏的。但在阿道夫修改乐谱之前，马友友决定在他的宿舍里排练一下这部作品。阿道夫说，“马友友把我的作品从头到尾演奏了一遍，他视奏了整部作品，当乐曲进行到那个高难度和弦时，他找到了一种演奏方法。”
阿道夫向马友友转达了那位教授的话，问他是如何奏出那个高难度和弦的。于是他们把这部作品又演奏了一遍，当马友友演奏到那个和弦时，阿道夫喊“停！”他们看了看马友友的左手──这只手摆在指板上，手指扭曲的姿势几乎是常人无法做到的。马友友说，“你说得对，确实弹奏不了！”但他终究还是弹奏出来了。
如今，马友友在演奏时仍然尽量去寻找初学者的感觉。他说，“必须始终提醒自己像初学大提琴的孩子一样沉浸其中。因为这孩子为什么要拉琴呢？他是为了寻找快乐。”
创造力就像火花。当我们摩擦两块石头却一无所获时，会感到十分痛苦。而当火焰燃烧起来，新的想法传遍世界时，我们会有巨大的成就感。
在人类历史上，我们将首次了解到如何擦出更多灵感火花，如何确保更多的火花燃烧成为熊熊烈火。但我们也必须承认：无论我们了解多少东西，创造的过程从来都不是轻而易举的。我们的意志永远都会被不确定性笼罩，会被脑细胞在建立新联系时的随机性左右。
每个关于创造力的故事都不一样，却又是相通的：它们都是从无到有的过程，好似魔法一般。
（──本文选编自乔纳?莱雷尔(Jonah Lehrer)的著作《想象：了解创造力的机理》(Imagine: How Creativity Works)，由出版社Houghton Mifflin Harcourt于3月19日出版。）
v-ing 的用法 1. -ing分词的构成 -ing分词是由动词原形加词尾-ing构成。-ing分词同样有时态和语态的变化，通常有下表几种形式（以do为例）： 一般式完成式 主动形式doing having done 被动形式being done having been done -ing分词的否定形式是由not 加-ing分词构成。如： Not knowing his address, I could do nothing but stay at home and wait. 不知道他的地址，我只好在家里等着。 His not coming made all of us angry. 他没来使我们大家都很生气。 2. -ing分词的一般式和完成式： -ing分词的一般式表示和谓语动词所表示的动作同时进行的动作；完成式表示在谓语动词所表示的动作之前发生的动作。如： Being a student, he was interested in books. 作为一个学生，他对书本很感兴趣。 Not having studied his lessons very hard, he failed the examinations. 因为没有努力学习功课，他考试不及格。 3. -ing分词的被动式： -ing分词的被动式表示它的逻辑主语是-ing分词动作的承受者。根据-ing分词动作发生的时间，-ing分词的被动式有一般被动式(being done)和完成被动式(having been done)。如： The question being discussed is very important. 正在被讨论的问题很重要。 He never talked about his having been interviewed by the reporter. 他从来没谈起过他被记者采访的事情。 Having been criticized by the teacher, he gave up smoking.被老师批评以后，他把烟戒了。 注意：在need, want, require, be worth等动词(短语)后，作宾语的-ing分词常用主动形式来表示被动含义。如：Your shoes need cleaning. = Your shoes need to be cleaned. 你的鞋需要清洗一下了。 This book is well worth reading. 这本书很值得一看。 4. -ing分词的语法作用 -ing分词一方面具有动词的性质，另一方面也相当于一个名词或形容词、副词，在句中可以作主语、表语、宾语、定语、状语和补语等。 1)–ing分词（短语）作主语： Laying eggs is the ant queen's full-time job. 产卵是蚁后的专职工作。 Saying is easier than doing. 说比做容易。 在下面两种结构中，-ing分词也作主语。 ①为了保持句子平衡，通常用it作形式主语，而把真实主语放在句末。如： It is no use crying over spilt milk. 作无益的后悔是没有用的。 It's a waste of time arguing about it. 辩论这事是浪费时间。 ②在There is no结构中，通常用-ing分词。如： There is no joking about such matters. 这种事开不得玩笑。 There is no holding back the wheel of history. 历史车轮不可阻挡。
英语演讲稿：未来的工作 这篇《英语演讲稿范文：未来的工作》，是特地，希望对大家有所帮助！ 热门演讲推荐：竞聘演讲稿 | 国旗下演讲稿 | 英语演讲稿 | 师德师风演讲稿 | 年会主持词 | 领导致辞 everybody good afternoon:. first of all thank the teacher gave me a story in my own future ideal job. everyone has a dream job. my dream is to bee a boss, own a pany. in order to achieve my dreams, i need to find a good job, to accumulate some experience and wealth, it is the necessary things of course, in the school good achievement and rich knowledge is also very important. good achievement and rich experience can let me work to make the right choice, have more opportunities and achievements. at the same time, munication is very important, because it determines whether my pany has a good future development. so i need to exercise their municative ability. i need to use all of the free time to learn
3-18岁纯英式素质教育领航者：纯英式资深外教，纯英式国际领先教材，纯英式学习环境！优尼全能英语：英语动词后加Ving形式的用法 (1)be动词(is.am.are).介词后面加ing形式。还有固定的词组搭配要记住某些动词后出现非限定性动词时只能用动名词作宾语，不能用不定式。常见的此类动词有：advise, allow, permit, avoid, consider, enjoy, finish, give up, cannot help, imagine, include, keep, keep on, mind, miss, put off, delay, practise, resist, suggest, depend on, think about, set about, succeed in, worry about, burst out, insist on, can’t stand, be used to, get used to, devote…to…, look forward to, pay attention to, get down to等。如： They went on walking and never stopped talking. 他们继续走，说个不停。 I found it pleasant walking along the seashore. 在海滩上走真是乐事。 (2)作介词的宾语 We are thinking of making a new plan for the next term. 我们正考虑为下学期制定新的计划。 Shall we have a rest or get down to doing our work? 我们休息呢还是开始干活? (3)作形容词的宾语 The music is well worth listening to more than once. 这种曲子很值得多听几遍。 We are busy preparing for the coming sports meet. 我们正为马上到来的运动会忙着做准备。 (4)、作表语 动名词作表语时句子主语常是表示无生命的事物的名词或what引导的名词性从句。表语动名词与主语通常是对等的关系，表示主语的内容，主语、表语可互换位置。 Your task is cleaning the windows. 你的任务就是擦窗户。(Cleaning the windows is your task.) What I hate most is being laughed at. 我最痛恨的就是被别人嘲笑。(Being laughed at is what I hate most.) (5)、作定语 动名词作定语往往表示被修饰词的某种用途。如： a walking stick =a stick for walking=a stick which is used for walking a washing machine=a machine for washing=a machine which is used for washing a reading room=a room for reading=a room which is used for reading a measuring tape=a tape for measuring=a tape which is used for measuring sleeping pills=pills for sleeping=pills which is used for sleeping
1. Either you or one of your students ____ to attend the meeting that is due tomorrow. A.are B is C.have D .be 2.Professor James will give us a lecture on the Western culture, but when and where ____ yet. A.hasn?t been decided B.haven?t decide d C.isn?t being decided D. aren?t decided 3._Did you go to the show last night? —Yeah .Every boy and girl in the area ___ invited. A. were B.have been C.has been D.was 4.The basketball coach, as well as his team, ___ interviewed shortly after book the match for their outstanding performance. A. were B.was C. is D.are 5.Most of what has been said about the Smiths ____ also true of the Johnsons. A.are B. is C.being D. to be 6.One-third of the country ___ covered with trees and the majority of the citizens _ black people. A.is ; are B is ; is C.are; are D.are; is 7. About 60 percent of the students ____ from the south; the rest of them ___ from the north and foreign countries. A. are; is B.are ;are C.is ; are D.is ;is 1） Mark often attempts to escape ____ whenever he breaks traffic regulations. A）having been fined B） to have been fined C） to be fined D） being fined 2）I really appreciate ____ to help me， but I am sure that I can manage by myself. A） you to offer B） that you offer C） your offering D） that you are offering 3）The thief took away the woman?s wallet without____。 A） being seen B） seeing C） him seeing D） seeing him 4） No one can avoid ____ by advertisements。 A） to be influenced B） being influenced C） influencing D）having influenced 5） They are considering ____ before the prices go up。 A） of buying the house B） with buying the house C） buying the house D） to buy the house 6） If I had remembered ____ the door, the things would not have been stolen。 A） to lock B） locking C） to have locked D）having locked 7）My transistor radio isn…t working。 It ____。 A） need repairing B） needs to repair C） needs repairing D） need to be repaired 8） It is no use ____ me not to worry。 A） you tell B） your telling C） for you to have told D）having told 9） He is very busy ____ his papers。 He is far too busy ____ callers。 A） to write ；to receive B） writing ；to receive C） writing ；receiving D） to write ；for receiving 10）The suspect at last admitted ____ stolen goods but denied ____ them。 A） receiving。。。selling B） to receive。。。to sell C） receiving。。。to selling D） to have received。。。to have sold 11） She apologized for ____ to come。 A） her not being able B） her being not able C） being not able D）that she?s not able to
题目：共同但有区别的责任原则在实施中的困境与对策姓名：罗珠玉、戴政
共同但有区别的责任原则在实施中的困境与对策 摘要：共同但有区别的责任原则作为国际环境法的一项基本原则，该原则的要求在实践中未能得到充分尊重与落实。笔者通过对该原则实施困境及原因的分析,寻求解决该原则的可行性办法。 关键词：共同但有区别的责任原则；实施困境；可行性办法
共同责任和区别责任组成了共同但有区别责任原则。二者之间相辅相成，密不可分。一方面各国不能以任何的借口而拒绝参与环境保护问题，这是每个国家的共同责任；另一方面，基于合理性而产生的区别责任，我们在对待共同责任的同时要给予发达国家与发展中国家差别待遇。只有当我们正确的理解二者关系时才能确保该原则的正确实施。实践中，该原则面对来自不同国家的阻力。 一、共同但有区别的责任原则的实施困境 发达国家有先进的技术与雄厚的资金，在各国订立国际公约之初，对发达国家明确规定了需向发展中国家提供环保技术的援助。可公约本身并未说明具体的援助方式，使发达国家有机可趁，利用市场操作以高价的方式向发展中国家提供商业性援助。而即使存在无偿性援助，实际数据也令人心寒，发展中国家适应气候变化每年所需的资金大约在 500 亿美元，而联合国的专门基金从发达国家筹集到的资金从 90 年代初至今总计只有 670 亿美元，发达国家对发展中国家的资金援助可见一斑，这也是共同但有区别责任难以落实的一个重要原因。 在发展中国家共同但有区别的责任原则的实施也受到了挑战。发展中国家的经济水平比较落后，他们没有先进的技术支撑他们在保证解决自己温饱问题的同时兼顾环境保护，而要想解决生存问题必须以牺牲坏境为代价。传统的经济发展技术、能源技术已经不能适应现代可持续发展的要求，尤其 21 世纪对各国高新技术提出了更高的要求，在环境治理方面也不例外。现在单纯的现有技术转让已经不能满足发展中国家环境治理的需要了，发达国家需要尽可能地多与发展中国家进行技术交流与合作，让发展中国家也成为高新技术开发的参与者，掌握自主的知识产权。 最后，为应对国际环境的问题而制定的众多国际公约，足以应对坚持和实施共同但有区别的责任原则。比如《人类环境宣言》、《联合国气候变化框架公约》、《联合国海洋法公约》、《京都议定书》······这些制定与签署的国际公约，不仅构成了世界环境保护国家合作的标准，而且也未共同但有区别责任作出了各种细化的规定。 二、共同但有区别的责任原则实施中存在困难的原因 美国曾以不符合本国的国家利益为由退出《京都议定书》，而各国对其只能进行谴责，因为国家享有主权原则，有权决定自己是否愿意加入某一国际公约。
关于坚持的英语演讲稿 Results are not important, but they can persist for many years as a commemoration of. Many years ago, as a result of habits and overeating formed one of obesity, as well as indicators of overall physical disorders, so that affects my work and life. In friends to encourage and supervise, the participated in the team Now considered to have been more than three years, neither the fine rain, regardless of winter heat, a day out with 5:00 time. The beginning, have been discouraged, suffering, and disappointment, but in the end of the urging of friends, to re-get up, stand on the playground. 成绩并不重要，但可以作为坚持多年晨跑的一个纪念。多年前，由于庸懒习惯和暴饮暴食，形成了一身的肥胖，以及体检指标的全盘失常，以致于影响到了我的工作和生活。在好友的鼓励和督促下，参加了晨跑队伍。现在算来，已经三年多了，无论天晴下雨，不管寒冬酷暑，每天五点准时起来出门晨跑。开始时，也曾气馁过、痛苦过、失望过，但最后都在好友们的催促下，重新爬起来，站到了操场上。 In fact, I did not build big, nor strong muscles, not a sport-born people. Over the past few years to adhere to it, because I have a team behind, the strength of a strongteam here, very grateful to our team, for a long time, we encourage each other, and with sweat, enjoying common health happy. For example, Friends of the several run in order to maintain order and unable to attend the 10，000 meters race, and they are always concerned about the brothers and promptly inform the place and time, gives us confidence and courage. At the same time, also came on their own inner desire and pursuit for a good health, who wrote many of their own log in order to refuel for their own, and inspiring. 其实我没有高大身材，也没健壮肌肉，天生不属于运动型的人。几年来能够坚持下来，因为我的背后有一个团队，有着强大团队的力量，在这里，非常感谢我们的晨跑队，长期以来，我们相互鼓励着，一起流汗，共同享受着健康带来的快
谢孟媛中级语法(五大句型) ★五大句型★ #不提及他物|--完全动词=>S+V |--不及物动词(vi)--|--不完全动词=>S+V+C S+V--| |--及物动词(vt)----|--完全动词=>S+V+O #提及他物| =>S+V+O(人)+O(物) |--不完全动词=>S+V+O+C 主词：Subject 可以是一个单词，也可以是一个片语，甚至一个子句。动词：Verb 形容词，副词可以用来修饰句子的这些级别元素。 受词：Object 动作的承受者，须具有名词性。 补语：Complement 补充维他命C，补充让意思表达清楚，不可或缺的。 例如： I love you. 的love 就是需要对象的及物动词。 I cried.这个cried 就不需要提及他物所以是不及物动词。 I go with her. 这里go 的后面没有直接加上宾语的， 还卡了一个介系词with 在中间的就不是及物动词 动词可以是及物动词和可以是不及物动词，关键是看它在句子里怎么用，及物不及物都是由受词(宾语)来决定的。 I am a teacher. 注意这里的am 动词前后还是同一个人，我是老师，老师就是我， 所以这里的am 不是及物动词，a teacher 作为补充的语词是补语， I love you. 我爱你，我不是你，所以你是他物，love 才能使及物动词。 上面句子中的am 是不完全动词，需要补充说明。 祈使句也是有主词的，Stand up!，完整地说是You stand up! 只是它省略了主词，因为请求、下到命令，当然对象是面前的人了。 省略并不代表它没有主词，Thank you very much. == I thank you very much. ---------------------------------------
论共同但有区别责任原则在我国的适用 摘要: 文章在结合我国的具体国情的基础上,对我国进行环境污染防治过程中在环境保护法律中适用这一前沿的原则所具有的理论基础以及需要注意的问题进行了探讨。 关键词:京都议定书;共同但有区别责任原则;共同责任;区别责任 1 共同但有区别责任原则概述 共同但有区别责任原则是国际环境法中的一项基本原则。这一原则的产生主要是基于各国社会发展的历史对国际环境的影响及本国的实际承担能力。其核心思想是,在实现将大气中温室气体的浓度稳定在防止气候系统受到危险的人为干扰的水 平上这一目标过程中全球各国都负有共同的责任和义务,但是基于各国的历史发展 状况及现实承受能力,发达国家应该在这一过程中应该率先承担并且承担主要的责任。 1.1共同但有区别的责任原则主要包含以下两个基本要素： 1.1.1共同责任 共同责任的理论依据:全球的生态系统是一个不可分割的整体,环境问题具有全球性,解决全球环境问题需要所有国家的参与，每个国家都有责任。全球环保问题已经成为人类共同关注的焦点,而不只是某一个国家的国内立法问题。 共同责任的内容:许多关于环境与发展的国际文件中均有共同责任的规定。共同责任要求每个国家不论其大小、贫富等方面的区别,都对保护全球环境负有一份责任,都应当参加全球环境保护事业,都必须在保护和改善环境方面承担义务。基于共同责任,所有国家,尤其是发展中国家,都应该参与关于可持续发展的立法以及相关法律 的实施。许多现有的有关环境的国际法律文件没有发展中国家的参与。为了保护发展中国家的利益,有必要对相关文件进行修订，从而确保上述法律文件适用范围的广泛性。 1.1.2有区别的责任 有区别的责任的理论依据:有区别的责任的理论依据是公平原则。如果一个国家曾未经其他国家同意而不公平地对其进行利用而使其付出代价,那么受害国有权要
关于工作的优秀英语演讲稿 Different people have various ambitions. Some want to be engineers or doctors in the future. Some want to be scientists or businessmen. Still some wish to be teachers or lawers when they grow up in the days to come. Unlike other people, I prefer to be a farmer. However, it is not easy to be a farmer for Iwill be looked upon by others. Anyway,what I am trying to do is to make great contributions to agriculture. It is well known that farming is the basic of the country. Above all, farming is not only a challenge but also a good opportunity for the young. We can also make a big profit by growing vegetables and food in a scientific way. Besides we can apply what we have learned in school to farming. Thus our countryside will become more and more properous. I believe that any man with knowledge can do whatever they can so long as this job can meet his or her interest. All the working position can provide him with a good chance to become a talent. 1 ————来源网络整理，仅供供参考
什么情况下句首的动词要用ing形式什么情况下用原型 动词的-ing形式 作主语 动词的-ing形式是动词的一种非谓语形式，由动词原形加-ing构成，可以在句子中用作主语、表语、宾语、宾语补语、状语和定语。 n Seeing is believing.眼见为实。 n Coming to Hangzhou by train takes about 16 hours.乘火车到杭州要16个小时。 n It…s nice talking with you.和你谈话很高兴。 n It…s no use arguing with him. 跟他争论没用。 n There is no harm in doing so. 这样做没有害处。 作表语 动词-ing可用来作表语。如：
n This food smells inviting. n My favorite sport is swimming. n Their job is cleaning the window. 作宾语 1.动词-ing形式可以用作动词、短语动词和介词的宾语。 n I warned her against driving fast. n Jim dislikes eating chocolate. 2.有些动词和动词短语后接作宾语的非限定性动词时只能是-ing分词，常见的这类动词有：admit，acknowledge，advise，appreciate，avoid，delay，deny，dislike，enjoy，excuse，escape， fancy，finish，forgive，face，endure，involve，give up，imagine，mention，mind，miss，pardon，
必修四unit3语法---Ving作宾补、定语、表语强化训练题一．用所给动词的正确形式填空 （1） 1．You may find it ________(astonish) that Charlie was taught to sing as soon as he could speak and dance as soon as he could walk. 2．He could mime and act the fool ________(do) ordinary everyday tasks. 3．No one was ever bored watching him—his subtle acting made everything _____(entertain)． 4．He walked around stiffly carrying a ________(walk) stick. 5．The acting is so ________(convince) that it makes you believe that it is one of the best meals he has ever tasted. （2） 1．The cruel boss had his employees ________(work) all day long. 2．I had great difficulty ________(find) the suitable food on the menu in that restaurant. 3．The next thing he saw was smoke ________(rise) from behind the house. 4．The news that we won the game is ________(excite)． 5．The teacher stood among the ________(laugh) children. （3） 1．It was ________(astonish) to everyone that the court had made such a decision. 2．Suddenly we heard someone ________(knock) gently on the window. 3．I suddenly felt myself ________________(hit) by a heavy fist. 4．Those ________(wish) to join this club should sign here. 5．They use computers to keep the traffic ________(run) smoothly.
Ving形式作定语 分词短语作定语时，放在被修饰的名词之后；单个分词作定语时，放在被修饰的名词之前。例如： The man standing by the window is our teacher. Many frightened people rushed out of the burning building. Ving作定语主要表示动作和用途。 1. 表示动作（主动的、进行的动作）。 a waiting car = the car that is waiting a sleeping child 熟睡的孩子 The girl standing there is my sister. 站在那儿的女孩是我的姐妹。 [注意]现在分词作定语时，它表示的动作是正在进行或与谓语动词所表示的动作几乎同时发生，如果两个动作有先有后，一般不能用现在分词作定语，而要用定语从句。例如：The teacher criticized the student who had broken the window. 老师批评了打破窗户的学生。 2. 表示用途： the waiting room = the room for waiting 候车室 a working method 工作方法 He has a reading room. 他有一个书房。 【比较】 过去分词作定语： 及物动词的过去分词表示被动，不及物动词的过去分词表示动作完成。 例如： That is the book written by Lu Xun. 那是鲁迅写的书。 He is a returned student. 他是一个归国的留学生。
关于工作的英语演讲稿 【篇一：关于工作的英语演讲稿】 关于工作的英语演讲稿 different people have various ambitions. some want to be engineers or doctors in the future. some want to be scientists or businessmen. still some wish to be teachers or lawers when they grow up in the days to come. unlike other people, i prefer to be a farmer. however, it is not easy to be a farmer for iwill be looked upon by others. anyway,what i am trying to do is to make great contributions to agriculture. it is well known that farming is the basic of the country. above all, farming is not only a challenge but also a good opportunity for the young. we can also make a big profit by growing vegetables and food in a scientific way. besides we can apply what we have learned in school to farming. thus our countryside will become more and more properous. i believe that any man with knowledge can do whatever they can so long as this job can meet his or her interest. all the working position can provide him with a good chance to become a talent. 【篇二：关于责任感的英语演讲稿】 im grateful that ive been given this opportunity to stand here as a spokesman. facing all of you on the stage, i have the exciting feeling of participating in this speech competition. the topic today is what we cannot afford to lose. if you ask me this question, i must tell you that i think the answer is a word---- responsibility. in my elementary years, there was a little girl in the class who worked very hard, however she could never do satisfactorily in her lessons. the teacher asked me to help her, and it was obvious that she expected a lot from me. but as a young boy, i was so restless and thoughtless, i always tried to get more time to play and enjoy myself. so she was always slighted over by me. one day before the final exam, she came up to me and said, could you please explain this to me? i can not understand it. i
v-ing的用法 一、概念 1、v-ing形式的种类功用和各种形式：V-ing 包括动名词和现在分词两种，分别可作：主语、宾语、表语; （动名词） 定语、状语、宾/主语补足语 (现在分词) 注意：其否定形式是在其前边加：not/never. 其各种形式如下表：
Being laughed at in public is a terrible thing.在公共场合下被嘲笑是件可怕的事。 Being exposed to the sun does harm to health.暴漏在阳光下对身体有害。 The president's being killed led to serious consequences.总统被杀导致了严重后果。 2、作宾语 V-ing形式的被动式既可作动词的宾语，也可作介词的宾语。 He was afraid of _________________ (abandon) by us.He did it without ______ _____ (ask) You can't eat anything before _____________(operate on)I remember having be en told the story. 3、作表语 What worried the child most was his not being allowed to visit his mother i n the hospital. 使孩子最为担心的是他不被允许到医院看母亲。 What I hate most is ________________ (laugh at) The problem is for from _______________ (settle) 注意：①动名词的被动式作主语和表语时，常用其一般式（being done)，不习惯用完成式；但作宾语时，若其动作发生谓语动词之前或强调动作已经发生，可用其完成式（hav ing been done)。如： I appreciate having been given the chance to study abroad. 我很感激能被给与到国外留学的机会。 1)动名词的被动式在句中作主、宾、表时，其特点是只表被动，不表进行。
动词ing形式的用法 一)Ving形式作定语 分词短语作定语时，放在被修饰的名词之后；单个分词作定语时，放在被修饰的名词之前。例如： The man standing by the window is our teacher. Many frightened people rushed out of the burning building. Ving作定语主要表示动作和用途。 1. 表示动作（主动的、进行的动作）。 a waiting car = the car that is waiting a sleeping child 熟睡的孩子 The girl standing there is my sister. 站在那儿的女孩是我的姐妹。 [注意]现在分词作定语时，它表示的动作是正在进行或与谓语动词所表示的动作几乎同时发生，如果两个动作有先有后，一般不能用现在分词作定语，而要用定语从句。例如： The teacher criticized the student who had broken the window. 老师批评了打破窗户的学生。 2. 表示用途： the waiting room = the room for waiting 候车室 a working method 工作方法 He has a reading room. 他有一个书房。 【比较】 过去分词作定语： 及物动词的过去分词表示被动，不及物动词的过去分词表示动作完成。例如： That is the book written by Lu Xun. 那是鲁迅写的书。 He is a returned student. 他是一个归国的留学生。 不定式作定语： 用不定式作定语，其经常所修饰的名词、代词有：
论共同但有区别责任原则 ——全球环境 徐博 （机械与汽车工程系机制2082班） 摘要:文章在结合我国的具体国情的基础上,对我国进行环境污染防治过程中在环境保护法律中适用这一前沿的原则所具有的理论基础以及需要注意的问题进行了探讨。 关键词:京都议定书;共同但有区别责任原则 一、共同但有区别责任原则的主要内容 《京都议定书》第一次设定了具有法律约束力的温气限排额度,是迄今为止国际社会承诺削减温气排放、遏制地球变暖的唯一一项国际公约。结合1994年3月生效的《联合国气候变化框架国际公约》的相关内容可知,共同但有区别责任原则主要内容包含两个方面——共同责任以及有区别责任。由于现实原因的限制或者说是从公平的角度考虑,发达国家和发展中国家在国际环境保护中所要承担的责任的范围、时间、方式、手段等方面是有差异的,从历史和现实的角度出发,对于各国的具体责任的确定,应当兼顾公平与效率,统筹考虑各种因素,在公平和效率之间做出适当的权衡取舍。保护和改善全球环境是全人类的共同利益所在,是世界各国的共同责任。这种共同责任主要体现在:基于“地区生态系统的整体性”,各国,不论其大小、贫富方面的差别都应该采取措施保护和改善其管辖范围内的环境,并防止对管辖范围以外的环境造成损害,同时各国应该在环境方面相互合作和支持等。但是另一方面,由于各国经济发展和工业化的水平不同,废弃物和污染物的排放数量也不同,不应该要求所有的国家承担完全相同的责任。发达国家在自身发展过程中曾经向大气排放大量有害物质,最先并且主要是他们造成了大气的污染,发展中国家不应为他们造成的大气污染后果承担责任。 二、共同但有区别责任原则适用于我国环境法律体系的基础 不可否认,共同但有区别责任原则在全球范围内是适用、且必须加以运用的。一种被证实具有优越性的原则能否在我国的环境法中适用,必须要针对我国的具体国情以及此原则的特征进行分析。 (一)我国在环境保护方面与世界进行了深入的交流和合作,具备运用相应知识的能力 从环境角度来看,世界是一体的,一国环境的污染和破坏都可能引起相关地区甚至全球范围内的环境破坏。我国积极参加全球范围内的环境保护活动,签订相关的环境保护国际协议。我国先后与30多个国家签署了双边环境合作协议或备忘录,与美国、日本、法国、德国、加拿大、俄罗斯等10个国家签订了有关核安全与辐射环境管理的双边合作协议,与联合国环境规划署、联合国开发计划署、国际原子能机构、世界银行、亚洲开发银行、全球环境基金、蒙特利尔议定书多边基金等国际机构建立了密切的合作关系。积极参与了重要国际环境公约的谈判和重要多边环境论坛的活动,参加或签署了气候变化框架公约、生物多样性公约、保护臭氧层的维也纳公约和蒙特利尔议定书、巴塞尔公约、核安全公约等国际环境公约,广泛、深入地开展了有关国际公约的履约工作。表明我国在环境保护方面已经全面与世界接轨,对国际环境保护及其责任履行上的原则有了深入地了解和学习,能够结合我国的具体实际情况合理地移植到我国的相关法律体系中来。