English Lexicology
Definition of Lexicology
The literal meaning of lexicology is the ―science of the word‖. It is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of a given language.
Vocabulary and word
The term vocabulary refers to all the words of a given language, while the term word refers to the fundamental unit of a given language, with sound and meaning(lexical and grammatical), capable of performing a given syntactic function. The difference in grammatical meaning can usually cause the change of the lexical meaning.
Exercise
1)He tore down the hill.
2)Three enemy planes were downed the day before yesterday.
3)But me no buts.
4)The proposal was fathered by John.
5)Einstein fathered relativity.
6)They are leafletting the outgoing shop shift.
7)The demonstrators marched through the streets, leafletting and
shouting slogans.
Chapter 1 Word Formation （1）
Word formation handles rules of how to build an English word.
Patterns Example
affixation
unhappy/teacher
(prefixation/suffixation)
compounding blackboard
conversion But me no buts.
blending Chinglish
shortening ad
back-formation edit
Background Information
The expansion of vocabulary in English depends chiefly on word-formation. The most productive are affixation, compounding and conversion.
According to pyles and Algeo (1981), words produced through affixation constitute 30% to 40% of the total number of new words, compounding yields 28% to 30% of all the new words; conversion brings 26% of the new vocabulary into modern English. The rest of the new words come from shortening, numbering 8% to 10%, together with 1% to 5% of words born out of blending and other means.
Affixation
Affixation is a method of word-formation by which new words are created by adding affixes to roots. It is subdivided into prefixation and suffixation.
Prefixation:the formation of new words by adding prefixes to roots.
Suffixation:the formation of new words by adding suffixes to roots.
Prefixation: (1) Prefixes of time and order
ex-
1)ex-lover, ex-colony, ex-premier, ex-president
2)In the world of celebrities, the awkwardness level between Brad
Pitt & ex-wife Jennifer Aniston has seldom been reached. After Pitt‘s alleged affair with sex bomb Angelina Jolie, a rift occurred between Pitt & Aniston.
pre-
1)The report concludes by contending that providing a high-quality
preschool education to all low-income children makes good economic sense.
2)Jupiter is a precondition for life on earth.
3)Some people believe that a person‘s destiny is
predetermined .
fore-
1)Foreword is a short introductory essay preceding the text
of a book.
2)Several of his forefathers emigrated to America.
他的几位祖先移居美国。
3)If I'd had the forethought to bring my raincoat, I
wouldn't have got wet in the storm.
我当初如果想到要带雨衣，便不会被暴风雨淋湿了。
post-
1)Postnatal depression is a depressive illness that occurs after
having a baby.
2)The lack of postwar planning wasn't merely the result of
incompetence. It was deliberate policy. There was never any intention of rebuilding Iraq.
Cf.
Business bounced back to prewar levels.
商业回升到战前的水平。
3)Findings from published studies suggest that the postoperative
recovery process is more painful, slower, and more complicated in adult patients who had high levels of preoperative anxiety.
4)U.S. President Barack Obama says it is up to the people of Iran to
determine their nation's future. At the same time, he says he is troubled by the post-election turmoil there and wants to see an end to the bloodshed.
re-
1)The reappointment of Bush is bad news for freedom and good
news for tyranny.
2)When they find that their marriage does not please and satisfy,
they divorce and remarry .
3)If he were you, he would reconsider my proposal.
他要是你，他会重新考虑我的建议。
Summary
ex-: former fore-: before pre-: before post-: afte r re-: again
Skill of memorizing new words
1)The teacher will meet his class at 8 o‘clock.
2)The teacher will meet his lass at 8 o‘clock.
3)The teacher will meet his ass at 8 o‘clock.
Class - lass - ass
Chapter 1 Word Formation（2）
Review
Example
Prefixes of time &
order
ex- exserviceman/exsoldier
pre- Dinosaurs are prehistoric animals.
fore- foretell the future
post- postdoctoral research
re- postgraduate reexamination
Prefixation: (2) Negative prefix
a-/ an-
1)Atypical pneumonia refers to pneumonia caused by certain
bacteria.
2)The Queen is an apolitical figure.
3)He continues to hurt others with his amoral behaviour.
cf. unmoral
4)I believe that there is no God, so I am an atheist.
我不信仰上帝, 所以我是一个无神论者。
5)It is unpleasant to receive anonymous letters.
Cf.
--- a letter from an anonym
--- an onymous article in a magazine
6)If law and order break down, anarchy will result.
法治一垮, 就会出现无政府状态.
-archy: rule
dis-
1)disapprove, disadvantage, disobedient, dishonest, disorder
2)His conduct disagrees with his words.
他言行不一。
3)disuse the original complex form of Chinese characters 不
用繁体字
4)That method fell into disuse .
那种方法已废除不用。
5)The views between us are discordant.
Cf.
--- What has brought discord into the family?
什么事使得这个家庭不和？
--- His words are in accord with his ideas.
他心口一致。
non-
1)non-standard pronunciation
2)Nonviolent resistance is the practice of achieving socio-political
goals through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, and other methods, without using violence.
3)nonsense, non-existence
in- / im- / ir- / il-
1)About half the population in the country is still -literate.
2)The key to being -resistible to men is more about you and less
about them.
3)The encyclopedia provides a comprehensive survey of -formal
education and lifelong learning.
4)Given China's long history, the new gender -balance is
something recent.
Key: illiterate irresistible informal imbalance
The usage of in- & im-
*moral, mature, measurable
*patient, partial, passable
*balanced
*accurate, capability, feasible, quiet
Summary
a-, an-
dis-not, without
non-
in- / im- / il- / ir-
un-
Prefixation: (3) Reversative prefix
de-
1)The above book is a photo of a book once owned by Washington
DC private Investigator Nick Beltrante who was called in to debug the offices of the Democratic National Headquarters in the Watergate Building after the burglars where caught.
2)But it was error when I want to debug my project.
3)Too many people live in our cities, we live too close together.
We need to decentralize our cities.
4)Torture always dehumanizes both the torturer and his
victim.
严刑拷打往往使施刑者和受刑者都丧失人性.
5)Deforestation is the large-scale removal of trees by any
method.
dis-
1)disappear
2)The bad news disheartened him.
3)Which country will be the first to disarm?
Cf. The new battleship shall be armed with 16-inch guns.
新战舰将以16英寸口径的大炮武装起来
T ranslation:全面彻底的裁减军备
general and complete disarmament .
Exercise
Y ou Can Help, T oo
Beijing starts recruiting volunteers for the 2008 Olympic Games Besides the Games volunteers, hundreds of thousands of people are needed for other city operations. They will provide a wide range of services such as controlling traffic and helping maintain public order. The launching ceremony also unveiled the title and slogan of the ―Smile Theme Activity.‖
The song ?Smile, Beijing?marked the climax of the ceremony. Children dressed in the costumes of Fu Wa, the five Beijing Olympic mascots, held the balloons in five Olympic colors and painted smiling faces on the balloons along with the spectators. ―In 2008, the volunteers‘ smiles will be the best name cards for Beijing. We hope everyone will help us make Beijing a ‘smiling city,’?Liu said.
un-
1)Few believe he can be unseated.
很少人认为他会被撤职。
Cf. seat a candidate
2)unwrap a package
打开包裹
Cf. wrap oneself in a blanket
Summary
de-
dis-reversing the action
un-
Skill of memorizing new words
insomnia
Anyone can suffer from insomnia, although sleeping problems are more common among women, the ill, the elderly, smokers, and alcoholics.
In som(e) ni(ghts) a(wake)
Chapter 1 Word Formation（3）
Review
Example
Negative
Prefix
a-/an- asexual reproduction; anhydrous alcohol
dis- disharmony between husband and wife
non- non-swimmer
This charity is a nonprofit organization.
in-, im-, il-, ir- incredible coincidence; immortal poem;
illogical argument; irrelevant thoughts
un- unbelievably progressive
Reversative
Example
Prefix
de- demystify knowledge so as to help the
masses to get know-how
dis- The incident was sufficient to disarrange her
whole life.
un- unmask a traitor
Prefixation: (4) Pejorative prefix
mal-
1)We‘ll not intervene unless the children are physically
maltreated.
2)The garbage became quite malodorous after it sat there for two
weeks.
More examples:
malnutrition
malformed
maladaptation
malposition
mis-
1)misunderstand
2)He's honest, and you misjudge him if you think he isn't."
他为人诚实。如果你认为他不是的话，那你就判断错了。＂.
3)Their marriage was a mismatch they had little in common.
他们的婚姻不般配-- 两人几无共同之处.
pseudo-
1)Pseudoscience is any scheme of theories, beliefs and methods
wrongly considered as scientific.
2)Although it is a pseudograph, it is still wroth reading.
虽然这是篇伪作，但还是有可读性的。
3)She writes under a pseudonym /pen name.
她用笔名发表作品.
summary
mal-
mis- wrongly, false
pseudo-
(5) Prefixes of attitude and orientation
anti-
1)Monoclonal antibody technology allows us to produce large
amounts of pure antibodies in the following way.
2)Antibacterial soaps are marketed as an effective way to get rid
of germs and protect your family from colds, flus and other common illness. But do they really work? The answer may surprise you.
3)Turn anticlockwise 90°and turn clockwise 270°.
pro-
1)Secret societies had traditionally been a progressive,
prorevolutionary force in China.
2)In reality, however, the Kuomintang showed its pro-British and
pro-American inclination, initiated its anti-communist actions and attempted to w eaken China ‘s anti-Japanese national united front.
counter-
1)Revolution will bring counter-revolution.
2)Our bodies produce antibodies to counteract disease.
我们的身体能产生抗体以抵抗疾病.
3)We must try to counteract the present current of anti-government
feeling.
我们应该努力消除目前的这股反政府情绪.
co-
cooperate, co-author
five principles of peaceful co-existence
Mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in each other's internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. summary
anti-: against, opposed to pro-: for, on the side of
counter-: against co-: together, with (6) Prefixes of degree and size
super-
1)In the movie, Spiderman is a superman who possesses
superhuman strength. However, China's spidermen, legion of low-tech window washers, hang from single, thumb-thick ropes, cleaning country's high-rise windows.
2)supercarrier; superbomber
out-
1)The navy outgeneraled and outgunned the army.
2)He outlived his wife by three years.
他比妻子多活了三年。.
3)He's already outgrown his older brother.
他已长得比哥哥还高。
4)The child outgrew all his clothes.
extra-
1)Is extramarital affair extralegal?
2)Her strength of will is extraordinary .
3)extraordinary, extracurricular activities
over-
1)overdress
cf. a. I feel rather overdressed in this suit everyone else is wearing jeans!
b. I dressed up for the party.
c. Sometimes I would underdress if she and I were going out to
the grocery store or doing errands or stuff like that.
2)oversensitive, over-confident, overcritical
3)Don't you think you're overreact a bit?
你不觉得你的反应有点过火了吗?
hyper-
①hyper-sensitive
②He is so hypercritical that he corrects every mistake his
students made.
Hypercritical & Hypocritical
Paraphrase:
The politician, left and right, is hypocritical, caring about themselves but never about others.
ultra-
1)https://www.doczj.com/doc/33286584.html, provides Whitening & Moisturizing Anti-UV
Cream.
2)They use ultraviolet lamp to kill pests.
他们使用紫外线灯杀死害虫。
3)ultra-fashionable, ultra-conservative
micro-
1)The microwave oven is one of the great inventions of the 20th
century.
2)microbiology, microeconomics
More prefixes
macro-economics, macro-structure mini-van, mini-skirt
arch-capitalist, arch-bishop sub-normal
under-developed
summary
super-:beyond micro-:small
out-:surpassing macro-:large
extra-:very, beyond mini-:small
over-: beyond arch-:chief
hyper-: extreme sub-:beneath
ultra-: beyond, extreme under-:beneath
Skill of memorizing a word
There is a deer in the reed.
Chapter 1 Word Formation（4）
Review
Pejorative prefix Example
mal- machine malfunction
mis- I miscalculated the number of guests at
the wedding.
pseudo- a pseudodemocratic manner
Example
Prefixes of attitude
and orientation
anti- antiaging cream
pro- pro-democracy camp
co- Co-Education,Good or Bad?
counter- counterclockwise;
We should seize the opportunity to
counterattack.
Example
Prefixes of
degree and
size
super- the application of superconductors
out- Perfect hostesses outclass sexy cheerleaders.
extra- This blanket is made with microfiber yarns that
give it an extra-soft feel.
over- I cannot go to a buffet without overeating.
hyper- Parents of hyperactive children know the "Would
you please just settle down?!" phrase well.
ultra- An ultrasound machine creates images that allow
various organs in the body to be examined.
micro- A microorganism or microbe is an organism that is
so small that it is microscopic (invisible to the
naked eye).
macro- dinosaur macro-fossil
mini- Russian President Vladimir Putin says relations
with Britain will develop normally despite what he
called a "minicrisis" between London and
Moscow.
arch- Milton's writing in these books, and his
characterization of Satan, make the archfiend
understandable and unforgettable.
sub- The country's top watchdog on quality announced
on Friday punishments for three companies for
exporting substandard products.
under- Don't undervalue Jim's contribution to the
research.
Prefixation: (7) Locative prefix
inter-
1)Interpersonal relationship skills help us to relate in positive
ways with our family members and others.
2)This is just an illustration of the intergenerational power struggle
in the scientific world.
3)intercontinental missile
4)Although most lecturers regarded the implementation of such an
interactive teaching approach as practically not feasible....
5)the intra-class struggle amongst the black bourgeoisie as
well as the inter-class struggle between black and white bourgeoisies
intra-
1)The author shows that the degree of centralization and
decentralization of a party and the nature of the intraparty conflict affect the party's elite's ability to pacify internal opposition.
2)There are several types of injections, including intradermal,
subcutaneous, intramuscular and intravenous injections etc.
3)In many respects cultural diversification has resulted from an
actual diversification of populations in many nations through international, interregional, and intranational movement of peoples.
super-
1)Democracy is part of the superstructure.
2)Today the same technique is used to superimpose a bamboo forest
onto glass panels.
sub-
1)subway, submarine
2)Subtitle is a secondary or explanatory title or a written piece of translated dialogue superimposed at the bottom of the frame during a film.
副题/叠映在画面底部的字幕
tele-
1)Telescope is a magnifier of images of distant objects.
Cf. A microscope will reveal much that cannot be seen with the naked eye.
2)Telecommunication, telecontrol plane
summary
inter-: between, among intra-: within, inward
super-:above, over sub-:under, beneath tele-:far away
Prefixation: (8) Number prefix
semi-
1)Peru is a semifeudal and semicolonial society.
2)The semiannual reports are intended to keep the Secretary and
the Congress fully and currently informed of ...
3)semicentury, semicircle, semidry
demi-
1)Hercules was known as a demigod and was considered one of the
greatest heroes of mythology.
2)demiwolf, demilance
hemi-
1)Generally speaking, the Eastern hemi-sphere consists of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia, while the Western hemi-sphere includes North and South America.
uni-
1)Unicellular organism refers to animal or plant consisting
of a single cell.
2)Unicorn is an imaginary creature represented as a white horse
with a long horn growing from its forehead.
3)Our client is in need of many unilingual (English) and bilingual
(English & French) sales trainers for their expanding operations.
4)During the late 1980s, some sportsmen took an interest in the
unicycle.
mono-
1)She speaks in monotone , with no emotion, and it is hard to
get through her lectures.
2)In this world-famous monologue , Shylock attacks Anthony,
of whom he demands a pound of flesh, and defends his brutality and his rage.
3)Carbon monoxide , with the chemical formula CO, is a
colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas.
bi-, di-
1)The bilateral agreement will create significant new opportunities
for US exporters of industrial and agricultural goods.
2)Monica, who grew up in New York City, is the product of a
bicultural marriage which has given her a unique view of life. 3)dioxide
T ri-
1)―Spring Days‖–A Painful Triangular Love Story Testing The
Brotherhood Spirit.
2)A tricolor is a type of flag that has three stripes, either
horizontal or vertical. France's flag (sometimes called the 'Tricolor') was adopted in 1789. It consists of three equal vertical bands of blue white, and red.
3)tricycle, tridimensional space
multi-
1)A multipurpose satellite of South Korea is to be launched on July
28 in Russia.
2)The multiform universe of nature and man.
3)Multimedia kits, multilateral trade
poly-
1)What is the nature of unity in a multinational, polyethnic country?
2)_Polysyllable_ refers to a word of more than three syllables. Summary
semi-, demi-, hemi-: half uni-, mono-: one, single
bi-, di-:two tri-:three
multi-:many, much poly-:many
Exercise: Infer the meaning of the underlined word:
In light of these points, we call for demilitarization and rebudgeting for conversion to socially useful production.
Skill of memorizing a word
The plot of the United States and some other Western countries to practice hegemony and power politics under the pretext of the human right issue has once again fallen through.
He ge(ts) mon(e)y.
Chapter 1 Word Formation（5）
Review
Locative
Prefix
Example
inter- It was Harvard's first defeat in an intercollegiate hockey championship contest in several years.
intra- This card can be used for both intracity bus and subway.
super- Through such human action governed by the divine soul, the superlunar realm intervenes into
the sublunar, political realm.
sub-
tele- Many telecourse students are full time workers.
Number
Prefix
Example
semi- hemi- demi- A semi-automatic rifle is a type of rifle that fires a single bullet each time the trigger is pulled.
Hemicycle is a plane figure with the shape of half a circle.
the demilune table
uni- mono- a uniflow traffic
a monolingual dictionary
bi- di- bimonthly journal/ The bimonthly meetings are on the first and third Fridays of each month.
The East-West dichotomy is a philosophical concept of ancient origin claiming that the two cultural hemispheres, East and West, …
tri- A trichotomy is a splitting into three parts. multi- a multilayer cake
Polygamy has been practiced by mankind for
poly- thousands of years. Many of the ancient
Israelites were polygamous, some having
hundreds of wives.
cf.
1)When did Christians begin to practice monogamy.
2)Polygamy is considered a crime in many countries.
-gamy: marriage to spouse
Prefixation: (9) conversion prefix
a-
1)asleep, alive
2)When the servants hand him the finest food, he is unable to lift
up his spoon, because he is all atremble.
3)She sits astride a horse, for astride riding is safer.
4)At the Royal Observatory, visitors can stand astride the
Greenwich Meridian with one foot in the eastern and the other in the western hemisphere.
5)Thunder accompanies lightning.
be-
1)Don‘t belittle or underestimat e yourself.
2)Is it worthwhile for you, for China to befriend the United States
even if they do not seem to like you?
3)The crown is richly bejeweled.
4)No one bewailed the misfortune.
Cf.
1)The wind wailed in the trees.
2)The wail of a wolf
en-/em-
1)We believe it is very unfortunate that those concerned with
endangered species are not uniting behind this simple banner.
2)Science empowers men to control natural forces more effectively.
3)Would we prefer to satisfy our own pleasure and embitter the
heart of a neighbor?
Prefixation: (10) Miscellaneous prefixes
neo-
1)During 1989--2001, neonatal mortality in the United States
declined 25%.
2)The term _neofacism_ is the term used to describe fascist
movements active after World War II.
paleo-
1)For more than a century, one of the central questions in
paleoanthropology has been whether modern man evolved from this hominid.
2)Paleoecology is the science of reconstructing past environments
using fossil materials of plants, animals, or other indicators of past environments.
3)paleobotany, paleozoology, paleobiology
pan-
1)During the latter part of the nineteenth century and during the
early decades of the twentieth, as Panamericanism developed its concept as a mechanism for inter-American dialogue and cooperation, in the wider political and economic ...
2)Pan-Africanism in essence means the unity of all African
descended people worldwide irrespective of ethnicity/culture or nationality.
3)Paneuropeanism, panasianism
vice-
Anti-corruption novel writer elected vice-governor of Shanxi Province
Zhang Ping, a Chinese writer famous for his series of anti-corruption novel figures, was elected as the vice-governor of north China's Shanxi Province Wednesday at the first session of the 11th Provincial People's Congress.
eco-
Therefore, ecocrisis---- ecocatastrophe or ecocide---- has been for some time one of the major concerns of not only the ecoactivists and environmentalists, but of many scientists of other fields and the
government authorities of many ...
Summary
neo-: new paleo-: old pan-: all, the whole of
vice-: deputy eco-: life, environment
Skill of memorizing a word
--- Why should a man never tell his secrets in a cornfield?
--- Because it has many ears.
Chapter 1 Word Formation (6)
Review
Conversion
prefix
Example
a- A ship is afloat.
be- He is besotted by her
beauty.
en- em- Her beauty enslaved many young men.
Drought embrowned the leaves.
Miscellaneous
prefixes
Example
neo- How is Romanticism different from the
Neoclassicism?
paleo- Thus was born the field of paleogenetics,
which celebrates its 25th anniversary.
vice- Don't be too disappointed with the final
result - you can surely be proud to be
vice-champion.
pan- The high point of the pan-Arab movement
was in the 1960s.
eco- In that case we'd be facing ecodoom.