Ginga Middleware and Digital TV in Latin America
Gabriel Baum, Universidad Nacional de La Plata
Luiz Fernando G. Soares, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro
In 2005, Brazil launched its digital TV (DTV) agenda. Its main premise was to reduce the digital divide present in the country, giving the lower social classes the right to access , produce, and distribute information . As a natural consequence, a second premise stressed the generation of local IT jobs and companies to support the entire effort.
To bring the benefits of DTV to the masses, Brazil devised the Japanese-Brazilian terrestrial DTV(ISDB-T—the International Standard for Digital Broadcasting),taking the earlier ISDB Japanese standard as a base (with some video and audio coding updates) and introducing the innovative Brazilian middleware system, called Ginga.
Argentina adopted ISDB-T in2009 with similar objectives to those of Brazil. Since then, Ginga has been adopted in 12 Latin-American countries. Several other countries in Central America and Africa are testing it as well.
Ginga Middleware
The middleware lies between the application code and runtime infrastructure to enable fast and easy development of TV applications . In 2007, the Brazilian terrestrial DTV standard2 adopted the Nested Context Language3 as its declarative language. In the beginning of 2009, NCL and its user agent, Ginga-NCL, became part of ISDB-T standards and of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R)BT 1699 Recommendation. Also in 2009, NCL and Ginga-NCL became an ITU-T Recommendation for IPTV services.4 Ginga was the first free DTV middleware. Ginga-NCL and NCL specifications are open source and royalty free, independent ofthe distribution network used. NCL and Ginga-NCL were conceived at the Tele Media Lab at Pontifical Catholic University of Riode Janeiro (PUC-Rio)/Brazil and have been designed as a joint effort, including LIFIA Lab at National University of La Plata(UNLP)/Argentina.
Requirements
Aiming at social inclusion, a middleware must support TV (―T‖)applications such as T-learning, T-government, and T-health. However, social inclusion is reached not only by offering access to information but also by providing knowledge about how to generate information. Therefore, a DTV system should offer a user-friendly language for designing application sand services. This language should be simple enough to be understood and learned by nonexperts. Moreover, it should belight weight, because its interpreter must run in low-cost receivers with limited resources. However, it should also be powerful enough to support creativity.
This need for a simple, light weight, and expressive language led to a declarative domain-specific language (DSL) for TV application design, in which the complex algorithmic steps to accomplish a task are left to the machine and aren’t under user responsibility. The focus on media synchronization(in its general aspect—having interactivity as a particular case),content and presentation adaptability, support for multiple device exhibitions, and support that would also allow for generating live DTV applications, were the requirements that guided the NCL design.
Architecture
Ginga was initially proposed forterrestrialtems, butthe same architecture and facilitieswere later applied to IPTV.
Figure 1. The Ginga architecture:
(a) the general architecture and
(b) optional extensions.
Furthermore, the modular architecture of Ginga also allows for its use with other transport systems (such as satellite and cable TV), depending only on its Ginga Common Core (Ginga-CC) subsystem. Figure 1a depicts the Ginga components and how they relate with other components of a general DTV architecture.
The Ginga-CC subsystem delivers applications to Ginga-NCL. The Ginga-NCL presentation engine is the logical subsystem responsible for running NCL applications. The Ginga architecture also offers optional extensions (see Figure 1b). For example, for terrestrial DTV systems, the Ginga-J execution engine (required for fixed receivers and optional for portable receivers in Brazil; and optional for all kind of receivers in Argentina) is responsible for running Java DTV applications. Connected or Broadband TV might also define some extensions to implement services, such as Electronic Program Guides and widgets. IPTV specific services, such as video on demand, datacasting, and so on, are examples of other possible extensions. Ginga offers NCL services to all extensions through a well-defined API.
Ginga-NCL has an open source GPL reference implementation (www.sof https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html,.br) recognized by ITU-T. Some open source products have been derived from this implementation, including LIFIA middleware (ginga.ar) for set-top boxes (http:// https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html,.ar/ginga.ar) and Nokia middleware for mobile phones (https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html,/content/ 48850?clickSource=search&pos=2). There are also some other propr ietar y Ginga implementations. Although there are many Ginga implementations, some still worry that a monopoly could be created for the market of Ginga, mainly resulting from its possible extensions. This should be strongly opposed.
Impact
Ginga has helped create many jobs and IT companies in Brazil— at least 13 small and medium-size software companies and 60 service providers. TV manufacturers have been merely assemblers of multinational companies in the country, but now they’re obliged to estab lish local development sections to incorporate the technological innovations being created. As for Brazilian private (commercial) broadcasters, they’re not committed to social inclusion. Of course, this scenario causes some tensions, which can only be overcome with a strong and responsible government policy and strong technical support from academia.
In Argentina, around a dozen companies have shown interest in developing applications or services based on Ginga, and some have developed products. In addition, some academic laboratories— mainly LIFIA and the University of 3 de Febrero, with the support of the Ministry of Federal Planning— have developed technologic a l innovations and interactive applications based on Ginga. If Argentina can turn LIFIA’s ―ginga. ar‖ free implementation (based on the PUC-Rio’s reference implementation) into a de facto product, then it can provide a platform on which IT companies could develop new products and services.
Content Distribution
The right to distribute content is an important component of social inclusion, yet private (commercial) broadcasters won’t transmit social third-party content for free. Perhaps state and federal governments could pay for some transmissions of large-scale interest, but independent producers, such as community TV programmers, can’t afford to distribute their content. Public broadcasting could be a solution. Although the process of digitalization for public broadcasters in Brazil is behind schedule, the process has currently started, so there’s hope.
The Argentinian program is heavily based on public media, such as Public TV and other channels like ―Encuentro‖ and ―INCAA TV.‖ Although several private broadcasters have joined the initiative, the production of content is being led by the federal government, promoting the production of content to strengthen and democratize communication.
Nevertheless, another alternative for democratizing content distribution comes from IP networks—in particular, the Internet (see www.iptv.br initiative). Ginga is an international standard not only for terrestrial DTV but also for IPTV services and thus for hybrid DTV.
Ginga-NCL can embed language players but can also be embedded in other language players—for example, acting as a plug-in for HTML-5 browsers. An NCL application can be embedded in an HTML application and, at the same time, it can embed another HTML application. A work in this direction has just been finished for Firefox and Chrome; and has already been started for HBBTV (Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV) and LIME/BML (Lightweight Interactive Multimedia Environment).
Several issues are under consideration for the next generation of the NCL language, such as high-level abstractions for defining relationships, better support for context-aware applications, and support for multimodal interactions and 3D objects. Novel issues for Ginga-CC are also being considered to keep Ginga as a competitive DTV middleware in the world market.
References
1. L.F.G. Soares, R.F. Rodrigues, and M.F. Moreno, ―Ginga-NCL: The Declarative Environment of the Brazilian Digital TV System,‖ J. Brazilian Computer Soc., vol. 12, no. 4, 2007, pp. 37–46.
2. ABNT NBR 15606-2, Ginga-NCL for Fixed and Mobile Receivers—XML Application Language for Application Coding, 2nd ed., Braz ilian Nat’l Standards Organization, 2011.
3. L.F.G. Soares et al., ―Ginga-NCL: Declarative Middleware for Multimedia IPTV Services,‖ IEEE Comm. Magazine, vol. 48, no. 6, 2010, pp. 74–81.
4. Nested Context Language (NCL) and Ginga-NCL for IPTV Services, ITU-T Recommendation H.761, Apr. 2009.
Gabriel Baum is a professor of informatics at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Contact him at gbaum@sol. https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html,.ar.
Luiz Fernando Gomes Soares is a full professor at the Pontifical Catholic University o f Rio de Janeiro. He’s also the main architect of Ginga, co-editor of the ITU-T H.761 Recommendation for IPTV Services, and chair of the Brazilian Middleware Working Group. Contact him at lfgs@inf.puc-rio.br.
银河中间件和在拉美地区的数字电视
Gabriel 鲍姆大学国立 de La Plata
Luiz Fernando G.Soares，教廷天主教大学的里约热内卢
2005 年，巴西推出数字电视（DTV）议程。其主要的前提是减少数字鸿
沟存在于该国，给有权访问，生产，和分发信息的更低的社会阶层。作为一个
自然的后果，第二个前提强调代当地就业机会和公司支持的整个努力。
为了给群众带来数字电视的好处，巴西制定日本巴西地面数字电视 (ISDB-T ——国际标准针对数字广播）、以早些时候 ISDB 日本标准作为基础（与
某些视频和音频的编码更新）和引进创新的巴西中间件系统，称为银河。
阿根廷通过与目标类似于那些巴西 ISDB-T 2009 年。从那时起，银河已在12 个拉丁美洲国家。几个中美洲和非洲其他国家以及正在测试它。
银河中间件
中间件介于应用程序代码和运行时基础结构，使电视应用程序快速、简单地开发。2007 年，巴西的地面数字电视 standard2 通过嵌套上下文
Language3 作为其声明性语言。在 2009年年初，NCL 和它的用户代理，银河NCL，成为一部分 ISDB-T 标准和国际电信联盟（国际电联）的 BT 1699 建议。此外在 2009 年，NCL 和银河 NCL 成为了 ITU-T 建议为 IPTV 服务。银河是第一次的免费数字电视中间件。银河 NCL 和 NCL 规格是开放源码和自由、独立使用的配电网络的专营权费。NCL 和银河 NCL 被设想在远程媒体实验室在教廷天主教大学的仁之（市局-里约） / 巴西作为共同的努力，包括 LIFIA
实验室在国家的拉普拉塔大学（通行证）设计了 / 阿根廷。
要求
针对社会包容，中间件必须支持电视（"T"）应用程序（如 T-学习，T-政府、和不健康。然而，社会包容被达到不仅是通过提供对信息的访问，通过提供有关如何生成信息的知识。因此，数字电视系统应提供人性化的语言设计
应用砂服务。这种语言应该是足够简单，理解和学到的咨询。此外，它应涂漆
的重量，因为其译员必须运行在低成本接收机以有限的资源中。然而，它也应
该是强大到足以支持创造力。
这种对简单、重量轻、需要和富有表现力的语言导致声明式域特定语言
(DSL) 电视应用程序设计，其中复杂的算法步骤，以完成一项任务都留给这台
机器并不是根据用户的责任。将重点放在媒体同步（在其一般的方面——
具有交互性作为特定的情况下），内容和演示文稿的适应性、支持多个设备展览、和支持，这也将允许用于生成应用程序数字电视直播了指导 NCL 设计的
要求。
体系结构
银河是最初提议的 forterrestrialtems，但相同的体系结构和facilitieswere 后即应用于 IPTV。
图 1。银河的体系结构：
(a) 的总体结构和
(b) 可选的扩展。
此外，银河的模块化体系结构还允许用其他运输系统（例如卫星和有线电视），只取决于其银河共同核心 (银河 CC) 子系统。图 1a 描绘银河组件以及它们是如何与通用的数字电视体系结构的其他组件。
银河-CC 子系统提供了银河 NCL 中的应用。银河 NCL 演示文稿引擎是逻
辑子系统负责运行 NCL 应用程序。银河体系结构还提供了可选的扩展（见图
1b）。例如，对于地面数字电视系统，银河 J 执行引擎（需要固定接收机和
可选的便携式接收器在巴西；和可选的各种接收机在阿根廷）是负责运行Java 数字电视应用程序。连接或宽带电视还可以定义一些扩展，实现服务，例如电子节目指南和小部件。IPTV 特定的服务，如视频点播、数据广播和等等，都是其他可能的扩展的例子。银河 NCL 为提供服务通过定义良好的 API 的所
有扩展。
银河 NCL 已被国际电联 T.开源 GPL 参考实现（www.sof
https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html,.br）一些开放源代码产品，推导出此实现中，包括 LIFIA
中间件（ginga.ar）的机顶盒 (http://
https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html,.ar/ginga.ar) 和诺基亚手机的中间件
（https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html,/content/ 48850? clickSource = 搜索 & pos = 2）。有还有些其他生产线 ietar y 银河的实现。虽然有许多的银河实现，但有人仍担心垄断能为市场的银河，主要因其可能的扩展创建。这应该是强烈反对。
影响
银河已经帮助创造很多就业机会，IT 公司在巴西——至少 13 家小型
和中等规模的软件公司和 60 的服务提供商。电视制造商已经不仅仅是汇编器
的跨国公司在该国，但现在他们有义务建立地方发展部分纳入正在创建的技术
革新。巴西私人电台和电视台（商业），他们不是致力于社会包容。当然，这种情况下会导致一些紧张，只可以与一个强大和负责的政府政策和强有力的技
术支持，从学术界克服。
在阿根廷，周围十几家企业都表示出的兴趣开发的应用程序或服务基于银河，和一些已经开发出产品。此外，一些学术实验室——主要是 LIFIA 和
大学的 3 de Febrero，支持联邦规划部的——已经开发工艺 l 基于银河创新与交互式应用程序。如果阿根廷能把 LIFIA 的"银河。ar"免费实施（基于
市局力拓的参考实现）成实际的产品，那么它可以提供一个平台的资讯科技公司可能开发新的产品和服务。
内容分发
分发内容的权利是社会包容的重要组成部分，然而私人的（商业）广播
机构不会免费传送社会第三方内容。也许国家和联邦政府能支付一些传输大型
的兴趣，但独立的生产者，如社区广播的电视节目，不能将他们的内容分发。
公共广播可能是一个解决方案。虽然在巴西的公共广播的数字化的过程是落后
于预定计划，这一进程已经目前开始，所以还有希望。
阿根廷的程序基于公共媒体，如公共电视和其他渠道如"召开"和"INCAA TV"。虽然几个私营广播公司已经加入这一倡议，由联邦政府，促进生产的内容，以加强和民主化通信领导了内容的制作。
然而，民主内容分发的另一途径来自于 IP 网络——特别是，互联网（见 www.iptv.br 倡议）。银河是不仅为地面数字电视但也 IPTV 服务，从而
为混合数字电视的国际标准。
银河 NCL 可以嵌入语言的球员，但也可以嵌入在其他语言的球员——
例如，作为 HTML 5 的浏览器的插件。NCL 应用程序可以嵌入到 HTML 应用程序，并在同一时间，它可以嵌入另一个 HTML 应用程序。在这方面的工作刚刚
结束在火狐和 Chrome ；和 HBBTV (混合广播宽带电视) 和石灰/BML （轻量级交互式多媒体环境）已经开始了。
几个问题目前正在考虑下一代的 NCL 语言中，如高级别抽象的定义的关系，更好地支持上下文感知应用程序，并支持多式联运的相互作用和 3D 对象。新
的问题，为银河-CC 也正在考虑继续银河作为在全球市场竞争的数字电视中间件。
引用
1.L.F.G.Soares、射频罗德里格斯和 M.F.Moreno"银河 NCL：巴西的数
字电视系统，声明性环境"J.巴西计算机芯片，第 12 卷第 4 号 2007 年，第
37-46 页。
2.ABNT NBR 15606-2，银河 NCL 为固定和移动接收器—— XML 应用程
序语言的应用程序编码，第二版，巴西全国少年儿童标准组织，2011年。
3.L.F.G.Soares et al.，"银河 NCL：声明式中间件多媒体 IPTV 服务"IEEE 通信杂志，第 48 卷、 6 号、 2010 年，第 74 —— 81 页。
4.嵌套上下文语言（NCL）和银河 NCL 的 IPTV 服务，ITU-T 建议
H.761，2009 年 4 月。
Gabriel 鲍姆是在大学国立 de La Plata 信息学教授。在 gbaum@sol 和
他联系。https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html,.ar。
Luiz Fernando Soares 戈麦斯是在教廷天主教的里约热内卢大学的全职教授。他也是银河，IPTV 服务的 ITU-T H.761 建议共同编辑和巴西的中间件工
作小组主席的主设计师。在 lfgs@inf.puc-rio.br 和他联系。
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails
工业设计原著选读 优秀的产品设计 第一个拨号电话1897年由卡罗耳Gantz 第一个拨号电话在1897年被自动电器公司引入，成立于1891年布朗强，一名勘萨斯州承担者。在1889年，相信铃声“中央交换”将转移来电给竞争对手，强发明了被拨号系统控制的自动交换机系统。这个系统在1892年第一次在拉波特完成史端乔系统中被安装。1897年，强的模型电话，然而模型扶轮拨条的位置没有类似于轮齿约170度,以及边缘拨阀瓣。电话，当然是被亚历山大格雷厄姆贝尔（1847—1922）在1876年发明的。第一个商业交换始建于1878（12个使用者），在1879年，多交换机系统由工程师勒罗伊B 菲尔曼发明,使电话取得商业成功,用户在1890年达到250000。 直到1894年，贝尔原批专利过期，贝尔电话公司在市场上有一个虚拟的垄断。他们已经成功侵权投诉反对至少600竞争者。该公司曾在1896年，刚刚在中央交易所推出了电源的“普通电池”制度。在那之前，一个人有手摇电话以提供足够的电力呼叫。一个连接可能仍然只能在给予该人的名义下提出要求达到一个电话接线员。这是强改变的原因。 强很快成为贝尔的强大竞争者。他在1901年引进了一个桌面拨号模型，这个模型在设计方面比贝尔的模型更加清晰。在1902年，他引进了一个带有磁盘拨号的墙面电话，这次与实际指孔，仍然只有170度左右在磁盘周围。到1905年，一个“长距离”手指孔已经被增加了。最后一个强的知名模型是在1907年。强的专利大概过期于1914年，之后他或他的公司再也没有听到过。直到1919年贝尔引进了拨号系统。当他们这样做，在拨号盘的周围手指孔被充分扩展了。 强发明的拨号系统直到1922年进入像纽约一样的大城市才成为主流。但是一旦作为规规范被确立，直到70年代它仍然是主要的电话技术。后按键式拨号在1963年被推出之后，强发明的最初的手指拨号系统作为“旋转的拨号系统”而知名。这是强怎样“让你的手指拨号”的。 埃姆斯椅LCW和DCW 1947 这些带有复合曲线座位，靠背和橡胶防震装置的成型胶合板椅是由查尔斯埃姆斯设计，在赫曼米勒家具公司生产的。 这个原始的概念是被查尔斯埃姆斯（1907—1978）和埃罗沙里宁（1910—1961）在1940年合作构想出来的。在1937年，埃姆斯成为克兰布鲁克学院实验设计部门的领头人，和沙里宁一起工作调查材料和家具。在这些努力下，埃姆斯发明了分成薄片和成型胶合板夹板，被称作埃姆斯夹板，在1941年收到了来自美国海军5000人的订单。查尔斯和他的妻子雷在他们威尼斯，钙的工作室及工厂和埃文斯产品公司的生产厂家一起生产了这批订单。 在1941年现代艺术博物馆，艾略特诺伊斯组织了一场比赛用以发现对现代生活富有想象力的设计师。奖项颁发给了埃姆斯和沙里宁他们的椅子和存储碎片，由包括埃德加考夫曼，大都会艺术博物馆的阿尔弗雷德，艾略特诺伊斯，马尔塞布鲁尔，弗兰克帕里什和建筑师爱德华达雷尔斯通的陪审团裁决。 这些椅子在1946年的现代艺术展览博物馆被展出，查尔斯埃姆斯设计的新的家具。当时，椅子只有三条腿，稳定性问题气馁了大规模生产。 早期的LCW（低木椅）和DWC（就餐木椅）设计有四条木腿在1946年第一次被埃文斯产品公司（埃姆斯的战时雇主）生产出来，被赫曼米勒家具公司分配。这些工具1946年被乔治纳尔逊为赫曼米勒购买，在1949年接手制造权。后来金属脚的愿景在1951年制作，包括LCW（低金属椅）和DWC（就餐金属椅）模型。配套的餐饮和咖啡桌也产生。这条线一直
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.doczj.com/doc/279016470.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. （Sales Promotion;E--Marketing；Internet；Strategic Planning ） 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies；More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.
Interaction design Moggridge Bill Interaction design，Page 1-15 USA Art Press, 2008 Interaction design (IxD) is the study of devices with which a user can interact, in particular computer users. The practice typically centers on "embedding information technology into the ambient social complexities of the physical world."[1] It can also apply to other types of non-electronic products and services, and even organizations. Interaction design defines the behavior (the "interaction") of an artifact or system in response to its users. Malcolm McCullough has written, "As a consequence of pervasive computing, interaction design is poised to become one of the main liberal arts of the twenty-first century." Certain basic principles of cognitive psychology provide grounding for interaction design. These include mental models, mapping, interface metaphors, and affordances. Many of these are laid out in Donald Norman's influential book The Psychology of Everyday Things. As technologies are often overly complex for their intended target audience, interaction design aims to minimize the learning curve and to increase accuracy and efficiency of a task without diminishing usefulness. The objective is to reduce frustration and increase user productivity and satisfaction. Interaction design attempts to improve the usability and experience of the product, by first researching and understanding certain users' needs and then designing to meet and exceed them. (Figuring out who needs to use it, and how those people would like to use it.) Only by involving users who will use a product or system on a regular basis will designers be able to properly tailor and maximize usability. Involving real users, designers gain the ability to better understand user goals and experiences. (see also: User-centered design) There are also positive side effects which include enhanced system capability awareness and user ownership. It is important that the user be aware of system capabilities from an early stage so that expectations regarding functionality are both realistic and properly understood. Also, users who have been active participants in a product's development are more likely to feel a sense of ownership, thus increasing overall satisfa. Instructional design is a goal-oriented, user-centric approach to creating training and education software or written materials. Interaction design and instructional design both rely on cognitive psychology theories to focus on how users will interact with software. They both take an in-depth approach to analyzing the user's needs and goals. A needs analysis is often performed in both disciplines. Both, approach the design from the user's perspective. Both, involve gathering feedback from users, and making revisions until the product or service has been found to be effective. (Summative / formative evaluations) In many ways, instructional
Strategic transformations in Danish and Swedish big business in an era of globalisation, 1973-2008 The Danish and Swedish context In the difficult inter-war period, a state-supported, protected home market orientation had helped stabilise both Denmark’s and Sweden’s economies, but after WorldWar II priorities changed. Gradually and in accordance with the international economic development, restrictions on foreign trade were removed, and Danish and Swedish industry was exposed to international competition. As a consequence, several home market oriented industries –such as the textile and the shoe industry –were more or less outperformed, while in Sweden the engineering industry soon became the dominant leader of Swedish industry, with companies such as V olvo, Ericsson, Electrolux, ASEA and SKF. In the Danish case, the SMEs continued to be dominant but in combination with expanding export oriented industrial manufacturers such as Lego, Danfoss, Carlsberg and the shipping conglomerates ok and A.P. moller-Marsk. In Sweden and Denmark stable economic growth continued into the 1970s, but due to the problems during the oil crises, the economies came into fundamental structural troubles for the first time since World War II. In the beginning this was counteracted by traditional Keynesian policy measures. However, because of large budget deficits, inflation and increasing wages, both the Danish economy from 1974 and the Swedish economy from 1976 encountered severe problems. Towards the late 1970s Denmark’s and Sweden’s economic policies were thus increasingly questioned. It was clear that Keynesian policy could not solve all economic problems. Expansive fiscal policies in terms of continued deficits on the state budget could not compensate for the loss of both national and international markets and step by step the Keynesian economic policy was abandoned. The increased budget deficit also made it difficult for the state to support employment and regional development. These kinds of heavy governmental activities were also hardly acceptable under the more market oriented policy that developed first in Great Britain and the USA, but in the 1980s also in Denmark and Sweden (Iversen & Andersen, 2008, pp. 313–315; Sjo¨ gren, 2008, pp. 46–54). These changes in political priorities were especially noticeable in the financial market. After being the most state regulated and coordinated sector of the economy since the 1950s, then between 1980 and 1985 the Danish and Swedish financial markets underwent an extensive deregulation resulting in increased competition. Lending from banks and other credit institutes was no longer regulated, and neither were interest rates. The bond market was also opened as the issuance of new bond loans was deregulated in Sweden in 1983. When the control of foreign capital flows was liberalised in the late 1980s the last extraordinary restriction was now gone. Together with the establishment of the new money market with options and derivates, this opened up to a much larger credit market and the possibility for companies to finance investments and increase business domestically as well as abroad (Larsson, 1998, pp. 205–207). Another important part of the regulatory changes in the early 1980s were new rules for the Copenhagen and Stockholm stock exchanges. Introduction on the stock exchange was made much
原文来源：李海宏《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》[A].2012中国旅游分销高峰论坛.[C].上海 Marketing Customer Satisfaction 顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 Since the 20th century, since the late eighties, the customer satisfaction strategy is increasingly becoming business has more customers share the overall business competitive advantage means. 自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 First, customer satisfaction strategy is to get a modern enterprise customers, "money votes" magic weapon 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝 With the changing times, the great abundance of material wealth of society, customers in the main --- consumer demand across the material has a lack of time, the number of times the pursuit, the pursuit of quality time to the eighties of the 20th century entered the era of the end consumer sentiment. In China, with rapid economic development, we have rapidly beyond the physical absence of the times, the pursuit of the number of times and even the pursuit of quality and age of emotions today gradually into the consumer era. Spending time in the emotion, the company's similar products have already reached the same time, homogeneous, with the energy, the same price, consumers are no longer pursue the quality, functionality and price, but the comfort, convenience, safety, comfort, speed, jump action, environmental protection, clean, happy,
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 中英文翻译原文：
DESIGN and ENVIRONMENT Product design is the principal part and kernel of industrial design. Product design gives uses pleasure. A good design can bring hope and create new lifestyle to human. In spscificity,products are only outcomes of factory such as mechanical and electrical products,costume and so on.In generality,anything,whatever it is tangibile or intangible,that can be provided for a market,can be weighed with value by customers, and can satisfy a need or desire,can be entiled as products. Innovative design has come into human life. It makes product looking brand-new and brings new aesthetic feeling and attraction that are different from traditional products. Enterprose tend to renovate idea of product design because of change of consumer's lifestyle , emphasis on individuation and self-expression,market competition and requirement of individuation of product. Product design includes factors of society ,economy, techology and leterae humaniores. Tasks of product design includes styling, color, face processing and selection of material and optimization of human-machine interface. Design is a kind of thinking of lifestyle.Product and design conception can guide human lifestyle . In reverse , lifestyle also manipulates orientation and development of product from thinking layer.
外文翻译 原文 Foreign T rade o f China Material Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka 1.Introduction On December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing: ?In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44% ?In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1 ?In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2 ?In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province ?In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere 2.Evolution of China’s Trade Regime Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a much
外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source：Marketing Management Author：Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is