Foundations of Special Relativity and the Principle of Conservation of Information

a r X i v :p h y s i c s /0607199v 2 [p h y s i c s .c l a s s -p h ] 5 F e

b 2008

Foundations of Special Relativity and the Principle of Conservation of Information

C.Pombo and Th.M.Nieuwenhuizen

Institute for Theoretical Physics,University of Amsterdam,Valckenierstraat 65,1018XE Amsterdam,The Netherlands

The theory of special relativity can be generalized by means of a new principle called Conservation of Information.This allows a derivation of the constancy of the velocity of light with respect to moving frames,and,consequently,of Einstein’s special relativity.The analysis is based on a review of the concept of observer.It is put forward that observers are not uniquely de?ned and that an observational asymmetry,de?ned by the di?erent ways in which light in?uences observations,lies at the origin of the non-absolutism of time.This observational di?erence is a kinematic condition,not an exclusive result for light,implying that non-absolutism of time may have a cause di?erent from the electromagnetic nature of light.The Lorentz transformations are derived and di?erent concepts of the velocity of light,relative to di?erent classes of observers,are considered.

PACS numbers:03.30.+p,03.65.Ca,04.20.Cv keywords:special relativity,observer,information

I.INTRODUCTION

The theory of special relativity is based mainly on three principles.The ?rst is the statement of the rec-tilinear uniform movement.The second is the constancy of the velocity of light as it was named by Einstein.The third is a generalization of Newtonian dynamics.The two ?rst laws are pure kinematic in their nature.Alone,they can be represented by means of the two well known fundamental Lorentz transformations for time and space 1.

t =

t ′1?v 2/c 2

and

s =

s ′1?v 2/c 2

.If understood correctly,these expressions alone already have the answer for a question which has been occupy-ing the minds of many physicists and philosophers since Einstein.This is the question about the origin of the constancy of the velocity of light,whether it is due to its

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parameter represents a new object of reference and there emerges the question of the uniqueness of the event,when described by di?erent observers.This is the second as-pect to notice,brought by the transformations above.If one observer describes an event including a certain en-tity,while the other point of view does not,in which sense can we say that the di?erent points of view are about a unique event?In this case,the observations are qualitatively di?erent,so we must speak about classes of observers and we cannot de?ne uniqueness,unless we de?ne a new class of observers,integrating both classes already present,unifying them.In this case,those trans-formations simply say that the uniqueness of events,with respect to di?erent classes of systems of reference,or ob-servers,does not occur at the same time.Considering a speci?c event,observations not depending on the travel of the light happen during a certain interval of time,while observations depending on light happen during another interval of time.The di?erent classes of observation hap-pen with di?erent time durations.

These two aspects of the transformations only point to the optical nature of light,independent of its electromag-netic nature.As an optical entity,light can be a means for observations of distant events.In principle,this does not depend on dynamical aspects of the events and,con-sequently,of their electromagnetic features.Originally, the rate v/c,which rules the fundamental conversion of measures,is only a signal of conversion,an observational term,not representing any term of interaction between the systems of reference involved.It does not take in account the physical nature of what is being transfered between the observers.In conclusion,we do not have any a priori reason to assume that the fundamental Lorentz transformations of space and time have an electromag-netic origin.This is the reason why Einstein never de-rived his special relativity from anything else but postu-lated it.The choice of the formulation,if by means of the two laws or by means of two fundamental Lorentz transformations,is irrelevant for us since they are equiv-alent to each other.The fact that special relativity and Maxwell’s electromagnetism are both based on the non-absolutism of time only shows that Maxwell’s theory is a relativistic theory.

In order to derive special relativity from another basis, Einstein had to explain the origin of the non-absolutism of time,independent of the constancy of the velocity of the light itself.This was his intention,when he discussed the relativism of the simultaneity in his book‘Relativ-ity’[1].There,Einstein introduces the question of simul-taneity by means of an experiment which became known in the literature as the‘train/embankment experiment’. The experiment involves two beings named observers,one localized in the train and the other on the embankment. The train moves and these beings are reached by light coming from two separated but simultaneous lightnings striking the train.Einstein assumes that he explains the relativity of the simultaneity by means of analyzing the way in which light reaches the bodies of the physical per-sons he considers as observers.However,a careful anal-ysis of his experiment,shows that several of Einstein’s remarks about what these beings observe,are impossi-ble to occur to physical observers in the conditions he describes.

The main problem in Einstein’s discussion was the hy-pothetical localization of the observers,as argument for what they observe.This idea of localization generates se-rious misunderstandings because it suggests to the read-ers that our ways of thinking in physics can be a result of the places in which our bodies are settled.After Einstein, the vast literature concerning special relativity adopted the localization of observers as a didactic method2.The localization of an observer as a physical person is sup-posed to explain why a local measure can be known by a speci?c person and not by a second one supposed to be far from the?rst.In this explanatory context,a measure can be known from a register without the need of trans-mission of light,because the person,who is the one who knows,is so near the register that can see,touch or hear it without delay in time or any kind of distortion due to relative movement.Another person cannot perceive the same signal,at the same time,because depends on recep-tion of light for this.The problem in this argument is that to perceive is not the same as to know.To know,which in the context of physics is the same as to observe,is more than to measure or count.To know accounts for what is done or thought about the measures.A pure measure is always an arithmetic element,without a physical con-text and,consequently,it is not a physical observation. One single set of measures can give rise to more than one physical concept and this is the main reason why the localization of measures does not give rise to speci?c ob-servations.Two physical persons,in di?erent places,can think di?erently about the same set of measures but a single person can interpret the same numbers in di?erent ways.Consequently,it is not localization of persons what produces di?erent observations.In this way,a single per-son can play as two di?erent observes and,consequently, an observer is not a physical person.So,localization of persons is far from explaining the fundamental point of relativity.As far as we know,no analysis was carried out to elucidate the question of the non-absolutism of time as an observational fact.In the literature,special relativity starts from the non-absolutism as a postulate,otherwise the constancy of the velocity of the light is the starting point.

Localization is not a condition of physical observers, but it can be a condition of other kinds of observation. Physical observations are physical statements and de-pend on systems of reference,not on interaction between bodies of persons and events,as it is the case for per-ceptions.The latter are observations of the senses,not

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of physical events outside.In both cases of observation, physical and perceptual,reception of light can be a neces-sary element and these observers belong to the class of the receivers of light.But,because reception of light takes for granted light which is locally registered,receivers of light cannot describe light waves or light rays which are in the space around the register.This is the reason why this class of observers never describes or observes light in space,but only far events which emit or re?ect light. To register and to observe are not the same process,ob-servations can happen by means of light or without light and,while reception of light is local,observation is not. This is why localization of observers does not play role on observations.

In the train-embankment experiment,Einstein did not discriminate between classes of observers,because con-sidering that something more than registration was nec-essary for observations,it could generate doubt about the nature of the observers,if they actually could be replaced by registers and machines.However,registration alone does not give rise to associations between local measures and nonlocal ones,such as trajectories that are associa-tions between the sequence of local cycles of a clock and far distances.Einstein interpreted local reception of light from distant sources as the knowledge of distant source, without realizing that this only can happen for receivers of light.In this way he assumed a direct correspondence between non simultaneity of local reception of light from two distant sources and non simultaneity of the separated emissions at the sources.But this does not happen if one can observe the travel of the light.In his explanations, he went further by considering vision as element of phys-ical observation,stating that his observers could see rays of light.This assumption is a serious mistake,frequently found in the literature,and it only led to contradictions in his exposition.Light is a medium for vision,never an object of sight.Observers can observe light but not by means of reception of light and consequently not by means of sight.

There are di?erent classes of observers in special rela-tivity and this is the?rst reason for the non absolutism of time.For instance,there are classical,semi-classical, and non-classical observers,all coexisting in the relativis-tic experience.Relativistic phenomena are integrations of di?erent kinds of phenomena.This is the same as to say that relativistic observations are integrations of dif-ferent kinds of observation.To be more precise,a unique atomic object emitting light can be considered as a clock or as an indirect means for observation of material pro-cesses or movement of bodies,but it can also be taken as an objective material event,independently of the light which it produces.This means that di?erent messages arise from the same set of numbers of cycles of light. The point to be kept in mind is that if light is a means for observation,it cannot be objectively observed consid-ering a single observer,these two roles are antagonist.It is based on this kind of antagonism that di?erent classes of observer have to be de?ned.

So,it is not because observers are inside or outside the train that they?nd classical,non-classical or rela-tivistic results.All these misunderstandings about ob-servers,sensors,perceivers,thinkers and experimenters, only show the necessity of a fundamental revision of the concept of observer.Observers are beings in transforma-tion,inside a developing physics.It is not only in relativ-ity that we?nd observational changes.Physics developed in the direction of more sophisticated theories,but the physical world became somehow detached from the expe-rience of the physical world,expelling the observer.It is a common saying in the physical environment that phys-ical phenomena can be derived from abstractions,such as Minkowski space,wave functions etc.These abstrac-tions are not considered to be physical phenomena and, consequently,they are not physical entities.Not wor-rying with the fact that,not being physical,they still must have a nature,many scholars do not realize that in this way they can be deriving physical results from the metaphysical world.So,if we do not?nd the observers of the physical worlds,it becomes very di?cult to ex-plain physical phenomena.Without physical observers the world has no physical meaning.

The organization of this paper is as follows.Section II is about the several concepts of observer and Einstein ex-periment.Section II-A discusses di?erent kinds of obser-vation comparing perception with physical observation. Section II-B recalls the setup of the train/embankment experiment and its main points concerning the present work.

Section III is about the observations of Einstein exper-iment.Subsection III-A is about the basic observational concepts.Subsection III-B describes the conditions of the observer who,in the opinion of Einstein,should be inside the train.Subsection III-C describes the observa-tions of a person who was considered by Einstein as being on the embankment.

Section IV is about observation depending on recep-tion of waves.Subsection IV-A discusses common points in observations depending on reception of material waves and on reception of light waves.Subsection IV-B shows that di?erent kinds of observation correspond to di?erent concepts of velocity for light.Subsection IV-C explains how di?erent measures of time can arise for di?erent ob-servers.

Section V is about relativistic observation.Subsec-tion V-A comments on the origins of the equivalence of Galileo.Subsection V-B introduces a generalization for the Galileo equivalence.Subsection V-C introduces a principle of conservation of information.Subsection V-D?nally presents the derivation of the constancy of the velocity of the light.

In the conclusion,we add a with few comments about the relativistic observer.

And in the Appendix we present a model of observer, based on the ideas of Jung,Weyl and Carnap,which underlies our reasoning.

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II.ABOUT OBSER VERS,RECEIVERS OF LIGHT AND PERCEIVERS IN THE

EXPERIMENT OF EINSTEIN.

A.The various concepts of observer Observation is a process of description.There are many kinds of observation and consequently of phe-nomenon.Physical observers correspond to physical phe-nomena,and are expressions of speci?c physical lan-guages with their own concepts and expressions.Psy-chological observers also exists and they are responsible for the psychological phenomena,described by means of their speci?c language too.Perception,or observation of the senses,is not physical phenomenon but psychological event,although it depends on localization of observers as physical bodies.Because a sensorial experience orig-inates from the interaction of a being with the environ-ment,perception depends on the spatial localization of the observer’s body.Vision and hearing,among many others,are modalities of perception.And,because two physical persons are not identical,and neither can be at the same place at the same time,perceptions are indi-vidual and subjective experiences.

Vision,which is one between the several modalities of perception,is the result of a combination of many processes of di?erent nature.It is a psychological phe-nomenon but it also has a physical base.Real vision only happens with the physical stimulation of the retina and consecutive processes in the body of the perceiver.The retina is a structure of cells with a layer of photo-receptor cells.From the physical point of view,we may assume that space is?lled with a non-homogeneous spatial and temporal distribution of matter,which produces,absorbs and re?ects radiation.In this picture we also can consider the existence an open and?nite surface layer(which can be a retina)of a certain body inside the space,also con-sidering radiation constantly reaching the surface.Light reaching this physical retina produces a distribution of energy inside the material of the retina,corresponding to a radiation pattern reaching the surface.This su-per?cial pattern is due to the luminosity which results from the distribution of sources outside.Then,there is a correspondence between the energetic distribution in-side and the distribution of matter outside.The resulting processes inside the material retina are propagated to the interior of the body and these processes all depend on the kind of matter and material structure of the?rst layer and interior of the body.

If the physical outside can now be considered only one, the retina has two functions.In sensorial terms,the retina becomes a super?cial distribution of brightness. While luminosity is purely a physical concept,brightness is a sensorial experience.Psychophysical measurements, relating reports of people to physically controlled stimuli, account for relations between brightness and luminosity. The perceptual world of vision starts with distribution of brightness and ends with distribution of bodies in space.But these are not physical bodies or a physical space. The contrast in brightness is one between the sensorial and non-sensorial elements forming the perception of in-dividual bodies and emptiness that is interpreted as bod-ies in space.

In spite of the fact that perception of space is not only a visual acquisition but has other origins,visual percep-tion always includes space and it is not yet completely understood.With spatial perception,a geometrical con-?guration emerges and the experience of a distant object occurs,which actually does not coincide with the physical picture of the facts.It is well known from psychophys-ical experiments that perception and physical observa-tion do not share a common geometry.This fact was ?rstly realized by Rene Descartes,who was the founder of the science of psychology.Before him,psychological phenomena were usually assumed to be manifestations of a religious soul.He inaugurated a revolutionary ap-proach of the psychological phenomenon,by stating that soul manifestations and physiological processes were cor-related.Correlations of this type form the science of psy-chophysics and,until nowadays,this empirical science is the only available tool to study the neuro-psychological correlations.The question of the space can also be stud-ied by means of the psychophysical approach and many research had been done on the issue of the perceptual geometry[2].

Although the notion of space,as emptiness,seems to be a single and innate idea,perceptual space and phys-ical space are not the same concept.Then,we can as-sume that these two spaces,the perceptual and the phys-ical,are separated from the beginning.This means that when we say that we see the outside,we are only speak-ing about the perceptual outside which,in the end,is a representation of internal processes of our body.The physical outside can be known but it cannot be seen. Vision is only one among the several kinds of observa-tion based on reception of light.The retina is just a ma-terial register,like all physical registers and,due to this fact,it shares with all registers the property of not being able to account for processes which are not registered. Whatever can be registered,only becomes registered by means of the matter of the register.All this gives us the certainty that we are not able to see what is physically outside,as light waves must be,in order to make our vi-sion.The concept of light wave is a pure physical concept and,if we conceived it,it cannot be because someone saw it.

Contrary to perceptions,physical observations are ob-jective experiences in the highest degree.Experiences of a single person do not play any role in physics,what one single person observes is what everybody in all places, even moving with respect to each other,can observe. Therefore it is clear that a physical observer cannot be a person perceiving.To really understand physical ob-servers,it is necessary to know that not everything we know happens to us because of the interaction of our body with the external world.It is not only through

sensations that we know the physical reality,on the con-trary3.It is a very known fact that we humans,not only are able to experience much beyond our individual cir-cumstances,but we are also able to know aspects of the physical world without the help of experimental proceed-ings.The history of Knowledge is full of these cases,the ideas of rectilinear uniform movement and the existence of atoms are a few examples.

In the context of Einstein’s experiment,the only com-mon point between perceivers and the physical observers, of classical physics,is that both are receivers of light.By de?nition,a receiver of light is a being that only observes or knows about processes or events producing light,by means of light emitted from them.Receivers cannot ob-serve the light traveling in space,because for this,they would have to receive(or register)light instantaneously from the complete light wave spread and traveling in space.This cannot be,because this would imply that two di?erent kinds of light,one traveling with in?nite velocity and another with its usual velocity should be present together.As a consequence of the fact that they do not observe light traveling in space,they do not know that they receive light to observe far events,they only observe these events.

The main di?erence between a classical observer and a visual observer is in which way distances are de?ned. In both cases,registration of light is local.In case of visual perception,distances are not necessarily quanti-?ed and when it happens,quanti?cation does not mean an objective proceeding.This means that distances are subjective and locally de?ned.But in the physical case, distances are de?ned by physical means,independently of reception.And an observation is not a registration but a continuous association between registrations and objective distances,making the physical observation a non-local phenomenon.The objectivity of the distances comes from the physical knowledge of the rectilinear uni-form movement,which is an a priori element of classical observation.Due to this fact,even for receivers and clas-sical observers within relativity,observation is nonlocal since distance is nonlocal by principle.

But this is not all about physical observers.When light reaches a register,it can be interpreted as a reception of light if one accounts for the fact that a wave of light was emitted from a source,reaching the register.But it can also be interpreted as a material process of a distant

ical observations.Physical observers4are not beings to be found inside the physical space,measuring or doing something else.Actually,this observer of the physical lit-erature is just a name given for a special kind of thinking representing a speci?c collectivity.

B.Einstein’s train/embankment experiment The train/embankment experiment was introduced by Einstein to explain special relativity.In essence,the situ-ation discussed is the following:there is an embankment and at a certain initial moment t=0the origin O train of a train passes through the origin O emb of the embank-ment,with a constant velocity v e.At O emb,there is a source of light.5

An observer6,named observer?train,is located in the train and employs its three-dimensional walls,with origin at O train,as his inertial reference frame.Another person, named observer?emb,is at the embankment,with origin O emb,using it as his inertial reference frame.It is said that because the velocity of the train approaches the ve-locity of light,relativistic e?ects are noticeable,between the two observers,such as discrepancies in measurements of space and time.

But,in his experiment,observer?train is a genuine classical observer,measuring his‘proper time’.Conse-quently,he cannot know that his time is di?erent from the embankment time and neither can he use the con-stancy of the velocity of light to know where the moving object is,because this is a condition of special relativity only,not of classical physics.It is important to notice that,in Einstein’s exposition,the embankment has no limit in size,the experiment has no limit in time and the embankment clock serves the whole embankment.This means that observer?emb,describing all the sequence of positions of the train,uses only one clock.Consequently, for this observer there is no sense in the concept of local time and he has no reason to suspect that inside the train there could be another time,not even if he is able to read o?a clock moving with it.

Based on conventional ideas about what observation is7,we assume that observers only measure distances and intervals of time.Trying to understand this,we assume that we only can be in the conditions of one or another observer.And,because both do not understand each

7 the clock to the observer8,does not give a meaning for

proper time.

As we explained before,an observer is not a localized

physical person perceiving events and making the mea-

surements,but the one who describes events,by asso-

ciating data9.In general,a phenomenon(an event in

development,or just an event)is a continuous succession

of happenings in time.A basic feature of physical events

is that time is a quantitative reference for them.

Time is quanti?ed by means of units or cycles.Cycle is

the common feature of all devices named clock.The cycle

is a unit of time,and,for this reason,it is not a spacial

entity.However,clocks can have spatial dimensions.A

clock is a reference for time,a physical event with the

property of being cyclic.There can be several references

of time,based on the same unit of time.The observation

of a physical event is based on an association between at

least two events,one of them being the clock.

A wave is another entity which has a spatial dimension,

it cycles and moves in speci?c directions.The origin of

a wave is a cyclic event,independent from the wave it-

self.As a pure kinematic entity,it combines a spatial

dimension to cycles,making moving pulses,transferring

cycles from place to place.But the description of a wave

is based on the usual references,including a clock,inde-

pendent of the wave.The pattern of cycles carried by

the wave can vary with respect to moving references and

can be compared in di?erent places with respect to the

same?xed pattern of cycles of the original clock.

Di?erences in measures of cycles of a wave due to move-

ment,are called the Doppler e?ect.The di?erence be-

tween the so-called classical Doppler e?ect and the rela-

tivistic Doppler e?ect lies in the uniqueness of the origi-

nal pattern of cycles,generating the waves.In the non-

relativistic case,the observation of these original cycles

does not depend on reception of waves while in the rela-

tivistic situation,due to the di?erentiation in the classes

of observers,this original pattern is not observed inde-

pendently of the reception of waves.Then,an extra cor-

rection in the observation of the cycles must be made.

Now we study the di?erent ways of observing the move-

ment of sources and waves and compare them.In our

discussion,the origin of the embankment is O emb,where

there is also an atomic clock10,from which electromag-

by the hyper?ne transition of Cesium-133atoms in their ground

state,undisturbed by external?elds.In this de?nition we?nd

the word duration.But‘duration’is not something which exists

per se,without the physical object which de?nes it.This is

exactly the same as in the case of lengths,in which we must

have the physical object to be the standard measure.The length

is the object in the same sense that the duration is the object

too,in this case the speci?c atom.So,the word duration makes

the de?nition circular and should be omitted.

11We could alternatively assume that observer2is a classical ob-

server,with the same results.

12What we mean with‘classical observer’cannot be fully explained

at this moment.Our method is to state the classical conditions

from a non-classical but not yet relativistic context of observa-

tion.

8 where s t and v t are the position and velocity of O emb,

respectively,with respect to the train,and t t is the time

in the train measured https://www.doczj.com/doc/281429504.html,ing his Ce-clock at O train.

C.The observer on the embankment

The second observer,observer?emb,describes the

cyclic event at the origin of the embankment,the trans-

mission of the waves from there,and their detection in

the train.There is a clock at the origin of the embank-

ment.Observer?emb thinks of the embankment as be-

ing at rest and also describes the movement of the train.

For this observer,light is an objective event,happening

concomitantly with the other ones,but it is not a means

to observe.

The crucial di?erence between this observer and the previous one is that he can describe light objectively. This means that he knows where the light wave is in space,without the need of detecting it,to observe it.Ex-periments may have been done previously,in order to give him the certainty of the velocity of the light with respect to O emb.He can also arrange things in order to know,in advance,all the times and positions from the beginning to the end of the experiment.But,in this experiment, he does not receive(detect)light,from any point and moment of the light trajectory,in order to know where it is.This would be in complete contradiction with the fact that the velocity of light is?nite.Light is not and cannot be a means for observing itself,in any case.In this sense, an observer of light is not classical because,in classical experiences,objects at remote distance can be known without considering reception of light,what means with-out knowing that reception may play a role on measures of time and consequently of distances.A classical ob-server who receives light is not aware of this condition, and cannot know light as it is.For reasons which will be more clear later,we assume that observer?emb is a semi-classical observer.13

2-1)The equation14

s e=v e t e(2) is also his form of the movement,where t e is measured according to next de?nition,2-2).

2-2)At O emb there is also a source of light or a lamp. The production of light is described by a frequency that

t e

,(3)

where‘cy’stands for‘cycles’,oe for origin of the embank-ment and e for observer?emb.

In this equation,N e cy,oe(t e)is a pure numerical func-tion,growing linearly with time,describing the number of cycles during an interval of time t e,as counted by the observer.Because time for us is an ordered succession without end,this expression does not mean just a?xed number but a process of successive numeration,consid-ering a speci?c interval of time.For observer?emb,the original event in O emb is observed by counting cycles and measuring time.

2-3)In principle,the light wave is a spatially extended phenomenon,distinct from the material object producing the pulses.The frequency of the wave is given by

f e w,oe=

N e w,oe(t e)

15The usual second is de?ned as described in footnote10.

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by

c e=

N e cy,oe(t e)λe

t e

(9)

where M e w,ot(t e)is the number of cycles at the origin of the train.M e w,ot(t e)and N e w,oe(t e)are di?erent numerical functions of t e,M e w,ot(t e)

c e ot=c e?v e,(10) where c e is given by equation(8),an

d v

e velocity o

f the train.It is important to notice that,for this observer, the relation(10)is an initial condition which does not change with respect to the increasin

g distances to the train.

And,according to this semi-classical observer,this ve-locity should be given by

c e ot=f e w,otλe,(11) Substituting equations(9)and(11)in equation(10),we ?nd

f e w,ot=(1?

v e

c e

)N e w,oe(t e).(13)

Equation(12)shows that,in spite of observing light, Observer?emb is limited to the clock at the embankment and he can describe the situation as a normal classical Doppler shift.

This result is not completely classical because a clas-sical observer would not observe light waves.But it is also not relativistic,since it was deduced from a limit in which there is a direct(classical)association between the sequence of cycles M e w,ot(t e)and the sequence of cycles of the clock at O emb.

Equation(13)does not depend on equation(12)but derives directly from equation(10).This last relation is integral part of the relativistic description and the origin of factors like(1?v e

c e

),resulting from relative velocities.

IV.NON-CLASSICAL ANALYSIS

A.Considerations about the two observers

To say that a wave is observed in space and its behav-ior described,is the same as to say that all regions of the space?lled with the undulatory entity are known si-multaneously and that this instantaneous information is continuously received,or continuously kept in some way, during the period of observation.This is not only for waves in space but it is true for every extensive body and objects of any kind,such as a distribution of numbers, matter and so on.The word‘simultaneity’is used for this property of global observations,associating two or more regions of events,or even non-spatial events,with one time.It implies a diversity in the associated objects, without implying any condition on the physical nature of these associated objects.

Going back to our situation,there are oscillations be-ing counted in the train.According to observer?emb, the frequency of oscillation is given by equation(9).We can reconsider this,picturing the positions of each object in the embankment time and focusing our attention on observer?train’s measures and thoughts.It is true that he knows very well the sequence of numbers M e w,ot(t e), registered on his apparatus or detector.But he cannot agree on the same relation(12)with observer?emb. Equation(12)is known to be a relation between frequencies of the same object(the wave)observed under di?erent conditions with respect to movement. Observer?emb knows the whole extension of the wave,in the sense explained above and consequently he observes the relative movement between the train and the wave. But observer?train lacks this knowledge of unity of the wave and even of the wave itself,which is so natural for observer?emb.This is not due to the nature of the wave,in?rst place,but to his condition as observer depending on the reception of the waves to observe far objects.

One single wave cannot convey its own pattern of dis-tribution in space.This object we name‘wave’exists be-tween di?erent regions of space and may grow in distance but it does not transport itself between these regions.We

10 mean that a wave conveys something else,not informa-

tion about itself,except if its existence is already known

independently of detecting its oscillations.In order to

know the pattern of distribution of a wave it is necessary

to have another wave,or other means of knowledge.And

this holds for all kinds of waves.

Exactly like a sailor in a boat,observer?train mea-

sures the cycles of the wave at s e(t e).But the observation

of these cycles in the boat(only up and down)does no

inform him about the distribution of waves on the wa-

ter,far from the boat,already settled at each moment

he measures the cycles.Unless he could know the wave

distribution on the whole surface of the water,by other

means much faster than the wave whose cycles he mea-

sures,he cannot know the relative velocity between the

boat and the wave and neither the frequency of the orig-

inal source O emb.In the end,he only knows the number

of his local cycles.Equation(12)again does not apply

to this case.Implicitly in this equation is the simultane-

ous knowledge of the di?erent regions of the wave,and

consequently their di?erent frequencies,or the relative

movement between the wave and the moving reference

O train.

But we know that waves on water are very slow in com-

parison to light.All the problem of observation of the

water waves would be solved by reception of electromag-

netic waves,giving very fast(practically instantaneous)

information about the positions of the source or the trav-

eling pattern of waves on the water and consequently of

the velocity of the water wave.In the absence of another

wave,the observer in the boat would have only the se-

quence of cycles of his apparatus to consider.Being used

as a clock,the measure of received cycles would represent

another notion of time16.

For the case of electromagnetic waves as the faster

medium,exactly the same could happen.The electro-

magnetic wave is produced by a cyclic atomic event,also

used as a clock,and it is the faster known medium which

can convey the information of these cycles.The atomic

cycles which appear in the measuring apparatus of a mov-

ing reference,correspond to the original cycles.But,in

the absence of another process,these same cycles must

be used as a clock,representing a new unity of time.For

someone counting the cycles from his local apparatus and

also making from it a reference for measuring time,in

the absence of another reference,there appears a di?er-

ence in the measurement of time as well,with respect to

the original measures.The problem is that observers in

these situations do not have means of knowing their mu-

tual di?erences in outcomes of measurements.As soon as

the spatial frames of reference separate from each other,

they loose information with respect to time and the only

means of communication takes time to reach the other.

11

information about the cyclic state and the movement of

O emb,for observer?train.We just consider O train as a material sample,identical in all senses to O emb,not

in?uenced by the light wave from O emb.This implies that observer?train can share with observer?emb the

same number N e cy,oe(t e),when observing O train. According to observer?emb,light from O emb reaches

the position s e(t e)of the train with velocity c e oe,ot= c e?v e and light produced in the train moves with velocity c e ot,ot=c t+v e,with respect to O emb.That these light waves produced in the train may leave it with velocity

c t=c e,with respect to the train,is not the point of our discussion.We assume

d an O train physically identical to O emb,in all senses.Th

e real point o

f our discussion is to understand the relativistic claim,which prohibits the existence of relative velocities of light with respect to movin

g detectors or sources.Special relativity does not say anything about the reason why the value of the ve-locity of the light in vacuum,wit

h respect to its source at rest,is c=299,792,458meterspersecond.Consequently, we must assume that c e=c t=c,since these are the concepts of velocity,de?ned with respect to their corre-sponding sources at rest.Instead,the theory says that light from O emb reaches the train with velocity c e and the light from the train,which in principle should be inde-pendent from the one made at O emb,also leaves it with velocity c e,with respect to O emb.According to the ax-ioms of special relativity,the concepts of relative velocity of light in vacuum,here represented by c e oe,ot and c e ot,oe, do not exist and,consequently,observer?emb does not exist or is mistaken.

Usually,people interpret the facts as if observer?train

could observe light arriving from O emb with velocity c e, but,according to our interpretation,it is not observer?train who arrives at such a conclusions,and neither is observer?emb mistaken.Because observer?train is not an observer of light,his registration of the wave com-ing from O emb has not the meaning of the arrival of a wave but it has another interpretation.And in the case of observer?emb,we must consider the fact that with-out considering a registration(or reception)of the wave at the train,there is no meaningful relation between the movement of the wave and the movement of O train which could justify a change in its velocity.For observer?emb alone,the increasing di?erence between the positions of the wave front and O train su?ces for an observation of a relative velocity between them.There cannot be a trans-formation in the velocity of the wave inside the embank-ment,only due to the fact that it shares the space with a moving body,with which light does not even interact. Then,in our opinion,observer?emb is free to keep his way of thinking.Something else must happen,and we focus on the meaning of this light for observer?train. With these same waves arriving at the position of the train,another kind of observation can happen.Because a wave can be broken in independent pieces of information, considering its features separately,they can be combined di?erently,showing something completely diverse.We need to understand what is the meaning of the arriving light for observer?train.

From one point of view,we know that light reaches O train,but from another this is not necessarily the case. For Observer?train,who knows nothing about the spa-cial existence of the wave,what is out there is a bright O emb.This is a conclusion which we take only by ana-lyzing our own ways of observing,as classical beings,and comparing them with the situation here present.When observing,we do not say that light is in between.If we drown in the condition of the classical observer,we have to conclude,liking or not,that light waves disappear as such between O emb and O train.17

In place of this light which disappears,another concept of light must emerge,and this is in fact what happens with the appearance of a cycling feature in the object. Reception of waves has a meaning by itself introducing a physical correlate of brightness,the kinematic brightness, which in this case,does not depend on the characteris-tics of the wave,but only of the number of waves,as explained in the introduction.And,for the receiver,the number of received waves is a feature attached to the objects at distance,re placing the absent wave.Here, this concept only belongs to receivers of light,not to ob-servers of light.Reception generates a new concept of body,the cyclically shining body,de?ning the receiver of light.What we mean with reception of light is not a process independent from the observation,or causing ob-servation.Reception is a process which happens together with the corresponding observation,furnishing part of the features of the observation.This cyclicity of the body, coming with reception,is not a‘thing’but a process,a body event,having the duration of the observed event. So,reception is a physical process and a physical concept, involving physical elements,as every physical event,but it is not described by the receiver,who only gets a new concept of body from it.

The‘brightness’has no physical relation or interaction with the cyclic O train,which is a reference for observ-ing the object O emb.It is by means of counting cycles of O train and combining it with the reception of waves from O emb,that observer?train observes the movement of the body,which now becomes more than the simple kinematic object from the pure classical physics.As we know from our own experience,if we think as classical observers,the?nal observation could be just the contin-uous trajectory of a cyclically shining object,without any physical medium other than the empty space between the points of the trajectory and the origin of the system of reference.A pure classical body could also be described as moving object only,without necessity of any bright-ness.But here this feature is the new insight introduced

12 by an observer receiver of light,before the classical limit.

His situation is not yet classical,which is a particular

case of receiver of light resulting from additional condi-

tions on the process of reception.

As we can notice,light can actually have di?erent

meanings for di?erent types of observer.While one de-

scribes the wave light,the other,by means of the same

light,observes a bright body,which is a completely dif-

ferent concept.For observer?train,light,as a wave,

is beyond observation.Consequently,for this observer,

light does not cross O train because it never enters his

observational space,staying there with the body as an

integral feature of it.In this way,the disappearance of

one entity is partially compensated by the emergence of

another one.It is not completely compensated,because

brightness is local and the wave is not.Then,something

is still lacking and we have to?nd the light which arrives

and leaves O train with the velocity c.Until now,what

we know for sure is that if this light actually exists,obey-

ing the relativistic claims,it can only be observation of

someone else.

C.The two measures of time

Let us recall some aspects of observer?emb’s obser-

vations.Equation(13)relates two varying quantities,

which are numbers of occurrences or events,by means

of a constant.The number of occurrences and relations

between such numbers can be physical observations,in

the same sense that relations between time,lengths,ve-

locities and other quantities can be considered.De?ning

βe=v e/c e,we rewrite equation(13)as:

M e w,ot(t e)=(1?βe)N e w,oe(t e).(14)

We read in this equation that the relation between the

two varying quantities,is valid for each and every time.

There is no speci?cations about the kind of the event

whose number is growing in time,neither an indication of

a wave spread in space,there is only number of cycles18.

The name cycle here is used in the sense that the occur-

rences are identical to each other.This is implicit in the

numerical description.Then,we can imagine?guratively

the whole phenomenon,as a conjunction of two‘closed’

distributions of spots,moving between themselves and

keeping increasing in number.In the observational con-

text of observer?emb,the physical nature of these spots

is only speci?ed by their number.This is a clear case in

which counting is a physical description and number a

physical concept.And we must understand this fact di-

rectly from reading the statement of equation(14),not

from external arguments.

19The distribution function of events,extensively used in physics

of many-body system,is another example of a numerical concept

in physics.

13

assume that there is a certain factorγsuch that

t e=γt t.(17) For both observations,considering both observers,the physical existence of those numbers of cycles is not to be explained as a result of any kind of interaction.The pic-torial spots can also be thought as e?ects of the passage of an undulatory medium,without considering interaction between a register and the medium.We assume that this is not a physical e?ect but just an observational e?ect, in the sense that no interaction is involved which could make ofγa function of time.This is an argument to considerγas a constant.

This factorγis the mark of the observational di?er-ence.The introduction of this temporal di?erence,brings again the question of the objectivity.But,partially,it is solved with the assumption that at O train there is an independent source of light.The other aspect of the problem involves the observation of the movement and consequently of the velocity,for observer?train.This problem has to be solved by shaping the?nal trajectory of O emb for observer?train and comparing it with the trajectory of O train for observer?emb.In other words, the solution of this problem depends on conditions in which the receiver becomes a classical observer.

Until now we?nd that the origin of the time di?erence is not in di?erent clocks but it is in the di?erent ways of observing.In principle,this would still hold if we exchange the shining object by a sounding object.

V.SPECIAL RELATIVITY

A.Relativistic arguments

It is interesting to notice that the classical and semi-classical regimes of observation,of section III are never subjective or wrong.The classical observation,equation (1),s t=v t t t,is objective and correct in all senses.It is so that,for t t=t e in quantity,it agrees completely with equation(2),s e=v e t e,from Observer?emb language. And nobody can a?rm that Observer?emb is wrong, by de?ning the relative velocity of equation(10),c e ot= c e?v e.For every t e there is actually a di?erence between the position of the wave front and the position of the train such that equation(10)can be assumed as valid.

The problem is that equation(10)does not necessarily imply equation(12),which describes a rate of emission of a wave light,considering a certain position.Equation (10)and equation(11)are independent equations.Rig-orously,the relative velocity of equation(10)and the velocity of equation(11),c e ot=f e w,otλe,are not the same physical concept.Inside the limited context of Observer?emb,this fact is not explicit.

Equation(11)does not hold for the receiver because his measure of time is another and consequently the fre-quency is not the same.Therefore there must be a gen-eral equation,instead of equation(12),that integrates both observers.About a comparison between the two observations,it is also interesting to notice that the ob-servations of observer?train are not under the observa-tional domain of observer?emb.A comparison implies the knowledge of invariant quantities by means of which the two observations can be related.Until now,equa-tions(14)and(15)are completely independent.Since we do not know the quantity M t w,ot(t t),we also do not know t t.

B.Postulate I:Generalization of Galilean

equivalence.

Now,we recall that c t=c e,because these are the velocities of the light de?ned with respect to the corre-sponding sources at rest.

We also recall that special relativity is based on the assumption of the conservation of the rectilinear uniform movement.But it is important to notice that,in general, reception of light does not imply in the conservation of the relative velocity,between O emb and O train,given by v t=v e.So,here,we?rst assume that

M t w,ot(t t)=M e w,ot(t e).(18) This expresses the conservation of the number of cycles counted at O train,for both observers.Then,using equa-tions(15)and(16),we?nd

βt=

v t

c e

=βe.(19)

We can substitute these results in equation(14),to obtain

M t w,ot(t t)=(1?βe)N e w,oe(t e).(20)

This equation,which relates explicitly the two ob-servers,is the fundamental form for the generalization of Galilean equivalence,for di?erent observers.It relates the number of wave cycles which vary in time,between moving objects,for di?erent observers,in an unique ob-servational experience.

We can divide both sides of equation(20)by t e?nding: M t w,ot(t t)

t e

.(21)

Now we have a relation between the two separated fre-quencies in space,not depending on time.

f t w,ot=γ(1?βe)f e w,oe,(22)

where the left side of this equation is the frequency of cycles of O emb,for observer?train.And now we can discuss the other relation of observer?train with the original source O emb.

14

C.Postulate II:Conservation of information.

The second postulate is about the classical observer as

a limit case of receiver.In classical physics,there is no

loss of information concerning material processes.

In our situation,the formation of the cycles at O emb,

originating the waves out of it,are observed according to

the sequence N e cy,oe(t e)=nt e/sec,for n a certain?xed

number.This expression must be conserved,with re-spect to both observers,in their respective observational times.This condition is named conservation of infor-mation about material facts.As usual,information is de?ned as a numerical function of the object,as intro-duced by Claude Shannon,in the physical literature.20. Now the object‘material system’,detached from its tra-jectory,is only de?ned as number of cycle.So,this is just an application or use of the usual concept of information in the conditions of the phenomenon we discuss[3]. Now we may consider that,in the point of view of observer?train,a register of waves at O train can also be considered as a source at rest.The embankment has no limit in length and this permits to consider a point O′emb approaching O train with velocity v e,(in both points of view),according to the arguments of the previous sec-tion V-B.Then,at this point on the embankment,it is possible to de?ne a quantity given by

M t w,o′e(t t)=(1+βe)M t w,ot(t t).(23) As in equation(15),there is no di?erence in time since we are in the context of observer?train.

However,in the relativistic context,we can relate the two observers,respecting the observational quantities. We can substitute the expression of M t w,ot(t t),given by equation(20),yielding

M t w,o′e(t t)=(1+βe)(1?βe)N e w,oe(t e).(24) Knowing that all these numerical functions are linear functions of time,we have

N e w,oe(t e)=γN e w,oe(t t),(25) and substituting this result in equation(24),we?nd

M t w,o′e(t t)=γ(1+βe)(1?βe)N e w,oe(t t).(26) In the relativistic point of view,the same delay in time of the previous case,for the separation between O emb and

γ

)(27)

As it was said before,the form of the equation is con-served,but the two observers are separated in time21. Using the fact that

N e w,oe(t)=N e cy,oe(t),(28) for any time,we can substitute these two last equations in equation(26),to arrive at

γ2=

1

(1?v2e2

.(30)

D.The Constancy of the Velocity of Light

Now,that we found the?rst Lorentz transformation, independently of the constancy of the velocity of the light,we can actually derive the constancy by calculating the velocities of approaching and leaving the train in the relativistic point of view.

As we assumed by principle,observer?train is a clas-sical observer and by this reason he cannot measure rel-ativistic e?ects such as constancy of the velocity of the light.This constancy is only found when one calculates the velocities of the light approaching and leaving O train in a mixed point of view.To complete the previous list of concepts of velocity of light,we must include the fol-lowing concepts:

c r oe,ot is the velocity of the light approaching O train from O emb with respect to the reference t t.

c r oe,ot is the velocity of the light reaching O′emb from O train with respect to the reference t e.

We may start from the relation c e=c t,where the right side is the velocity of the wave emitted from O train,with respect to O train,in both points of view,including the classical view of Observer?train.

15

Consequently,we can assume that there is aλt such that

λe

t t

,(31)

holds.And substituting equation(30)in the last equa-tion,we also?nd a relativistic correction between the wave lengths of these waves:

λe=γλt(32) However,as said before,the velocity of the light ap-proaching O train must be calculated from a mixed point of view and a di?erent correction holds for the approach-ing wave length.

Until now,only number of cycles were under the rules of relativity,according to the two relativistic principles. But if we assume that a wave is placed between O emb and O train,conditions must also hold for the wave lengths in between the same origins.Since there is an intrinsic time displacement due to the observational di?erence,thee must also be an intrinsic e?ect on the wavelength due to the displacement of the source.This corresponds to an intrinsic dilatation of the original wave-length.It has the contrary e?ect in this case,because it is the source O emb which is relativistic displaced with respect to the reference O train.

Substituting these results,the?rst velocity is given by

c r oe,ot=

M e w,ot(t e)(1+βe)λeγ

t e

=c e.(34)

We?nally derived the constancy of the velocity of the light,showing that it is a speci?c relativistic result only, not shared by any other point of view.

VI.CONCLUSIONS

In our set-up we discriminate three classes of ob-servers:observers of light represented by the equations of observer?emb;receivers of light represented by the equations of observer?train;and relativistic observers, represented by the unifying equations.The constancy of the velocity of the light is a relativistic result only.And the only one who observes the relativistic phenomena is the relativistic observer.But if the classical and the semi-classical observers do not exist,the relativistic observer disappears too.And the relativistic world vanishes with this being.

The train/embankment experiment is a prototype of relativistic phenomena not including interaction.The basic set up of the experiment of Michelson and Morley is the same situation.We can consider the same train carrying two mirrors,at equal distances from the origin O train of our train.One mirror is localized on a line perpendicular to the velocity of the train while the other is in the direction of the movement.In this situation, light from the origin O′of the train is sent back and forth a great number of times from this origin,which moves with velocity v.According to the experiment,there is no di?erence in phase between the two perpendicular beams when they meet back in the origin.

In this experiment,the Earth corresponds to the train. Its tangential velocity corresponds to our v.The com-plete experiment is done under our single conventional Earth time,and we are the classical observers inside the train.Consequently,what the experiment con?rms is that under its conditions,the classical limit holds.And, what is the classical limit?It is just the condition in which discrepancies in the velocity of light are not shown. Then,the?rst step to measure a discrepancy in the veloc-ity of the light is by not taking its constancy for granted. But,in this case,we must?nd new ways to recognize,at remote distances,the objects of observation,because the constancy is just a theoretical tool for this.

In this paper we showed that because classical ob-servers are receivers of light the velocity of light in vac-uum is absolute.We did not show that classical observers exist as absolute beings.

VII.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Igor Volovich for stimulating dis-cussions,Hans Groeneveld for suggestions,Ernst Binz for drawing our attention to reference[16]and Peter Keefe for a careful reading of the text. C.Pombo also thanks Jose Helayel-Neto,Jose Thadeu Cavalcante,Eduardo Pa-quet,Carlos Baladron Garcia,David P.Costa and Aad van den Enden for inspiring discussions on the relation between physics and psychology.

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Appendix:A model for physical observers

The purpose of this appendix is to discuss a model for physical observers borrowing elements from analyt-ical psychology and philosophy.In doing so,we shall partly follow steps of physicists like Wolfgang Pauli,who introduced this psychology in the interpretation of clas-sical physics,and mathematicians like Hermann Weyl, who concluded that the ultimate essence of the concept of the Ego is the system of reference.

Physicists usually consider observation identical to ac-quisition of data.This opinion has been rather disorient-ing,considering the level of antagonism still present in the literature in discussions about relativistic and quan-tum realities.Collection of data is not what observation is,although sets of discrete or continuous data can be considered elements of physical observations.A physical observation is an expression of a language made of ob-servational concepts.22This language is made by sets of sentences such as equations,specifying the way these concepts are organized and related.In the simplest case, when the concepts are physical quantities,the relations are just associations between sets of data.The simplest examples of observation are equations of trajectories of moving particles.

But with sets of positions and measures of time alone one cannot arrive at these equations,because a trajec-tory involves a third element which is the movement of a body.It is the movement that settles the association and these trajectories are observed independently of the existence of any theory.Newtonian mechanics,which is a complete theory and does not only consist of ob-servational expressions,was the?rst theory made for ex-plaining these trajectories.Soon thereafter,new concepts emerged to describe global aspects of classical behavior of many bodies,in which the concept of trajectory does not play the main role.Observation of continuous dis-tributions of matter such as?uids and waves produced other classical theories.From this point,physics devel-oped in the direction of much more complex organization of data.Therefore it is very di?cult to avoid the conclu-sion that physical observations are human acquisitions of language,where these languages are not the conventional ones but expressions of a collectivity,in the sense which we explain below.

To observe is also to think or have thoughts which can be linguistically expressed.Thoughts are complex forma-tions of psychological elements existing and developing in

17

intervals of time.This gives another meaning for a sen-tence of language,not as a?xed object made of signals, but as a constraint between elements during an interval of time.Consciousness has deep relations with language and therefore observers can also be considered from a psychological point of view,as conscious experiences,be-longing to speci?c classes of conscious phenomena.Not only,physical observations must be understood as a spe-cial case of human expressions,in which all the subjective aspects of our existence are eliminated.

For these reasons,we take the term‘psychological’strictly from the Analytical Psychology,developed by Carl Gustav Jung and many collaborators,between them W.Pauli.This is the only psychological theory involved with a collective basis of the human thought[5].In this theory,consciousness is a process made of functions such as thinking,intuition,feeling,sensation and per-ception.The totality of the conscious experience can have elements from many di?erent functional sources, that means,descriptions involving sensations with feel-ings,between others.

Thinking is one of the functions of consciousness,the one which associates‘names’and‘meanings’to experi-ences.According to Jung there are two kinds of think-ing:fantasy and language.This second kind of think-ing can also include descriptions of subjective experiences involving sensation and emotions which are also experi-ences related to the body of the observer.But it can also be involved only with objective elements.The function named perception would be thinking of sensations and it can also include physical concepts.However,these experiences are always grounded on the spatial point of views of observers,what makes these reports subjective. This is not a feature of physical observations which are grounded on physical(objective)systems of reference.In our model we focus on‘physical thoughts’,eliminating all the other functions,to relate to the equations represent-ing the physical observations.

The main feature of analytical psychology,which is also a sine qua non condition for any model of observer in physics,is the fact that it assumes an archetypal or collective base for the consciousness and consequently for thinking.In the context of this psychology,certain man-ifestations of consciousness are not acquisitions of indi-vidual humans but of the psychic history of human kind. This makes a great di?erence between analytical psychol-ogy and all other psychologies,including psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud.It postulates the existence of an auto-nomic psyche,without any in?uence from the individual consciousness,from which the conscious experience takes its deepest meanings.This psychic level does not consist of formed experiences but only of fundamental meanings or‘frames’for organizing them,the so called‘archetypal patterns’.And this permits the de?nition of objective experiences in a collective sense,only made by special concepts directly related to these patterns.This objec-tivity based on collective agreement is the main feature of physical observations.Actually,physical experiences are the most clear manifestations of a collective psyche. Pauli[6]wrote about the in?uence of archetypal pat-terns on the ideas of Johannes Kepler and on the foun-dations of classical physics.And a deep connection be-tween physical and psychological experiences was made by Weyl,who recognized the psychic nature of the phys-ical system of reference[7].He just identi?ed our‘phys-ical frames of reference’with‘components of the ego’. And the center of the consciousness,in analytical psy-chology,is the collective essence of the Ego,made mainly by the archetypal patterns(which are the psychological correlates of the innate ideas of Immanuel Kant[8]and of the intuitions of Luitzen Brouwer[9]).Considering only the patterns involved with physical experiences,we may use the expression‘physical ego’only for a sector of the ego as de?ned by Jung.This de?nition of phys-ical ego,generating collective experiences,gives rise to experiences which could be interpreted as belonging to a collective consciousness.The existence of the latter can be considered as paradoxical,and was?rstly rejected by Jung.But during his life,Jung re?ned several times the concept of ego[10],reaching this?nal conception in which the ego is a collective and structural base for ex-periences.

The concept of physical ego,as adopted here,means a class of physical references,as building blocks of phys-ical experiences and consequently of the physical world. Each class may consist of in?nite systems of the same references.And di?erent classes consist of di?erent sets of references.For Weyl,there could be no objective ex-perience detached from the ego.“The objectization,by elimination of the ego...does not fully succeed,and the coordinate system remains...”[7]We can assume here that system of coordinate is used meaning system of reference.This idea of Weyl makes it also possible to di?erentiate between classes of physical observers based on di?erent classes of references.A class of references forms a closed structure in itself,classifying physical ex-periences and observational language as well.Here the term‘world’accounts for the in?nite set of all possible descriptions by a class of observers.

The idea of Weyl,also permits to understand the rela-tion between the di?erent classes of observers from a dif-ferent perspective.The concept of complex,introduced by Jung and collaborators,is the key for this analysis.

A complex can be de?ned as a set of experiences lim-ited by a speci?c https://www.doczj.com/doc/281429504.html,paring to our case,a complex would be represented by a set of observations correspond-ing,not to di?erent observers from the same class,but to a speci?c class of observers.In Newtonian physics, for example,these references only consist of the set of real numbers,three spacial axis,time and movement. With these fundamental ingredients,the classical world is formed.This would be the classical complex.With special relativity a new reference emerges,that is light, resulting in a deep change of reality.These new experi-ences,belonging to a new integrative complex,consist of the observations of another kind of observer,named the

18

relativistic observer,see Section V.

The main issue of the present paper has been to point at di?erent kinds of observers,coexisting inside the?nal experience.The situation actually resembles human psy-chology and integration of personalities.It is well known that human personalities can be broken in psychological https://www.doczj.com/doc/281429504.html,plexes have great importance in the un-derstanding of consciousness.As practically independent psyches,their split accounts for situations such as dou-ble consciousness and schizophrenia.And,in principle, conditions like this can be cured,by means of a reinte-gration of the parts.It can also happen by means of the emergence of a third entity,giving an unity for them. This would be considered as a cure of the pathological situation.

Here,the situation resembles these psychological situ-ations,but cannot be considered the same in the sense that we are not discussing processes of individual minds. These complexes would not be human personalities but some sort of‘collective manifestation’.Moreover,it is not under a unique time that happens their integration. Our third observer,is not to be thought to represent ex-periences based on a third reference of time or give a special status for one of the references of time.It keeps two times as an integral feature of the experience.

A previous inventory of the plural observation inside special relativity,was carried out by Bruno Latour[11]. It is very interesting to realize that the original duplicity of languages of special relativity with the realization of an integration,needing a‘personi?cation’,is clear from very di?erent perspectives.In both approaches,the existence of special relativistic events,objective or not,only can be meaningful with respect to a third observer.More re-cently,an analysis of observational discrepancies in Ein-stein’s exposition of the train/embankment experiment, was made by Avi Nelson[12],and discussed by other au-thors[13].Nelson also considered the possibility of an observational plurality but kept the notion of observation attached to sensation and perception,in the way Einstein did.An integration between observers leading to a third observer is not possible in these terms.

This is mainly because sensation and consequently per-ception are not processes of a collectivity but of indi-vidual organisms.Physical observations have an unique status and cannot even be assumed to be neuro psycho-logical,if we had to consider each of us individually as observers.Since the brain,considered as the set of neuro activity,is a physical object in space and time,it be-comes very di?cult,and even a nonsense,to trace pro-cesses inside it,which could account for the objectivity of the space outside,as an individual experience.But, considering the geometrical aspect of the experience of space only,another context for the mind-body question emerges.Models for neural correlates of consciousness (NCC)involve processes of neural integration,consider-ing single brains[14,15,16,17].There is no success-ful model till now although evidences of neural processes mediating psychophysical processes have been found.If the neurological brains are just big complexes of intercon-nected neural systems,it is natural to think that integra-tions could also happen interconnecting di?erent brains. As far as we know,this kind of parallelism has not yet been discussed as a possibility.But this type of specula-tion is out of the scope of the present paper.

Another crucial contribution for this model of observer adopted here,comes from the philosopher Rudolf Car-nap[18],who stressed the linguistic nature of physical ob-servations.For him,physical observations form‘worlds of languages’by producing speci?c languages.These so called observational languages ought to be detached from the theoretical languages,inside speci?c theories. But the propose of Carnap apparently failed in practi-cal terms because of the di?culty to?nd general criteria for separating observational concepts from the theoreti-cal ones.He was the?rst to recognize this fact,pointing to the divergences of opinion on this matter.

For?nding the observational languages we need two criteria.The?rst is to separate observational terms in-side a speci?c theory di?erentiating observational and theoretical languages.We adopt a historical guidance and simply postulate the primary references from an analysis of Newtonian trajectories.Then we separate from the observational language all statements with con-cepts not built exclusively by these primary references. The second criterion is to de?ne di?erent theories by means of recognizing di?erent observational languages. This can be done by assuming that a change in the num-ber of primary references,not considering changes in the physical meaning of the references,means a di?erent ob-servational language.

From an integration of these ideas we conclude that to observe is to describe,focusing our analysis on the equations.The description is a kind of organization of the reality.An observer is represented or manifested by the report,not by the body of a person.For this reason, observations do not depend on the position of persons (bodies of persons)neither observers have physical in?u-ence on the world.Another aspect of observers and of these archetypal references here discussed is that these references are not choices from human beings.Accord-ing to analytical psychology,the unconsciousness has its own dynamics,independent from the consciousness.The development of the ego,considering its collective essence, is not under the domain of consciousness.In this speci?c aspect,the development of knowledge does not obey our will.

The question of the nature of the psyche,whether it is a metaphysical entity and whether observers only can be human,23deserves careful discussions but it can be

19

avoided here,at the expense of understanding that lan-guage,as strongly emphasized by Karl Popper[19],has an objective feature,which is independent of single hu-man physical existences.Although being a product of human culture,it is made outside individuals.For this reason,in case of physical languages,observational in-formation can be conveyed by instruments(but it is not to be misunderstood as being the instrument)indepen-dently of a physical presence of a speci?c person to read it.The only di?erence introduced here from analytical psychology is in the collective or archetypal nature of the observational concepts,with respect to the human ob-server,which contrasts with the opinion of Popper.This contrast is more related to the way in which we know and understand these concepts,whether from experimenta-tion or not.But this is a very old philosophical discus-sion which we also do not need to enter.We just take for grant that these physical concepts of space and time have a collective meaning,that they do not belong to speci?c cultures but to the totality of the human https://www.doczj.com/doc/281429504.html,stly, we assume that for the situations discussed here,these observations consist of continuous associations between these concepts,what cannot be made by instruments or machines.

ity,there remains this question about the more clear cut case chimpanzees and other great apes.Though the answer seems that they are not‘good observers’of the type we discussed,un-derstanding of their language would be of great help to reach a de?nite conclusion.

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