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The Star Clusters in the Starburst Irregular Galaxy NGC 1569

The Star Clusters in the Starburst Irregular Galaxy NGC 1569
The Star Clusters in the Starburst Irregular Galaxy NGC 1569

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The Star Clusters in the Starburst Irregular Galaxy NGC 15691Deidre A.Hunter Lowell Observatory,1400West Mars Hill Road,Flagsta?,Arizona 86001USA;dah@https://www.doczj.com/doc/1215664280.html, Robert W.O’Connell University of Virginia,Department of Astronomy,PO Box 3818,Charlottesville,Virginia 22903-0818USA;rwo@https://www.doczj.com/doc/1215664280.html, J.S.Gallagher Washburn Observatory,University of Wisconsin,475N.Charter St.,Madison,Wisconsin 53706USA;jsg@https://www.doczj.com/doc/1215664280.html, and Tammy A.Smecker-Hane University of California,Department of Physics and Astronomy,4129Reines Hall,Irvine,California 92697-4575USA;smecker@https://www.doczj.com/doc/1215664280.html, ABSTRACT We examine star clusters in the irregular,starburst galaxy NGC 1569from HST images taken with ?lters F336W,F555W,and F814W.In addition to the two super star clusters that are well known,we identify 45other clusters that are compact but resolved.Integrated UVI colors of the clusters span a large range,and comparison

with coeval evolutionary models suggest that the ages range from 2–3Myrs to 1Gyr.Most of the clusters have colors consistent with ages of ≤30Myrs placing them at the tail end of the recent burst of star formation.

We examine the radial surface brightness pro?les of four of the clusters,and ?t King models to three of them.The colors of the clusters are approximately constant with radius.The four clusters have half-light radii and core radii that are in the range observed in present-day globular clusters in our Galaxy.However,they are somewhat less concentrated that the average globular.The two well-known super star clusters have luminosities,and one has a known mass,that are comparable to those of typical

globular clusters.The other two clusters,and likely numerous others in the sample,

are similar to a small globular cluster and to R136in the LMC.The conditions that

produced the recent starburst,therefore,have also been those necessary for producing

compact,bright star clusters.

We examine resolved stars in the outer parts of the super star clusters.We?nd that cluster A contains many bright blue stars.Some of the blue stars are bright

enough to be evolved massive stars.There is also a small population of red supergiants.

Components A1and A2within cluster A have similar colors and a two-dimensional

color map does not o?er evidence that one component is dominated by red supergiants

and the other not.The contradiction of the presence of red supergiants with Wolf-Rayet

stars may instead not be a contradiction at all since there coexistence in a coeval

population is not inconsistent with the evolution of massive stars.Alternatively,

there may be a small age spread of several Myrs within cluster A.The stars that

we resolve around cluster B,on the other hand,contain a small population of more

normal blue massive stars and a large population of red supergiants.The presence of

the red supergiants is consistent with the view that cluster B is in its red supergiant

phase.The presence of the red supergiant stars in clusters A and B is also veri?ed in

near-infrared spectra where we?nd strong stellar CO absorption features.The various

age indicators are consistent with a picture in which cluster B is of order10–20Myrs

old,and cluster A is≥4–5Myrs old.The timescale to form the holes seen in Hαand

HI is comparable to the age of cluster B.

Subject headings:galaxies:irregular—galaxies:star formation—galaxies:individual:

NGC1569—galaxies:star clusters

1.Introduction

With the Hubble Space Telescope(HST)people are?nding increasing numbers of super star clusters(see,for example,Holtzman et al.1992;Whitmore et al.1993;Conti&Vacca1994; Hunter et al.1994;O’Connell et al.1994,1995;Barth et al.1995).These are compact,luminous star clusters that have sizes and luminosities(when scaled to a common age)that make them comparable to globular clusters,the most massive star clusters known.However,unlike globular clusters,the super star clusters being found today are often young,in some cases as young as a few Myrs.Therefore,these super star clusters are invaluable in providing us with a unique window on the early stages,evolution,and conditions necessary to form globular-type clusters.They also probe the star formation process at one of its extremes.

Young super star clusters as massive as globular clusters are not common in normal disk galaxies,but there are several of these clusters within a few Mpc of the Milky Way.Because of their proximity,these clusters are the best examples for investigating the details of the clusters

themselves.The closest example of a young massive,compact star cluster is R136,at the center of the30Doradus nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud(LMC).Within a cluster radius of4.7 pc,R136contains300times the concentration of luminous stars in a typical OB association (O’Connell et al.1994,Hunter1995).R136is unique among the globular-like clusters in that it can be resolved into individual stars and one can investigate the mass function resulting from such a concentrated star-forming event.Nevertheless,R136is several magnitudes fainter than other super star clusters when normalized to the same age.R136has an integrated V-band magnitude of only?11.

Beyond the LMC,the next closest known super star clusters are among the most extreme in terms of luminosity.These are clusters A and B located in the nearby peculiar irregular galaxy NGC1569(Ables1968).These clusters are so compact that they appear stellar in ground-based images with good seeing,and their nature was controversial(Arp&Sandage1985).However, HST Cycle1images resolved these objects,proving them to be star clusters within NGC1569 with absolute V-band magnitudes of?14and?13(O’Connell et al.1994).

These super star clusters are resident in the central region of a galaxy that itself is very unusual.NGC1569has recently undergone a true wide-scale burst of star formation involving most of the optical galaxy(de Vaucouleurs,de Vaucouleurs,&Pence1974;Hodge1974;Gallagher, Hunter,&Tutukov1984;Israel1988;Vallenari&Bomans1996;Greggio et al.1998).The galaxy still today has substantial on-going star formation as seen by the presence of bright H ii regions.In addition Della Ceca et al.(1996)have detected hard X-rays from supernova remnants and binaries associated with the center of the galaxy and soft,di?use X-rays extending along the minor axis of the galaxy(see also Heckman et al.1995),both consequences of the intense recent star formation. Furthermore,there are large?laments of ionized gas visible in Hαthat extend to1.9kpc from the center of the galaxy(Waller1991;Hunter,Hawley,&Gallagher1993;Hunter&Gallagher 1997)and a complex velocity?eld in the ionized gas(Tomita,Ohta,&Sait

star formation episode in NGC1569.

2.The Observations and Data Reduction

2.1.The HST Data

The center of NGC1569was imaged with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera2(WFPC2) on HST on1998October21.The galaxy was centered on the PC for maximum resolution of star clusters A and B:0.04555′′per pixel which is0.55pc at the galaxy.The galaxy was imaged through ?lters F336W,F555W,F814W,and F656N.Exposures through F555W and F814W consisted of a series of three integration times—short,medium,and long.In the longer exposures the centers of clusters A and B are saturated.For the longer exposures there are multiple exposures in order to improve signal-to-noise and remove cosmic rays.The list of observations are given in Table1.

Basic data reduction steps were done by the Space Telescope Science Institute“pipeline”processing system.We produced a nebular emission image by combining the medium-exposure F555W and F814W images,shifting,scaling,and subtracting from the F656N image to remove the stellar continuum.We then subtracted nebular emission from the F555W and F814W images, as needed,using a scaled and shifted Hαemission image.A mosaic of the CCD frames is shown in Figure1.A false-color combination of F555W,F814W,and F656N is shown in Figure2.

We measured the brightnesses of?eld stars in the galaxy using the crowded star photometry package DAOPHOT(Stetson1987)as implemented in the Image Reduction and Analysis Facility (IRAF).Here we will discuss the resolved stars in and near the star clusters A and B;we will discuss analysis of the?eld star population itself in another paper.

We measured integrated photometry of star clusters using simulated aperture photometry.We calibrated the photometry using the zero point constants given by Holtzman et al.(1995b)in their Table9.We also converted the F336W,F555W,and F814W photometry to the Johnson/Cousins UVI system using the conversions of Holtzman et al.The instrumental magnitudes were corrected for reddening and the red leak in F336W,as discussed below,before converting to UVI,as discussed by Holtzman et al.

2.2.Near-IR Spectroscopy

We obtained longslit near-infrared spectra of clusters A and B in order to examine the stellar CO features,which are an age diagnostic through sensitivity to the presence of red supergiants.The spectra were obtained over3nights in1995December with the Ohio State Infrared Imager/Spectrometer(OSIRIS)on the1.8m Perkins telescope.The spectra cover21900?A to23900?A at8?A per pixel.The clusters were observed in alternating positions on the slit,

10′′apart.One position was used as a sky observation for the other.We also alternated a25–70 minute series of observations of a cluster with a pair of observations of HR1440,an A1V star without the CO spectral features,chosen to be close to NGC1569in airmass.We also observed a series of bright stars of various spectral types for comparison to the clusters.

We corrected the data for non-linearities using dark and?at?eld observations.The?at sequence consisted of a series of increasing exposure times intertwined with1second?at exposures to remove drifts in the lamps.Dark observations preceeded and followed the?at?eld observations. Regular dome?ats were also taken and the data were?at?elded.Sky frames were subtracted from object frames,one-dimensional spectra were extracted,and subgroups of spectra were combined. Night sky lines in spectra with the sky not subtracted were used to determine the wavelength scale and linearize along the dispersion axis.The night sky lines were identi?ed using a line list provided by M.Hanson(private communication)which came originally from C.Kulesa(private communication to M.Hanson).The cluster spectra were divided by the nearest spectrum of HR 1440.in order to remove the telluric absorption.For the cluster spectra the continuum was also ?t and the spectra divided by the?t.

3.Data Analysis Issues

3.1.Reddening

The reddening to and within NGC1569has been estimated by various methods.The reddening in the Milky Way in the direction of NGC1569E(B?V)f is estimated to be0.51by Burstein&Heiles(1984)from the column density of HI.Israel(1988)measured a total reddening E(B?V)t of0.56±0.10from ANS ultraviolet data.Devost,Roy,&Drissen(1997)obtained optical emission spectra of the ionized gas in NGC1569and concluded that foreground E(B?V)f is0.52 and internal E(B?V)i is0.21for R=https://www.doczj.com/doc/1215664280.html,ing optical spectra Kobulnicky&Skillman(1997) examined the variation of reddening within the galaxy and found that c(Hβ)varies from0.8to1.2 with an average of0.97±0.07.The average translates into an E(B?V)t of0.63for R=3.1.

Figure2clearly shows that there is ionized,and hence probably neutral gas and dust, distributed non-uniformly around the galaxy.From this?gure one can see that clusters A and B themselves are sitting in a large hole in the ionized gas and Israel&van Driel(1990)state that they are sitting in holes in the HI gas as well(see also Swaters1999).Thus,the extinctions to these clusters are likely to be at the low end of the range in NGC1569.However,other clusters are embedded in H ii regions and are likely to have extinctions at the high end of the range. Nevertheless,according to Kobulnicky&Skillman(1997),the total range in E(B?V)t is only0.56 to0.71,where0.51of that is foreground Milky Way reddening.

We have used Figure2to classify the clusters in3extinction bins—heavy,medium,and light, according to how much ionized gas is present in the immediate vicinity of the cluster.Clusters

6,41,and44are considered to be heavily internally extincted and E(B?V)t is taken to be0.71 for these.Clusters4,7,8,9,10,39,40,and42are considered to have medium extinction and E(B?V)t is taken to be0.63.All other clusters are taken to be lightly internally extincted and an E(B?V)t of0.56is adopted.Although this manner of determining the reddening is rough,the uncertainty in any adopted E(B?V)can be no more than±0.15magnitude,the total range in E(B?V)measured from spectroscopy.We use the Cardelli,Clayton,&Mathis(1989)extinction curve and an A V/E(B?V)of3.1.(Although NGC1569is of low metallicity compared to the Milky Way,this has small e?ect on the optical extinction curve[Bouchet et al.1985]).

Holtzman et al.(1995b)showed that the reddening correction is a function of the spectrum of the object,and at F336W the di?erence between the extinction of an O6star and a K5star can be large.The colors of the clusters cover a large range,comparable to that of the stellar main sequence.Therefore,we have determined a reddening correction that depends on the integrated colors of the clusters.To determine the extinction as a function of the observed colors of objects, we used the tools in the Space Telescope Science Data Analysis System(STSDAS)to simulate the throughput of the telescope plus?lters for various blackbodies reddened by E(B?V)t’s of0.56, 0.63,and0.71.The extinction corrections for O6and K5type spectra are those given by Holtzman et al.in their Table12;we have simply used STSDAS simulations to determine extinctions for e?ective temperatures in between these.The cluster photometry was then corrected for extinction according to its observed F555W?F814W color and its E(B?V)t category.

3.2.Red Leak in F336W

Since we wish to examine the F336W?F555W color of clusters,we need to consider the red leak in the F336W?lter.Not only are many of these clusters intrinsically red,but they are also highly reddened from foreground extinction.This means that red photons could contribute signi?cantly to the counts in the F336W?lter.To determine the red leak as a function of the observed F555W?F814W color,we used the simulations in STSDAS and blackbody curves reddened by E(B?V)t’s of0.56,0.63,and0.71.The red leak was taken to be any?ux contribution from≥4000?A,after the de?nition of Holtzman et al.(1995b).The F336W cluster photometry was corrected for the red leak based on its observed F555W?F814W color and its reddening category. For an especially red cluster with an observed F555W?F814W of1.5and an E(B?V)t of0.71, the contribution of the red leak to the F336W magnitude is0.06magnitudes,but the correction increases rapidly for redder observed colors.

3.3.Distance to the Galaxy

Israel(1988)used a distance to NGC1569of2.2±0.6Mpc.From WFPC1observations O’Connell et al.(1994)measured the brightnesses of the brightest stars in NGC1569,and,

assuming an E(B?V)t of0.56from Israel(1988),determined a distance of2.5±0.5Mpc.Greggio et al.(1998)examined the color magnitude diagram of the galaxy from WFPC2images and adopted an E(B?V)t of0.56and distance of2.2Mpc without apparent distress to the analysis of the stellar population.In this paper we will adopt a distance of2.5Mpc.

4.Identi?cation of Clusters

Clusters A and B are the most spectacular star clusters in NGC1569,but they are not the only ones.We have examined the WFPC2images for other compact,but less luminous,clusters. We have included as a cluster any compact object that was resolved compared to an isolated star pro?le.Contamination of the sample by background galaxies is possible although WF2and WF3, which include little of NGC1569,contain few background galaxies and no objects outside of NGC 1569that?t our criteria.

Generally,we have not included looser,and spatially bigger,OB associations in our list of clusters.The reason for this is that the galaxy is really one big OB association and separating one from another is not feasible.Also,we are interested in the less common compact clusters for comparison with clusters A and B.However,we did include one OB association,cluster number 48on WF4.This OB association is discussed by Drissen&Roy(1994)who discovered a ring nebula surrounding the cluster and broad stellar emission lines that they attribute to a WN star. It is located in the outer part of NGC1569and was easy to isolate.It serves as an example of a certi?ed OB association for comparison to the other clusters.

Because the clusters are so numerous,we could not reasonably continue the identi?cation scheme begun by others with clusters A and B.Therefore,we switched to using numbers as identi?ers,but began with number3,so clusters A and B are also numbers1and2.The clusters are identi?ed in Figure3,and are listed in Table2.

Ten of the newly identi?ed clusters are located in the vicinity of super star cluster A,over a region of about50pc projected on the sky.Together they may form something akin to a small version of the greater30Doradus region in the LMC.30Doradus is a kpc-sized area in which star formation has taken place in small units here and there over a timescale of order10Myrs (Walborn&Blades1997;see also Constellation III,Dolphin&Hunter1998).Otherwise the clusters are distributed throughout the galaxy with no apparent pattern.

5.Integrated Cluster Photometry

We give integrated photometry of the star clusters in Table2.The contributions from the sky and background galaxy were measured in an annulus just beyond the integration aperture for each object.The aperture radius is given in Table2.

We show the integrated colors and magnitudes in color-color and color-magnitude diagrams in Figures4and5.We also include cluster evolutionary tracks from Leitherer et al.(1999).We use their tables for an instantaneous burst of star formation and a Salpeter(1955)stellar initial mass function from1to100M⊙.Time steps of1to9Myrs in steps of1Myrs are marked with an “x”along this evolutionary track;time steps of10,20,and30Myrs are marked with open circles. The M V have been adjusted from the models of106M⊙to the mass of3.3×105M⊙determined for cluster A by Ho&Filippenko(1996).For less massive clusters the tracks in Figure5would slide vertically to fainter M V.

Kobulnicky&Skillman(1997)give the oxygen abundance of emission nebulae in NGC1569 as8.19±0.02with no evidence for chemical inhomogeneities.This oxygen abundance implies

a metallicity Z of approximately0.004.One would expect that the metallicity of current H ii regions in NGC1569should be a good estimate of the metallicities of the recently formed stars. Therefore,we began with the Z=0.004models of Leitherer et al.(1999).However,we found that the Z=0.004cluster evolutionary tracks did not account very well for the colors of some of the clusters,but that Z=0.008models did.Therefore,in Figures4and5we include cluster models for both Z=0.004and Z=0.008.

In Figures4and5we see that cluster A has UVI colors that are consistent with an age of order4–5Myrs,according to cluster evolutionary models for both metallicities.This is consistent with the detection of the signature of Wolf-Rayet stars in the cluster(Delgado et al.1997). However,O’Connell et al.(1994)and De Marchi et al.(1997)have shown that cluster A has two peaks in the light distribution,suggesting two sub-clusters.De Marchi et al.also suggest that these two sub-clusters may have di?erent ages,with one being dominated by Wolf-Rayet stars and the other dominated by red supergiants.However,the integrated UVI colors of this cluster do not re?ect that and appear to be dominated solely by the younger component.

Many of the other clusters in Figure4likewise fall near the locus of the Z=0.004models. The group lying above cluster A in the diagram and slightly blueward of the locus can be explained if we have made a small overcorrection to their extinction.

However,cluster B and8fainter objects are too red in(V?I)to be consistent with the

Z=0.004locus.We believe this is a symptom of an important contribution from red supergiants to the U,V,I light.The colors of the Leitherer et al.(1999)models exhibit strong sensitivity to abundance in the range Z=0.004to Z=0.008for ages8–16Myr,as shown in Figure4,because of the in?uence of red supergiants at these ages.Unfortunately,as emphasized by Origlia et al. (1999),there is considerable uncertainty about the evolutionary tracks for such phases at subsolar metallicities.What we can say is that cluster B and the other objects in its vicinity in Figure4 are roughly consistent with the Z=0.008models of Leitherer et al.(1999)at an age betweeen8 and15Myr.The agreement for cluster B would be particularly good if we have overcorrected for extinction by about0.2mags in E(B?V).However,the E(B?V)that we assumed for cluster B is only0.05magnitude above the estimated foreground extinction,so it is unlikely that we have

overestimated the extinction by very much.An age of8–15Myrs,however,is consistent with the CO-band evidence for red supergiants discussed in Section6.3.

The youngest cluster,occupying the upper left in Figure4,is number48,the OB association in the southeast part of the galaxy.Its colors indicate an age of just2–3Myrs.This age

is consistent with the upper limit of5Myrs placed by Drissen&Roy(1994)based on their observation of an expanding bubble due to a WN-type evolved massive star.The rest of the clusters,with the exception of the group around cluster B,span the range of colors along the cluster evolutionary sequence.

Part of the scatter seen in Figure4is caused by stochastic e?ects.The latter are discussed and simulated by Girardi&Bica(1993;see also,Santos&Frogel1997;Brocato et al.1999). Stochastic e?ects are due to small number statistics in populating the upper masses of the stellar initial mass function;as the few massive stars in small clusters evolve,the status of a single star can have a profound a?ect on the integrated colors of a small cluster.Girardi and Bica’s simulated color–color diagram shows a scatter in UBV colors of several tenths magnitude.This problem a?ects clusters as old as1Gyr as well as young ones(see,for example,Gallagher&Smith1999). Brocato et al.further point out the di?culty in correcting for the red leak in HST?lters under these circumstances.In addition,di?erences of several tenths magnitude in colors can be seen between di?erent models depending on the treatment of various evolutionary parameters(see,for example,Brocato et al.1999).Thus,there is considerable uncertainty in assigning an age to a speci?c cluster from global colors.

Keeping the observational,stochastic,and modeling uncertainties in mind,we conclude from Figure4that the clusters roughly span the full range in ages covered by the evolutionary models from the OB association,which is the youngest at a few Myrs,to nearly1Gyr.However,the distribution is very unlike what would be expected for a uniform distribution of ages.Instead, there is a very strong concentration to ages less than30Myr,with a subconcentration at4–6 Myr.Therefore,most of the clusters have been formed in the recent starburst activity of the galaxy.The presence of a few potentially older clusters suggests that the galaxy also formed stars in compact clusters even before the advent of the present starburst.

Clusters A and B are by far the most luminous of the clusters.The rest of the clusters in our sample have M V between?7and?12.As shown in Figure5,the model clusters evolve at about constant M V for the?rst7Myrs,and M V steadily declines after that,losing several magnitudes by the time the cluster reaches the colors of the reddest clusters in our sample.Therefore,the bluer clusters with M V near?11and the redder clusters with M V near?8are likely to have had absolute magnitudes of order?11when they were a few Myrs old.This implies that these clusters are comparable in stellar mass to the compact cluster R136in the LMC.R136has an M V of?11 at an age of2Myrs(Hunter et al.1995,Massey&Hunter1998).Since R136is comparable to a small globular cluster in mass and compactness,it appears that NGC1569,besides making two very luminous super star clusters,has also made another half dozen or so clusters comparable to

small globulars as well.

In addition to the more luminous star clusters,however,there are many less luminous clusters. Those with M V near?7likely contain≤15massive stars,and would be considered more like OB associations in terms of stellar content if they were not so compact in size.The OB association, number48,included in the sample of clusters has an M V of?8.8and was encircled by an aperture with radius14pc.Except for clusters A and B,the other clusters were observed with apertures smaller than this:0.2–11pc,with an average of3pc,in radius.Some of these may be comparable to the LMC’s populous clusters.For example,the populous cluster NGC1818in the LMC has an M F555W,0of?9.3now and probably?10.5at an age of4Myrs with a half-light radius of3.2pc (Hunter et al.1997).

Thus,it appears that NGC1569in its recent burst of star formation has formed many compact and relatively massive star clusters.These clusters include the extreme super star clusters A and B,as well several clusters comparable to small globular clusters in luminosity and many other comparable to normal OB associations but more compact than is typical.We do not understand what conditions are necessary to produce compact clusters or super star clusters(see, for example,discussion by Dolphin&Hunter1998).However,those conditions appear to have been met recently in NGC1569.

6.The Super Star Clusters

From HST Cycle1data,the super star clusters A and B were found to have half-light radii R0.5of2.2and3.0pc,compared to R0.5of1–8pc for today’s Milky Way globular clusters(van den Bergh et al.1991).The integrated V-band magnitudes of the clusters in NGC1569are?14 and?13,corrected for extinction.As shown in Figure5,both would have had M V~?14at an age of4Myrs.By contrast,a typical globular cluster,if it had a Salpeter(1955)stellar initial mass function,would be expected to have had a magnitude of?13.7±1.3(Harris1991).Thus,the clusters in NGC1569have luminosities and sizes that are comparable to globular clusters that are seen in our Galaxy today,and they are excellent candidates for being true young globulars.

The extreme nature of NGC1569’s super star clusters have long intrigued astronomers,and some properties,particularly their ages,have remained controversial.Ho&Filippenko(1996)used velocity dispersion data to estimate a mass of3.3±0.5×105M⊙for cluster A.Sternberg(1998) combined photometric data with a velocity dispersion and concluded that in cluster A there are stars present down to the hydrogen burning limit of0.1M⊙.Arp&Sandage(1985)obtained integrated spectra of the clusters and found that they have spectra like those of A supergiants. Prada,Greve,&McKeith(1994)obtained spectra of the Ca II infrared lines of the clusters and concluded,as had Arp and Sandage,that cluster A is dominated by A and B stars and is13–20 Myrs old.Cluster B,they concluded,is in a red supergiant phase and is12Myrs old.O’Connell et al.(1994)estimated the ages of both clusters to be roughly15Myrs from integrated V?I

colors obtained from HST images.In optical ground-based spectra Delgado et al.(1997)detected the signature of Wolf-Rayet stars in cluster A as well as the signature of young,massive stars in both clusters.They concluded that each cluster had undergone two episodes of star formation separated by about6Myrs:3and9Myrs in cluster A and2and8Myrs in cluster B.However, De Marchi et al.(1997)from HST images concluded that cluster A is actually two clusters,one that is dominated by red supergiants and one that is younger and contains the Wolf-Rayet stars.

Here we examine some additional data on the structures and ages of these super star clusters. In addition we will include in some of the analysis below two other clusters from Table2for comparison.The comparison clusters were chosen to be well-resolved and among the brightest few clusters after clusters A and B:Cluster30has an M V of?11and cluster35has an M V of?10.

6.1.Structure

In Figure6we show contour plots of clusters A,B,30,and35.We can see from Figure6 that cluster A has two peaks in its two-dimensional pro?le,as?rst pointed out by O’Connell

et al.(1994)and later analyzed De Marchi et al.(1997).The peaks,designated A1and A2by De Marchi et al.,are separated by0.18′′,which is2.2pc at the galaxy,and the fainter peak is southeast of the brighter peak.Clusters B,30,and35,on the other hand,are relatively round.In the outer parts,cluster B is not entirely symmetrical,being elongated in one dimension,but the deviation is small.

Because of interest in structure within clusters A and B,we have produced two-dimensional ratio maps of these clusters using the F555W and F814W images.We subtracted local background galaxy from each cluster in each image,and aligned all of the images to the medium F555W exposure.We combined the short,medium,and long exposures,replacing the saturated pixels with values from the unsaturated exposures.The resulting ratio images are shown in Figure7. One can see that both clusters are relatively blue in the centers.In cluster A the two luminosity peaks A1and A2are very similar in color and both are blue.The reddest regions are located

in the outer parts of cluster A and are not obviously associated with any one peak.This is not what one would expect if one component is dominated by red supergiants and the other is not as suggested by De Marchi et al.(1997).However,the large overlap of the two components makes it hard to disentangle the outer parts of the two sub-clusters.Cluster B,on the other hand,is more uniform in appearance,and the center is not as blue although there is a bluer clump of stars to the southeast of the center.

We have also experimented with deconvolving components A1and A2in cluster A,as had De Marchi et al.(1997).We used point-spread-function deconvolution(DAOPHOT,Stetson 1987)with various combinations of clusters B,30,and35with Gauss,Lorentz,Penny,and

Mo?at?tting functions to determine the point-spread-function.We also?t two two-dimensional Gaussians to the peaks.Residuals were fairly high in all cases arguing that clusters B,30,35,and

a two-dimensional Gaussian do not well represent the structures of A1and A2.Nevertheless,the derived parameters are a rough indication of the characteristics of the two components.We?nd that component A1is brighter than A2by about1.7±0.2magnitudes in F555W.De Marchi et al. (1997)found a di?erence https://www.doczj.com/doc/1215664280.html,ponent A1has an(F555W?F814W)0color of 0.13.A2is0.06magnitude redder than A1in these?lters,but within the uncertainties one could also say that A1and A2have the same colors.De Marchi et al.found A2to be0.1magnitude bluer in(F439W?F555W)0.From the two-dimensional Gaussian?ts to the F555W image we ?nd that A1is2.5×1.9pc(0.21±0.01′′×0.155±0.007′′)FWHM at a position angle of35?,and A2is1.9×1.4pc(0.15′′±0.01×0.12±0.02′′)FWHM at a position angle of105?.De Marchi et al. measure a half light radius of0.15′′for A1and of0.17′′for A2.

6.2.Integrated and Surface Brightness Pro?les

The surface brightness and integrated radial pro?les of clusters A,B,30,and35are shown in Figure8.The annuli were measured in steps of2pixels which is0.09′′.This choice of step size is small enough with respect to the size of the cluster to give interesting radial information. However,it is still much larger than uncertainties in aligning the images.Uncertainties due to variations in the point-spread-function between?lters are expected to be less than1%for radii≥4 pixels,but the inner most point in radial pro?le plots will be a?ected especially F555W?F814W (Holtzman et al.1995a).To increase the signal-to-noise,we found it necessary to integrate over a 4-pixel wide annuli for the annular color pro?les.

The?uxes lost due to the saturated pixels in the images of clusters A and B in the medium and long F555W and F814W exposures have been corrected using the short exposures.The?nal aperture photometry is the average of the photometry in the three exposures,and the uncertainties are the dispersion around the mean.These are observed magnitudes,and F336W has not been corrected for red leak here.

In terms of colors most of the clusters are fairly uniform with radius.All of the clusters are bluer at the center in F555W?F814W by0.05–0.1magnitude,but this is probably due

to the di?erence in point-spread-function between these two?lters(Matthews et al.1999). The F555W?F814W color then quickly becomes redder,reaching a level that does not change signi?cantly with radius.In F336W?F555W,the behaviour is somewhat di?erent.

F336W?F555W remains fairly constant with radius in clusters A and30.On the other hand, F336W?F555W in clusters B and35becomes steadily bluer with radius,by of order0.1 magnitude.

The half-light radii R0.5in F555W are given in Table3.They are2.2–3.1pc for clusters A, B,30,and35.Our measured values for clusters A and B are very close to those measured by O’Connell et al.(1994)from Cycle1HST data.A typical value of R0.5for globular clusters is3–4 pc with a range from1–8pc(van den Bergh,Morbey,&Pazder1991),assuming no dynamical

evolution of the clusters.Thus,clusters A,B,30,and35have half-light radii that are nearly typical of globular clusters.Thus,clusters A and B have the luminosities(discussed in Section 5)and R0.5of a typical Milky Way globular cluster.In addition,Ho&Filippenko(1996)have determined the dynamical mass of cluster A to be3.3±0.5×105M⊙.An average mass of a globular cluster is6×105M⊙with a range in masses of104M⊙to4×106M⊙(Pryor&Meylan 1993).Thus,cluster A clearly has many attributes of a young version of a globular cluster.

Clusters30and35are the reddest clusters in our sample and,with M V of?11and?10, are several magnitudes fainter than A and B.In Figure4they lie near the1Gyr mark of the

Z=0.004cluster evolutionary track.If they are truely that old,then at10Myrs they would have been comparable to cluster A in luminosity,implying that super star cluster formation has occurred at various epochs in the past.Because we have assumed a light reddening for these clusters,it is unlikely that we have overcorrected for reddening and that they are consequently really bluer.However,it is possible that the colors of clusters30and35are dominated by a few red supergiant stars.If clusters30and35are only30Myrs old,as stochastic uncertainties might allow,their M V at10Myrs would have been?12and?11,still placing them in the regime of smaller globular clusters and of R136in the LMC.Spectra would be necessary to distinguish between these possibilities.

We have?t the surface brightness pro?les of clusters B,30,and35with a King model(King 1962).Cluster A is excluded from this analysis because it is clearly not spherically symmetric. Following the proceedure outlined by King,we used the inner and outer parts of the pro?le to determine?rst guesses of key parameters.We plotted R-squared against the inverse of the?ux and?t the inner part of the pro?le to determine the core radius r c and the central?ux f0.We plot1/r against the square-root of the?ux and?t the outer part of the pro?le to get an estimate for the terminal radius r t.With these?rst guesses,we then explored the parameter space of reasonable solutions,determining the best?t and the range of values that are reasonable for these three variables.The uncertainties in the former are determined from the latter.The best?t for each cluster is shown as the solid line in Figure8.Fit parameters are listed in Table3.

We have used the list of structural parameters for present-day Milky Way globular clusters given by Djorgovski(1993)and Trager,Djorgovski,&King(1993)to compile a range and average of the core radius r c and the concentration index c.We included globular clusters with data quality indices given by the authors of1or2and excluded clusters identi?ed as having undergone core collapse.This yields an average core radius for89globular clusters of2.6±3.9pc with a total range of0.2–23pc.NGC1569’s clusters B,30,and35,by comparison,have core radii of 0.3–0.8pc.The core radii of NGC1569’s clusters are smaller than that of the average Milky Way globular cluster,but within the range that is observed.For95Milky Way globular clusters the average concentration index is1.4±0.4,with a total range of0.6–2.4.The concentration index of the clusters in NGC1569are1.7–2.0.The clusters in NGC1569have concentration indices that are within range of what is observed in Milky Way globulars today but larger,that is less concentrated,than the average.

Thus,cluster A in NGC1569has the half-light radius,luminosity,and mass of a fairly normal globular cluster,as seen in the Milky Way today.However,unlike globular clusters seen today,it is not spherically symmetric like the Milky Way globulars or elliptically symmetric like the LMC globulars.However,the globular clusters may have been rounded-out over time by the tidal forces in the Milky Way(Goodwin1997).Cluster A has two luminosity peaks that could be sub-clusters. Perhaps the two components will merge in the future.Cluster B also has the half-light radius and luminosity of a typical globular cluster.In addition its core radius is at the small end of the range of globulars and it is not as concentrated.Clusters30and35have half-light radii,core radii,and luminosities that are a bit smaller than the average of the globulars but within the range observed. However,they are not as concentrated overall as the average globular.

6.3.The Stellar CO Feature

The near-infrared stellar absorption features of CO have been found to be useful for placing limits on the age of a coeval stellar population.The features around2.3microns are found in stellar spectra beginning with late G stars and becoming stronger with later spectral type of the star(Baldwin et al.1973).Thus,in a young cluster the CO features are sensitive to the presence of massive stars entering the red supergiant evolutionary phase.Prior to the onset of the red supergiant phase,a young coeval cluster will exhibit no CO features,and then as the red supergiants appear the CO features appear in the integrated cluster spectrum.For the metallicity of NGC1569,this occurs at~7Myrs(Mayya1997,Origlia et al.1999).While the red supergiant peak only lasts~5–7Myrs(Bica et al.1990,Origlia et al.1999),after that other red stars continue to contribute to the CO feature,including an AGB phase at~100Myrs(Olofsson1989,Bica et al. 1990).Thus,the CO features can be used to set an upper or lower limit on the age of the clusters depending on whether the features are present or not.

Therefore,we undertook to measure the near-infrared stellar CO absorption features in the super star clusters in NGC1569.The near-infrared spectra of clusters A and B are shown in Figure 9.The12CO(2,0)and12CO(3,1)stellar absorption features around2.3microns are prominent. The equivalent widths of these features are given in Table4for the clusters and other stars that were observed for comparison.For cluster A this measurement integrates over both sub-clusters (O’Connell et al.1994,De Marchi et al.1997).One can see that the equivalent widths of the stellar CO spectral features in clusters A and B are very strong.They are,in fact,comparable to the equivalent widths of those features in the spectra of K and M giants and supergiants. Uncertainties in the equivalent widths are not given because the uncertainties are dominated by systematics.From the observation of the F7V star,that should have an equivalent width of zero, we estimate that the uncertainty in the equivalent widths is of order2?A.

The large CO equivalent widths in the super star clusters indicate the presence of a signi?cant population of cool,luminous stars,though without further information we cannot determine the exact types.The dilution of the CO absorption features by the light of warmer stars means that

the dominant cool types have equivalent widths>30?A and are probably red supergiants.Because both clusters show the strong signatures of red supergiants,then,their ages must be≥7Myrs. The integrated colors,as shown in Figure4suggest that cluster A is at the low end of this limit, while cluster B is perhaps somewhat older.

Prada et al.(1994)observed the Ca II near-infrared spectral features in clusters A and B. They concluded that cluster B is in the red supergiant phase but that cluster A,with weaker Ca II,is older.However,the Ca II calibrations of Bica et al.(1990)do not preclude a younger age for cluster A.As discussed above,the integrated colors of cluster A point to a younger age.

6.4.Resolved Stars

Photometry of resolved stars in the outer parts of clusters A and B are shown superposed on color–magnitude diagrams of the entire measured?eld star population in Figures10.The stars are shown as a function of distance from the center of the clusters in Figure11.

As anticipated by O’Connell et al.(1994),a large component of the resolved stars in and near clusters A and B are red supergiants.These are stars with M V≤?4and V?I≥1.5.In cluster A there are approximately8stars with the colors and absolute magnitudes of red supergiants. These are all located along the edge of the included region around the cluster.The rest,and the majority,of the resolved stars are very bright stars in the blue plume extending from about 23.5to19in F555W.This corresponds to?5.2to?9.7for an E(B?V)t of0.56.Early O-type supergiants have M V of order?7,and we do see a large clump of blue stars between?5.5and ?7in cluster A.These are likely massive O stars.The color-magnitude diagram of cluster A, therefore,is consistent with the interpretation of other data that there are two stellar populations present or a spread in ages(Delgado et al.1997).

Of the resolved stars in cluster A,16have M V≤?7,even brighter than an O supergiant (Conti&Underhill1988).What are these brightest stars?A possibility is that they are clumps of stars although there would have to be as many as10stars in some cases,but a more intriguing, and equally likely,possiblity is that they are evolved massive stars.For example,Luminous Blue Variables(LBVs),which come from stars≥85M⊙(Massey,Waterhouse,&DeGioia-Eastwood 2000),can be very bright in V:S Doradus in the LMC is currently?9.7(Massey2000). Yet,because they are cooler,LBVs can be brighter than O supergiants or Wolf-Rayet stars. Furthermore,LBVs have roughly the same ages as Wolf-Rayet stars,which come from stars more massive than about30M⊙(Massey,Waterhouse,&DeGioia-Eastwood2000),and so their presence is consistent with the presence of20–40WN-type stars in the cluster,estimated by Delgado et al.(1997).Cluster A is comparable to a globular cluster.Therefore,it also likely contains millions of stars and,thus,as in R136,we expect there to be a considerable massive star population in the cluster,including numerous of the most massive stars known(Massey& Hunter1998).For ages of order4–5Myrs,these very massive stars will not yet have exploded as

supernovae.The presence of so many Wolf-Rayet stars con?rms this picture,and since a large number of Wolf-Rayet stars are present,it would not be a surprise to?nd LBVs too.

The resolved stellar population in and near cluster B,on the other hand,is markedly di?erent in make-up compared to that in cluster A.There is a clump of bright,blue stars.These are comparable in magnitude to O supergiants and main sequence stars.The very brightest blue stars seen in cluster A are not present in cluster B.However,the majority of the stars that we have resolved are red supergiants.The large number of red supergiants are consistent with the strong stellar CO feature and the conclusion that cluster B is in its red supergiant phase.

6.5.Ages

So,where does this leave us concerning the ages of clusters A and B?For cluster A the integrated colors and the presence of Wolf-Rayet stars argue for ages of order4–5Myrs,and the presence of red supergiants and the stellar CO equivalent width argues for an age greater than 7Myrs.This apparent contradiction between a young age and an older age is the reason that De Marchi et al.(1997)suggested that one of the sub-clusters in A is the young object and the other is the older object.However,with this scenario one might expect some spatial separation in stellar populations and hence colors.While plausible,our two-dimensional color map does not o?er support of this.Alternatively,cluster A may have formed over an extended period of time,as suggested by Delgado et al.(1997),which would potentially allow the older and younger stars to be more spatially mixed.An age spread of only a few Myrs in the formation of the massive stars is all that would be required.Furthermore,Massey(1998)and Massey&Johnson(1998)have shown that RSG and Wolf-Rayet stars are often found together in OB associations.The same mass range of massive stars go through the RSG and the Wolf-Rayet phases,and this is especially true for a metal poor stellar population.Thus,RSGs and Wolf-Rayet stars can coexist even in a coeval population.

The data for cluster B,on the other hand,are more consistent.The colors suggest10–30 Myrs,with uncertainty because the cluster does not fall near the cluster evolutionary track,the large number of red supergiants and the CO equivalent width argues for an age greater than7 Myrs,and the Ca II feature also suggests that the cluster is in the red supergiant phase(Prada et al.1994).Thus,it appears that cluster B is of order10–20Myrs old and,therefore,older than the young component of cluster A,but roughly comparable in age to the older component of A.

According to Vallenari&Bomans(1996)and Greggio et al.(1998),the bulk of the current starburst in NGC1569ended5–10Myrs ago and extended back about100Myrs from that.It is expected that super star clusters might form during such an episode,although it is surprising that cluster formation was so strongly concentrated to the end of that period.Once clusters form, they are expected to disperse the gas relatively quickly(as seen in Figure2).According to Israel &van Driel(1990),the size of the HI hole—diameter200pc—around the clusters is consistent

with an age of2–10Myrs for reasonable input parameters to stellar wind models.The hole in the Hα,seen in Figure2,is170pc in diameter and is also consistent with this picture.In spite of the obvious disruption of the ISM in the center of the galaxy,star formation is,nevertheless, continuing:Taylor et al.(1999)have mapped5giant molecular clouds just outside the HI hole to the northwest of the two super star clusters.

7.Summary

We have examined star clusters in HST images of the irregular,starburst galaxy NGC1569. In addition to the super star clusters A and B that are well known,we identi?ed45other clusters that are compact but resolved.We also include one known and easily isolated OB association in our study.The OB association is the youngest of the clusters.

Integrated colors of the clusters span a large https://www.doczj.com/doc/1215664280.html,parison with coeval evolutionary models at Z=0.004suggest that the ages range from a few Myrs to nearly1Gyr,but a better ?t to some cluster colors may be obtained with more metal-rich Z=0.008models.Uncertainties due to stochastic e?ects,reddening,background subtraction,and modelling make it di?cult to pin ages of clusters down from integrated photometry.However,a large number of the clusters have colors consistent with ages of4–6Myrs and most with ages<30Myrs.Thus,most of these clusters have been formed at the tail end of the recent burst of star formation and were not formed continuously during the starburst.

We examined the surface brightness pro?les of the super star clusters A and B and two other very bright clusters.We?t King model pro?les to all but cluster A.The clusters have half-light radii and core radii that are in the range observed for present-day globular clusters in our Galaxy. However,the core radii of the NGC1569clusters are on the small end of the range and they are somewhat less concentrated that the average globular.Clusters A and B have luminosities, and cluster A has a mass,that place them as young versions of typical globular clusters.The other two clusters,and likely several others in the sample as well,are similar to a small globular cluster and to R136in the LMC.Thus,whatever conditions facilitated the recent starburst were also adequate for producing numerous compact clusters that are comparable to small globular or populous clusters.

Cluster B and two other clusters chosen for comparison are nearly spherically symmetric. However,cluster A,as was known from previous work,has two peaks in its light distribution. This has been interpretted by others as evidence for the presence of two sub-clusters.The colors of the clusters are approximately constant with radius,with F336W?F555W becoming bluer by 0.1magnitude in two of the clusters.

We have examined resolved stars in the outer parts of clusters A and B.We?nd that cluster A contains many bright blue stars.Some of the blue stars are bright enough to be evolved massive stars such as LBVs.The presence of such stars is consistent with the presence of a large number of

Wolf-Rayet stars and the expected large number of very massive stars for the mass of the cluster. The resolved star population around cluster A also contains a small population of red supergiants. The presence of both blue and red massive star populations are consistent with the view that the two sub-clusters have di?erent ages,but our two-dimensional color map of cluster A suggests that the two luminosity peaks are comparably blue and that the reddest stars,located in the outer parts of the cluster,are not obviously preferentially associated with one of the peaks.Instead,the presence of both RSG and Wolf-Rayet stars in a metal poor coeval population is not inconsistent with the evolution of massive stars,or alternatively there is a small age spread of several Myrs within the cluster.The stars that we resolved around cluster B,on the other hand,contain a small population of more normal blue massive stars and a large population of red supergiants.The presence of the red supergiants is consistent with the view that cluster B is in its red supergiant phase.

We have measured the near-infrared stellar CO feature in clusters A and B and?nd that strong absorption features are present in both.This indicates that red supergiants are present,as is con?rmed by photometry of the resolved stars in the outer parts of the clusters.The implied ages are≥7Myrs.Other age indicators are consistent with a picture in which cluster B is of order 10–20Myrs old.It is likely that the clusters have contributed to clearing a hole in the gas,seen in HI and Hα.The Hαhole is170pc in diameter,and the timescale to form it is comparable to the age of cluster B.

We wish to thank Allan Watson for help with the near-infrared observations.Support for this work was provided by NASA through grant number GO-06423.01-95A to D.A.H.and grant number NAG5-6403to R.W.O.

Table1.The HST Observations Filter Exposure time(s)Image name

Table3.Cluster Parameters

μ0r t r c r c R0.5b R0.5 Cluster(mag)(′′)(′′)(pc)c a(′′)(pc)

a Concentration index log(r t/r c).

b Half-light radius in F555W.

c Average parameters of Milky Way globular clusters as seen today.From Djorgovski(1993); Pryor&Meylan(1993);an

d Trager,Djorgovski,&King(1993).

智慧城市发展-上海

推进智慧城市建设,是上海加快实现创新驱动、转型发展的重要手段,深化实践“城市,让生活更美好”的重要举措,也是上海信息化新一轮加速发展的必然要求。上世纪90年代以来,上海把信息化作为覆盖现代化建设全局的战略举措,经过三个五年规划的持续推进,当前整体水平保持国内领先,部分指标达到发达国家先进水平,一批新兴技术创新成果在上海世博会上得到充分展示和示范应用,这些都奠定了建设智慧城市的基础。为继续合力推进智慧城市建设,依据《上海市国民经济和社会发展第十二个五年规划纲要》,制订本行动计划。 一、指导思想、推进原则、发展目标和任务概要 (一)指导思想。 高举中国特色社会主义伟大旗帜,以邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想为指导,深入贯彻落实科学发展观,围绕上海加快推进“四个率先”、加快建设“四个中心”和社会主义现代化国际大都市的战略目标,按照创新驱动、转型发展的总体要求,大力实施信息化领先发展和带动战略,以提升网络宽带化和应用智能化水平为主线,着力构建国际水平的信息基础设施体系、便捷高效的信息感知和智能应用体系、创新活跃的新一代信息技术产业体系、可信可靠的区域信息安全保障体系,充分发挥市场机制和企业主体作用,注重政府引导,完善市场监管,大力推进以数字化、网络化、智能化为主要特征的面向未来的智慧城市建设,全面提高城市现代化水平,让市民共享智慧城市建设成果。 (二)推进原则。 1、夯实基础,分步推进。把提升信息基础设施能级和夯实智慧应用基础放在突出位置,加强统筹规划、规范管理,加大投入和建设力度;通过分阶段发展,滚动推进实施计划,促进智慧城市建设持续深入发展。 2、创新发展,惠及民生。着眼于促进经济发展方式转变和市民生活改善,大力推进技术、应用、管理及体制机制的创新发展,探索新模式,培育新业态,不断提高城市运行效率和公共服务水平,促进经济社会协调发展,使广大市民、企业切实感受到智慧城市建设带来的实惠和便捷。 3、突出重点,聚焦项目。围绕经济建设、城市运行、社会管理、公共服务重点领域,突出针对性、实效性、可操作性,聚焦公共性、基础性、创新示范性、业务协同性项目,强化阶段目标和建设进度,加快信息技术在城市发展各领域的深入应用。 4、市区联动,示范带动。市和区县两级政府统筹协调推进,支持区县先行先试,加快重点领域、重点区域、重点项目的示范建设,增强辐射和带动作用,促进设施完善、应用渗透和产业发展。

我的老板黄光裕(孙佳勋)

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