考研英语语法10天速成
一．情态动词的现在完成式的用法
情态动词现在完成式主要有两个功能：表示已经发生的情况和表示虚拟语气。在这两个方面must/mustn’t,;can/cann’t;need/needn’t;may/mayn’t;might/mightn’t;should/shouldn’t;ought等情态动词＋完成式表示的意思是有一定区别的
1．表示已经发生的情况。
1）must have+过去分词，表示对已发生情况的肯定推测，译为“（昨天）一定……”。如：
My pain apparent the moment I walked into the room,for the first man I met asked sympathetically:”Are you feeling all right?”
[A]must be[B]had been[C]must have been[D]had to be
（答案为C）
2）can’t/couldn’t have+过去分词，表示对已发生情况的否定推测，译为“（昨天）一定没……”。如：
Mary my letter;otherwise she would have replied before now.
[A]couldn’t have received[B]ought to have received
[C]has received[D]shouldn’t have received
（答案为A）
3）may/might have+过去分词，表示对已发生的事情做不肯定、可能性很小的推测，或事实上根本没发生，译为“也许……”。如：
At Florida Power’s Crystal River plant,a potentially serious leakage of radioactive water may have been unknowingly caused by an electrician.
2．表示虚拟语气。
1)needn’t have+过去分词，表示做了不必做的事，相当于”didn’t need to do”,译为“其实没必要……”。如：
You needn’t have come over yourself.
As it turned out to be a small house party,we so formally.
[A]needn’t dress up[B]did not need have dressed up
[C]did not need dress up[D]needn’t have dressed up
(没有必要穿的那么正式，体现是说话者的建议，实际结果是否真的穿的很正式没有确定，答案为D)
2）should have+过去分词，表示应该做某事但实际上未做，译为“本应该……”should not+have过去分词表示本不应该做某事但实际上做了，译为“本不应该……”。如：
I regret having left the work unfinished;I should have planned everything ahead carefully.
我本来应该事先认真地把每件事情规划的很好，但实际上作者还是没有规划好，以至工作没有完成。
3)ought to have+过去分词，表示动作按理该发生了，但实际上未发生，译为“该……”，与should的完成式含义类似。如：
Ｔhe porter ought to have called the fire-brigade as soon as he saw the fire in the stock,which went up in smoke.
4)could have+过去分词，表示过去本来可以做但却未做，译为“完全可以……”。这点与ought/should/have+过去分词用法相似。如：
What you said is right,but you could have phrased it more tactfully.
5)may/might have+过去分词，表示过去可以做但实际未做，译为“（那样）也许会……”。如：
It might have been better to include more punchy statistics and photos of equipment in the introduction to further assist first-time office automation managers.
二．几个情态动词常考的句型：
1)．may/might(just)as well“不妨，最好”，与had better相近；
Since the flight was cancelled,you might as well go by train.
2)．cannot/can’t…too…“越……越好，怎么也不过分”。注意这个句型的变体cannot…over….如：
You cannot be too careful when you drive a car.驾车时候，越小心越好。
The final chapter covers organizational change and development.This subject cannot be over emphasized.
3)．usedn’t或did’t use to为used to(do)的否定式。
4）．should除了“应该”一层意思外，考研大纲还规定要掌握其“竟然”的意思。如：I didn’t expect that he should have behaved like that.我无法想象他竟然这样做。
三．情态动词被动关系的主动表达法
1．want,require,worth（形容词）后面接doing也可以表示被动意义。
Your hair wants cutting
The book is worth reading
The floor requires washing.
2．need既可以用need to be done也可以使用need doing，两种形式都表达被动的意义
The house needs painting=the house needs to be painted.
The watch needed repairing=the watch needed to be repaired.
一．形容词的修饰与位置
一般来说，从构词法角度来看，后缀”ly”往往是副词，但有的以“ly’结尾的词是形容词而不是副词，这点要注意；形容词一般可以在句子中做定语，表语等成份，但有些形容词在句子中只能做表语和只能做前置定语；这些形容词在修饰时候有一定的特殊性要引起大家的注意，下面做了一下归纳：
1以-ly结尾的是形容词而不是副词：
costly昂贵的lonely孤独的deadly死一般的lively活泼的friendly友好的silly傻气的kindly热心肠的likely 可能的leisurely悠闲的ugly长得丑的brotherly兄弟般的monthly每月的earthly尘世的
2只作以“a”开头的很多形容词只能做表语：
afraid害怕的alike相象的awake醒着的alone单独的，惟一的alive活着的ashamed羞愧的
asleep睡着的aware意识到的、察觉到的well健康的content满意的unable无能的
3只作前置定语的形容词
earthen泥土做的，大地的daily每日的latter后面的golden金子般的weekly每周的inner里面的
silken丝一般的monthly每月的outer外面的wooden木制的yearly每年的elder年长的woolen毛织的former前任的mere仅，只不过only惟一的sheer纯粹的very恰好的little小的live活的
4．下列动词既是实义动词又是系动词，注意用做系动词时，要求形容词做表语：
remain keep become,get,grow,go,come,turn,stay,stand,run,prove,seem,appear,look。
如：All those left undone may sound great in theory,but even the truest believer has great difficulty when it comes to specifics.
二．形容词与副词的比较级与最高级
1．考比较级时，考生应把握：
1）形容词和副词比较级的形式是否和比较连词对应出现，即是否符合原级比较及比较级的结构。如：
Do you enjoy listening to records?I find records are often,or better than an actual performance.
[A]as good as[B]as good[C]good[D]good as
在这里as good as比较连词与better than比较连词同时出现时候，不能省略任何一个介词。答案为A
On the whole,ambitious students are more likely to succeed in their studies than are those with little ambition.
2)比较的成分是否属于同类事物或同类概念，既是说比较要具有可比性。如：
The number of registered participants in this year’s marathon was half.
[A]of last year’s[B]those of last year’s
[C]of those of last year[D]that of last year’s
（前后相比的应该是今年和去年注册参加的人数“the number of”故代替它的应该是单数指示代词“that”，而不能选择B，
Young readers,more often than not,find the novels of dickens far more exciting than Thackeray’s.
3)比较级与倍数词关系及其位置
原级结构中可插入表达倍数的词，表示为“为….若干倍”,当与有表示倍数比较的词在一起时候等，他们的位置是，倍数词+as…as…,或倍数词+more…than…，但again一般放在原级词之后，即“as+原级＋again+as”.如：
Smoking is so harmful to personal health that it kills people each year than automobile accidents.
[A]seven more times[B]seven times more
[C]over seven times[D]seven times
(答案为B)
“Do you regret paying five hundred dollars for the painting?”“No,I would gladly have paid for it.”
[A]twice so much[B]twice as much
[C]as much twice[D]so much twice
(答案为B)
My uncle is as old again as I am
4）下列词和短语不用比较级形式却表示比较概念：
inferior,minor,senior,prior,prefer to,superior,major,junior,preferable,differ from,compared with,in comparison with,different from,rather than.如：
Their watch is to all the other watches on the market.
[A]superior[B]advantageous[C]super[D]beneficial
（答案为A）
Prior to his departure,he addressed a letter to his daughter.(1986年考研题)
5）“比较级＋and+比较级”或“more and more/less and less+原级”以及“ever,steadily,daily等副词＋比较级”结构表示“越来越……”的意思，与这类结构搭配的常用动词有grow,get,become等。前面两种情况更多地出现在进行时态中，注意的是这三种情况引导的比较级后面都不需要用than.如：
Things are getting worse and worse.
As I spoke to him he became less and less angry.
Her health was becoming daily worse
The road got ever worse until there was no road at all=the road got worse and worse.
6)比较级前面可以用even,still,yet,all the(more)等修饰语用以加强语气，表示“更加”的意思。如
Today it is even colder than yesterday
I have yet more exciting news for you
7)有关比较级的特殊句型：
A):not so much…as…与其说……不如说……
The chief reason for the population growth isn’t so much a rise in birth rates a fall in death rates as a result of improvements in medical care.
[A]and[B]as[C]but[D]or
人口增长的主要原因与其说是因为出生率的提高，还不如说是因为医疗的进步带来的死亡率下降的结果。答案为B
B)no/not any more…than…两者一样都不……
The heart is intelligent than the stomach,for they are both controlled by the brain.
[A]not so[B]not much[C]much more[D]no more
（心脏和胃两者都不具有智力，他们都受大脑控制。答案为D）
There is no reason they should limit how much vitamin you take,they can limit how much water you drink.
[A]much more than[B]no more than
[C]no less than[D]any more than
（答案为D）
C)no/not any less…than…两者一样,都……注意基本上与no/not any more…than意思相反
She is no less beautiful than her sister.她和她姐姐一样漂亮
Just as the soil is a part of the earth,the atmosphere.
[A]as it is[B]the same is[C]so is[D]and so is
（答案为C）
2．最高级形式应注意的问题：
1）最高级比较范围用介词in,over,of,among。
in,(all)over用于在某一范围内的比较，如：in China,all over the world.
of,among用于在同一群体内同类事物的比较，如：among the teachers,of the four dresses.
注意：among…相当于one of…,不说among all…。这一点考生应与汉语表达区别开来
如：
all visible lights,red light has the longest and violet the shortest wavelength.
[A]Among[B]Of[C]For[D]To答案为[B]
2)比较级形式表示最高级意义时，比较对象的范围应用：
any other+单数名词
the other+复数名词
the others
anyone/anything else
上述词是用业将比较级结构转变成最高级意义的关键词语，切不可遗漏，尤其是other，否则会造成逻辑混乱的错误。如不能说：John runs faster than anyone.注意与汉语表达的不同。
3）most可以用来修饰形容词或副词，意思相当于very，用法区分单复数，但不能用定冠词the，如：a most interesting book,most expensive restaurants，要注意与“the+形容词最高级＋of+名词”的结构表示的最高级的区别，如：He spoke in the warmest of voices
They have been most kind to me
Basketball is the most popular of sports in this country.
Chinese is the most difficult of language
Chinese is a most difficult language
三．不用比较级和最高级的形容词：
1）表示颜色的有：white,black
2）表示形态的有：round,square,oval,circular,triangular(三角形)，level
3)表示性质和特征的有：atomic,economic,scientific,sonic,golden,silvery,woolen,earthen,silent,full, empty,sure,dead,deaf,blind,lame,rainy
4)表示状态作表语的有：afraid,asleep,alive,ashamed,alone,aware,alike
5)表示时间、空间和方位的有：daily,weekly,monthly,annual,present,front,back,forward,backward,east, west,south,north,left,right,final
6)表示极限、主次、等级的有：maximum,minimum,utmost,main,major,chief minor,superior,inferior,senior, junior,super,favorite
7)含有绝对概念的有：absolute,entire,whole,total,perfect,excellent,thorough,complete.
四．平行结构与比较级
平行结构很多情况下是由形容词或副词的比较级或者暗含比较意味的连词引导的。如：
The ideal listener stays both inside and outside the music at the moment it is played and enjoys it almost as much as the composer at the moment he composes.
大多数情况下平行结构都是具有一定的比较含义的，有的是递进对比not only…but(also);prefer…to…;rather than有的是同类对比：and;but；or；both…and…；either…or…;neither…nor…..
平行结构测试时候注意以下几点：
1．注意比较结构中相比较的内容在语法形式上是否相同。如：
It is better to die one’s feet than.
[A]living on one’s knees[B]live on one’s knees
[C]on one’s knees[D]to live on one’s knees
Despite the temporary difficulties,the manager prefers increasing the output to decreasing it.
2．其他具有并列或比较意义的短语也可引导平行结构。
1）rather than,let alone虽不是并列连词，但在结构上连接两个语法形式相同的成分。如：
We are taught that a business letter should be written in a formal style in a personal style.
[A]rather than[B]other than[C]better than[D]less than
答案为A
For the new country to survive,for its people to enjoy prosperity,new economic policies will be required.
[A]to name a few[B]let alone[C]not to speak[D]let’s say
（答案为B）
2）如果平行的两个成分在形式上是介词短语，而且介词相同，一般说来第二个介词不要省略。如：
At times,more care goes into the composition of newspaper and magazine advertisements than into the writing of the features and editorials.
一．代词的指代
1．that的指代作用
that指代不可数名词和单数可数名词（如是复数，用those），后面通常跟有修饰语，如出现在比较结构中的that of。如Conversation calls for a willingness to alternate the role of speaker with that of listener,and it calls for occasional“digestive pauses”by both.这里that指代前面的the role。
No bread eaten by men is so sweet as that earned by his own labor.
2．one的指代作用
one指代带不定冠词的单数可数名词，复数为ones。the one指代带定冠词的单数可数名词。如：
A good writer is who can express the commonplace in an uncommon way.
[A]that[B]he[C]one[D]this
答案为[C]
3．do的替代作用。
do代替动词，注意数和时态的变化。如：
For him to be re-elected,what is essential is not that his policy works,but that the public believe that it does.
二．代词指代一致问题
代词指代一致是指指代的名词在性、数、格上是否一致，或者所照应的名词词组在某些方面保持一致。
Each cigarette a person smokes does some harm,and eventually he may get a serious disease form its effect.
这里he指代前面的person。
It was during the1920’s that the friendship between the two American writers Hemingway and Fitzgerald reached its highest point.
这里its指代前面的两人的friendship。
Our department was monitored by two supervisors,Bill and me.
这里me必须用宾格形式。
代词指代一致必须注意以下几个原则和规律：
1．邻近和靠近原则
由either…or,neither…nor,not only…but(also)连接先行词时候，如果两个先行词在数和性上保持一致，就用其相应的一直的人称代词；如果两个先行词在数或性上不一致，人称代词一般与邻近的先行词在数和性上保持一致。
Neither Mary nor Alice has her key with her.
Neither the package nor the letters have reached their destination
If either David or Janet comes,he or she will want a drink
2．当no one,everyone,each,everybody,none,anybody,someone,somebody用作主语或主语的限定词时候,或者anything,nothing,something everything等不定代词作主语时候，其相应的代词一般按照语法一致原则，采取单数
Everybody talked at the top of his voice.
None of the boys can do it,can he?
Everything is ready,isn’t it?
3．当主语为复数形式，后跟each作同位语时，如果each位于动词之前，其后的代词或相应的限定词用复数形式；如果each 位于动词之后，其后的代词或相应的限定词用单数形式。如：
They each have two coats
we are each responsible for his own family
4．由and连接两个先行词，代词用复数
如：the tourist and businessmen lost their luggage in the accident
主谓一致是指主语与谓语在数上要一致。把握主谓一致问题，考生主要解决的是对不同结构的主语单复数的认定，进而选择适当的谓语。解决主谓一致主要遵循三个原则：
语法一致原则
意义一致原则
就近一致原则
很多情况下应该综合利用这三个原则来处理主谓一致，在不同情况下可能应用三个原则中的不同原则，具体应用哪种原则应该视具体情况而定。总结如下：
一．谓语动词用单数的情况
1．动名词短语、不定式短语、名词性从句做主语，谓语用单数。如：
Buying clothes is often a time-consuming job because those clothes that a person likes are rarely the cones that fit him or her.
(1987年考研题)
To understand the situation completely requires more thought than has been given thus far.
2．表示时间、距离、金额、重量、面积、体积、容积等度量的名词短语做主语时，谓语用单数。
Two weeks was too long
Five times five makes twenty five
3．一般用and连接的两个单词或短语做主语时候，谓语用复数，但是下面用and连接的主语表示一个概念，谓语用单数：law and order法制soap and water肥皂水
a cup and saucer茶杯碟子fork and knife刀叉
the needle and thread针线trial and error反复尝试，不断摸索
horse and carriage马车time and tide岁月
bread and butter奶油面包the ebb and flow盛衰，潮涨潮落
如：If law and order not preserved,neither the citizen nor his property is safe.
A.is
B.are
C.was d.were
答案：A。
4．表示学科和某些疾病名称的名词是复数形式，作主语时候谓语动词用单数形式
Linguistics is a branch of study on human language.
5．有些名词形式上是复数，意义上是单数，根据意义一致原则动词用单数
The chaos was stopped by the police
The news is a great encouragement to us
A series of debates between the lectures was scheduled for the next weekend.
6．用and连接的成份表示一个单一概念时候，动词谓语用单数形式
Bread and butter is our daily food
Time and tide waits for no man
二．谓语用复数情况
1．由and,both…and,连接的并列主语，和both,a few,many,several等修饰语后面谓语动词通常用复数形式。Few people know he and I were classmates when we were at college.
The Chinese people are brave and hardworking
The cattle are grazing in the sunshine
3．当表示民族的词与冠词合用当主语，谓语动词用复数形式
The Japanese were once very aggressive
4．某些形容词前面加定冠词表示一类人，做主语时候，谓语动词用复数
The rich are not always selfish
5．不可数名词作主语，其前有表示数量的复数名词修饰时，谓语动词用复数
Three million tons of coal were exported that year
三．谓语动词可用单数，也可以用复数的情况
1．就近一致原则
这种情况下，谓语动词使用单数还是复数取决于最靠近该动词的主语的单复数，存在这种情况的主要由以下几种可能：
1）由连词either…or…;neither…nor…;whether…or…;not only…but(also);or等连接的并列主语
Neither money nor fame has influence on me
Not only you but also he is wrong
2)在倒装结构中，谓语动词与后面的第一个主语一致
Blocking the open-sided porch,framed by the enveloping fog,stands a tall grave-faced policeman.
Just outside the ruins is a magnificent building surrounded by tall trees.
Although a great number of houses in that area are still in need of repair,there has been improvement in the facili
2．主语带有（together/along）with,such as,accompanied by,as well as,no less than,except,besides,with, combined with,in addition to,including,together with等等附加成分，谓语的数不受附加成分的影响仍然与主语保持一致
Professor Taylor,with six of his students,is attending a conference in Boston organized to compare current practice in the United States with those of other nations.
The president of the college,together with the deans,is planning a conference for the purpose of laying down certain regulations.(1981年考研题)
3．关系代词做主语的定语从句中，谓语的数要与先行词一致。如：
Despite much research,there are still certain elements in the life cycle of the insect that are not fully understood.
（1996年考研题）
There are many valuable services which the public are willing to pay for,but which do not bring a return in money to the community.
（1990年考研题）
4．一些表示数量的短语与名词连用时候，谓语动词的数取决于名词的数，名词是复数，谓语动词用复数，反之就用单数。这些短语包括：a lot of/lots of;plenty of/heaps of;half of;two-third(three-fourth…)of;eighty(ten, twenty…)percent;part of;rest of;none of等等
Two-thirds of people present are women
Lots of damage was caused by the fire
5．集体名词作主语时，谓语动词的数取决于主语表示的意思和数，当表示整体时候，谓语动词就用单数，当强调集体中的个体时候，谓语动词就用复数。这些集体名词如：army,audience,band,government,group,flock,police,public ,staff,team,troop.Crowd,firm,family等等
The family is the basic unit of our society
The family were watching the TV
The audience was enormous
The audience were greatly moved at the words
6．某些固定结构中主语与谓语的数：
第一组：
a number of+可数名词复数谓语用复数
the majority of+可数名词复数谓语用复数
第二组；
the number of+可数名词复数谓语用单数
each/every+可数名词复数谓语用单数
neither/either of+可数名词复数谓语用单数
one and a half+可数名词复数谓语用单数
第三组；
more than one+可数名词单数谓语用单数many a+可数名词单数谓语用单数
第四组；
the greater part of a large proportion of50%of one third of plenty of the rest of
谓语的数与of后面的名词一致
第五组；
(n)either…(n)or….not only…..but also……not…..but……
谓语的数与主语的第二部分（即(n)or/but also/but引导的后面部分）一致.
注意比较：
More students than one have been referred to
More than one student is going to buy this book
倒装是指句子成分不是按主语在前、谓语在后的正常语序排列，而是将谓语或谓语的一部分移到主语之前。倒装是一种修辞手段，目的是为了强调。倒装分为部分倒装和全部倒装，考试多为部分倒装。考生应掌握什么情况下需要倒装,并对倒装后的句子能够认出来，避免做题时候的盲目和迷茫。
一．用全部倒装的情况
全部倒装一般是存在以下列副词开头的句子中，全部倒装的方法是把句子的主谓语序颠倒过来，把谓语移到主语前面：1）出于修辞需要，表示方向的副词：out,down,in,up,away,on。如：
Down jumped the burglar from the tenth floor when he heard someone shouted at him.
Up went the plane
2)出于习惯用法：here,there,now,thus,hence,then.如：
Now is your turn.There goes the bell.
Here is a ticket for you
There existed a certain doubt among the students as to the necessity of work
注意：here，there用于倒装结构时主语一般为名词，如果是人称代词则不需要倒装
“where is the cup？”“Here it is！”
Here you are.
There he comes.
3)有时主语较长，为了使句子平衡，避免头重脚轻，主谓要全部倒装。这种情况多出现在主系表结构中。如：
Less important than ever is developing a meaningful philosophy of life.
In between these two extremes are those people who agree with the jury system as a whole,but feel that some changes need to be implemented to improve its effectiveness.
二．采用部分倒装情况
部分倒装一般是把句子谓语的一部分（主要是助动词或系动词）放到句子主语前，构成部分倒装，而全部倒装则把句子的谓语（包括实义动词）都放在主语前
1．下列否定词及含有否定意义的词组修饰状语时，若置于句首，句子的主谓要部分倒装：
never,no,neither,not only,hardly,scarcely,little,seldom,rarely,not until,nowhere,at no time,on no account,in no respect,in no sense,by no means,in vain,still less。如：
Not only is its direct attack on their discipline,it bypasses the essence of what sociologists focus on. Under no circumstances should we do anything that will benefit ourselves but harm the interests of the
(1985年考研题)
注：1)如果谓语动词是单个实义动词，倒装时需根据人称和时态加助动词do。如：
Little did we expect that he would fulfill his task so rapidly.
（1983年考研题）
2）考生要广义理解“句首”的概念，注意从句的句首和并列分句的句首均为句首。如：
Suddenly,Gallup’s name was on everyone’s lips;not only was he the prophet of the moment,but it was generally believed that he had founded a new and most important method of prediction.
2．以only修饰状语（副词，介词短语，状语从句）开头的句子，句子的主谓要部分倒装：
only then,only at that time,only once,only in this way,only with,only through,only by,only when,only after,only because。如：
Only when you have obtained sufficient data come to a sound conclusion.
[A]can you[B]would you[C]you will[D]you can
3．以下列副词或短语开头的句子，句子的主谓要部分倒装：
often,so,well,to such a degree,to such an extent,to such extremes,to such a point,many a time。如：So involved with their computers that leaders at summer computer camps often have to force them to break for sports and games.
[A]became the children[B]become the children
[C]had the children become[D]do the children become
(2001年考研题，答案为D)
4．比较从句的倒装：
as,than引导的比较从句中，如果主语是名词短语且较长，经常采用倒装结构（不倒装也可以）。注意：这种结构主语一般为名词，如果是代词则不倒装。如：
Hydrogen burns much more cleanly than do other fuels and is easy to produce.
Today’s electuic cars cannot go as fast as gasoline-driven vehicles because the battery does not offer the same amount of energy as does gasoline combustion.
Reading is to the mind as is exercise to the body.
5．用于前面所说的情况也适用于另一人（物）的肯定句或否定句中的倒装
1）肯定重复倒装用：so
They have got up,and so has jack
2)否定重复倒装用：nor,neither,no more
If you don’t agree to our plan,neither will they
6．“not only..but also”结构时，如果not only放在句首，则前半句but(also)句子后面不倒装
Not only did we lose all our money,but we also came close to being broke.
三．特殊的倒装结构
特殊形式的倒装结构是指句子虽然是倒装结构，但不是主谓倒装，而往往是出于强调的需要，把强调部分移到句首，而其它部分顺序不需要改变，句子主谓不需要倒装。出现这样的情况有以下几种可能：
1．让步从句的倒装。
1）as引导让步状语从句，必须采用倒装结构，但不是主谓倒装，而是将被强调的内容置于句首。如：
Much as I have traveled,I have never seen anyone to equal her,in thoroughness,whatever the job.
Brave as they are,they are afraid of fight
2）．出现在句型be+主语+其他，come what may中。如：
While it’s true that we all need a career,preferably a profitable one,it is equally true that our civilization has accumulated an incredible amount of knowledge—be it scientific or artistic.
The business of each day selling goods or shipping them,went quite smoothly.
[A]it being[B]be it[C]was it[D]it was(答案为B)
3)no matter how(who…);however引导的让步状语从句必须采用倒装结构，但不是主谓倒装，而是将被强调的内容置于句首。如：
However cold it is,he always goes swimming.
语法测试
1.She said that she__much progress since she came here.
A.makes
B.made
C.have made D had made
2.“What’s the matter,Ali?You look sad."“Oh,nothing much.As a matter of fact,I my friends back home."
A.just thought
B.have just been thinking
C.was just thinking
D.have just thought
3.She on this essay for twenty minutes but she has written only about a hundred words.
A.will be working
B.worked
C.has been working
D.will have worked
4.The committee will not make the decision until it the matter.
A.has investigated
B.investigates
C.will have investigated
D.investigated
5.Carey didn't go to the party last night because she the baby for her sister until9:30.
A.must have looked after
B.would have to look after
C.had to look after
D.should have looked after
6.four years since John left school.
A.They have been
B.It is
C.It was
D.Those are
7.The car at the present speed until it reaches the foot of the mountain at about4o'clock this afternoon.
A.has gone
B.has not gone C will be going D.has been going
8.By the time you arrive in London,we__in Europe for two weeks.
A.shall stay
B.have stayed
C.will have stayed
D.have been staying
9.Between1897and1919at least29motion pictures in which artificial beings were portrayed.
A.had produced
B.have been produced
C.would have produced
D.had been produced
10.The president__the delegation at the airport but he was taken ill last night,so the vice-president is going to instead.A.is to meet B.was to meet C.has been to meet D.was to have met
语法测题答案与详解
1．(D)根据时态一致的原则，间接引语(或宾语从句)的时态应与主句的时态一致。该句中said是过去时所以that引导的宾语从句中也要用过去的某一种时态，而从句中since引导的时间状语从句表明其应为完成时态，故应用过去完成时态。2．(C)通过上下文可以判定Ali看起来很难受很伤心，是因为刚才在进行的事情所导致的，所以用过去进行时较好，故(C)是正确答案。
3．(C)根据句意和时间状语for twenty minutes，可以判断这里应填入现在完成时态，现在完成进行时是现在完成时态的强调形式，并且选项中没有现在完成时态，所以(C)是正确答案。
4．(A)句意表明委员会是在调查事件之后才会做出决定，调查应发生在决定之前，所以应用将来完成时态，但是在英语中，时间条件状语从句中的将来完成时态是由现在完成时来表示的，所以正确答案是(A)。
5．(C)从上下文的逻辑意义看，(C)项是唯一的正确答案。Carey没有参加晚会，原因是给她姐姐照看小孩子。而(A)和(D)表示对过去发生的事情根据客观情况作出主观推断：(A)作“准是看孩子了”讲；(D)作“本应该看孩子”讲，都不对，而(B)表示动作发生在过去的将来，也不对，所以只有(C)正确。
6．（B）这是一个固定结构(或句型)。本句也可说在"Four years have passed since John left school.”或“has been four years sinceJohn left schoo1．’’
7．(C)until引导的时间状语从句用了一般现在时表示将来的意思，主句因此必须用一般将来时与之呼应，口语中常用将来进行时代替一般将来时表示预料即将发生或肯定发生的事，也可表示某件事已经决定了。本句完全可以用will go因此，正确答案是(C)。?
8．(C)by the time引导的时间状语从句中若谓语动词用现在时，则主句要用将来完成时；若谓语动词用过去时，则主句要用过去完成时，有时也可以用过去将来完成时。这样，本道题目的正确答案是(C)。
9．(D)有具体表示过去某一时间段内业已发生的事件的时间状语，句子应该用过去完成时。
10．(B)由第一个句子中的but引导的转折句中所用的过去时，可以判断总统本要在机场接见代表团，表示计划要做某事在英语中可以用be+动词不定式来表达，故正确答案是B)。
考研英语语法练习题【附答案详解】 1. —How did you get in touch with the travel agent, Robin? —Oh, that’s easy. I surfed the Internet and then called one ________ the telephone number is provided. A. which B. in which C. of which D. whose 2. October 15th is my birthday, ________ I will never forget. A. when B. that C. what D. which 3. The treatment will continue until the patient reaches the point ________ he can walk correctly and safely. A. when B. where C. which D. whose 4. There are several research centers in China ________ a certain disease called Bird Flu is being studied. A. which B. where C. when D. what 5. I hope that the little ________ I have been able to do does good to them all. A. which B. what C. that D. when 6. The time is not far away ________ modern communications will become widespread in China’s vast countryside. A. as B. when C. until D. before 7. ________ is known to everybody, Taiwan is a part of China. We must unify it.
初中英语语法——三大从句汇总 在英语中，主要有三大从句，即名词性从句（包括主语从句，宾语从句，表语从句，同位语从句）、形容词性从句（即定语从句）、副词性从句（即 状语从句,包括时间、条件、结果、目的、原因、让步、地点、方式等）。以 下是一些基本的从句的语法知识点 A、定语从句专项讲解与训练 一、定语从句概念 定语从句（attributive clause），顾名思义，就是一个句子作定语从属 于主句。定语一般是由形容词充当，所以定语从句又称作形容词从句。另外， 定语从句是由关系代词或关系副词引导的，故又称作关系从句。 定语从句一般放在它所修饰的名词或代词之后，这种名词或代词被称作先 行词。请看示例： The woman who lives next door is a teacher. 先行词定语从句 在所有的从句中，算定语从句最难掌握，因为汉语里没有定语从句，汉语 里只有定语，而且总是放在名词之前来修饰名词。 二、关系代词引导的定语从句 关系代词代替前面的先行词，并且在定语从句中充当句子成分，可以作主语、宾语、定语等。常见的关系代词有：who, that, which。它们的主格、宾格和所有格如下表所示： 先行词主格宾格所有格 人 who whom whose 物 which which whose of which 人、物 that that — （一）关系代词who, whom和 whose的用法 who代替人，是主格，在定语从句中作主语。例如： An architect is a person who designs buildings. 建筑师是设计房屋的人。 I will never forget the teacher who taught us chemistry in the first
新编英语语法教程（第6版）第21讲练习参考答案Ex. 21A was sorry to learn… will be sad to hear… would be very surprised to receive… is happy to have found… was afraid to go… was pleased to hear… am very anxious to meet you. were delighted to receive your telegram. were sensible to stay indoors. clerk was prompt to answer the call. rule is easy to remember. are reluctant to leave this neighbourhood. house is difficult to heat. you ready to leave would be foolish to go out in this weather. is quick to see the point. is very keen to get on. are proud to have him as a friend. was rude not to answer your letter. are happy to have you with us this evening. Ex. 21B decision to resign surprised all of us. showed no inclination to leave.
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
考研英语十二大基础语法体系 对于任何英语句子，要分析其结构，这样才能找到英语语言的规律。每种语言都有它的难点，汉语的难点在于汉语不是拼读语言，汉字很难写，而且有四种声调。其实，许多接触过多种外语的人都认为，英语的语法比法语、德语、俄语、日语等都简单，是最容易学的。著名语言学家乔姆斯基说过，语法是内生的、也就是随着语言的诞生而诞生的。因此，学习语法和学习语言是相辅相成的。 一、英语动词的时态 （一）英汉两种语言在时态表达方式上的差异： 英语的词类与汉语的不同。汉语词类形态稳定，比如“书”这个字，“一本书”、“三本书”都一样，没有词形变化。英语就不同了，book, books仅从词形上就能知道是单数还是复数。 动词是英语中变化最多、最复杂的词类。有人说，学好英语就是学好动词，此言甚是。同一个动作或状态分别在不同时间发生或存在，表达这个动作或状态的动词就要用不同的形式，这就是时态。 （二）英语动词的形式： 英语的时态是通过动词的变化来体现的。因此，了解动词的形式及其变化规律非常重要。英语的实义动词有以下五种形式： (1)动词原形：动词原形在句子中形式不变。主要用于主语为非第三人称单数的一般现在时，情态动词之后， 或根据语法规定必须用动词原形的其他情况。 (2) 一般现在时第三人称单数形式（简称现单三）：主要用于主语为第三人称单数的一般现在时。 (3) 过去式：主要用于一般过去时。 (4) 现在分词：主要用于进行时态，或语法规定的其他情况。 (5) 过去分词：主要用于完成时态，或语法规定的其他情况。 动词一般现在时第三人称单数（现单三）的构成，见下表：
即某些字母组合的不规则动词有一定的规律。如：weep→wept, sleep→slept, sweep→swept 以上每个时间段中分别有四种状态：一般、进行、完成和完成进行。因此我们便有了四四一十六个时态。 态（一般、进行、完成、完成进行）。 比如在“They are doing their exercises.”这个句子中，动词由原形do 变成are doing 的形态，说明这个事情是发生在现在、并处于正在进行的状态当中，所以叫现在进行时； 在“They have done their exercises.”这句中，动词由原形do 变成have done的形态，说明这个事情是发生在现在、并处于完成的状态，所以叫现在完成时； 在“They always do their exercises.”中，动词用原形do 的形态，说明这个事情是发生在现在、并且是一般情况下永远如此，所以叫一般现在时。 在这三句话中，动词do 虽然用了不同的形态，其意义没有变化，而是事情发生的时间和状态变了。其余类推。 （三）时态详解 16个时态中，常用的有12个：一般现在时、一般过去时、一般将来时、过去将来时、现在进行时、过去进行时、将来进行时、现在完成时、过去完成时、将来完成时、现在完成进行时和过去完成进行时。其他时态很少单独使用。 下面把各种时态的构成和用法做一个全面的介绍。
中考英语语法笔记整理大全 2010．3
名词 表示人、事物、地方、现象或抽象概念等的名称的词。 知识梳理：提纲挈领，抓住重点和难点！ 一、名词的分类 注：1.专有名词是指人、地方、团体、机构等特有的名称。第一个字母必须大写。专有名词前一般不加冠词。 2、有普通名词构成的专有名词前要用定冠词“the”，但它不大写。 3、有些不可数名词有时表示为具体的东西时，则变为可数名词，而且以四上也 有了变化。eg. beer ----a beer 一杯啤酒，work--- a work 工厂，著作，glass---a glass 一个玻璃杯，room空间---a room一个房间 二、名词的数：表示可以计算数目的人或物称为可数名词。 1、可数名词有单、复数两种形式：可数名词的单数形式要在名词前加“a或an”；复 数形式是在名词后加“-s或-es”。名词复数形式有规则变化和不规则变化两种，规则
2. 可数名词复数的不规则变化 ①改变单数名词中的元音字母 eg. man--men, woman—women, tooth—teeth, foot—feet, goose—geese, mouse--mice ②单复数同形eg. Chinese-Chinese, deer-deer, fish-fish, sheep-sheep,… ③由man 和woman构成的合成词, 每个名词都要变复数 eg. a man doctor— men doctors, a woman teacher--women teachers 注意: 有些名词表示一种物体具有不可分割的相同的两部分,在使用时只有复数形式eg. trousers, clothes, glasses, shorts,scissors, etc;有些名词从形式上看是复数, 实际上是单数(其后的谓语动词要用单数). eg. maths, phyiscs, politics, news 3. 不可数名词：表示不能计算数目的人或物，称为不可数名词。他们前面不能用a/an,没有复数形式。物质名词和抽象名词都属于不可数名词。不可数名词一般只有单数形式, 但有其特殊用法: (1)同一个词,变成复数形式, 意义不同。eg. food 食物--- foods 各种食物， time 时间--- times 时代，green 绿色---greens 青菜
新编英语语法教程（第六版）第02讲练习参考答案 Ex. 2A 1. SVC Within the stricken area, not a single soul remained alive, and the city centre looked as if it had been razed by monster steam-roller. 2. SV The bomb exploded 1,000 ft. above the ground. 3. SVO On August 6, 1945, an American aircraft dropped a bomb on the Japanese town of Hiroshima. 4. SvoO Three days later, yet another bomb of the same kind gave the town of Nagasaki the same fatal blow. 5. SVOC The explosion made one and a half square miles of the city an expense of reddish rubble. 6. SV A Within the fraction of a second, the bomb changed from a metal cylinder into an immense mass of expanding gas, millions of degrees hot. 7. SVOA A tremendous blast of hot air whirled the debris of stone, concrete, metal, and wood over the ground.
Chapter 5 Semantics ?Semantics----the study of language meaning. ?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only linguistic discipline that studies meaning. ?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other w ords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out of context. ?Meaning is central to the study of communication. ?Classification of lexical meanings. Here are G. Leech’s seven types of meaning. ( British linguist) ? 1. Conceptual meaning (also called denotative or cognitive meaning) is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. It means that the meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. ? 2. Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent, peripheral ? 3. Social meaning (stylistic meaning) –what is conveyed about the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression ? 4. Affective meaning (affected meaning)– what is communicated of the feeling or attitude of the speaker/writer towards what is referred to ? 5. Reflected meaning – what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression ?Taboos ? 6. Collocative meaning – the associated meaning a word acquires in line with the meaning of words which tend to co-occur with it ?(2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be together called associative meaning–meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less stable, more culture-specific ) 7. Thematic meaning—what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order ?What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning ?Naming theory (Plato) ?The conceptualist view ?Contextualism (Bloomfield) ?Behaviorism Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things ?Limitations: 1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
英语语法总结全集 名词和主谓一致 一、名词的分类 英语中名词主要可以分为可数名词和不可数名词。 1．可数名词 可数名词一般都有单复数。单数时，名词前可加不定冠词a/an；复数时，前面可加数词，名词本身要改成复数形式。 可数名词的复数有规则和不规则两种变化。规则的名词，只要在单数名词之后加“s”，“es”或去“y”加“ies”就行，如：an umbrella, twelve umbrellas；a factory, three factories。不规则的名词变化则要靠积累记忆，如：a mouse, ten mice；a policeman, six policemen。 有少数可数名词，如sheep，works（工厂），Chinese等，它们的单复数同形：a sheep, four sheep；a chemical works, five chemical works。 此外，还有一些可数名词只有复数形式，如clothes，trousers，cattle，police，people(人，人民)等。 英语名词中还有一些合成词，它们的复数形式有三种可能：1）后面的部分变成复数形式：grown-ups，boy students，grandchildren。2）前面的部分变成复数形式：passers-by，lookers-on，sons-in-law。3）前、后都变成复数形式：men doctors，women drivers。 2．不可数名词 不可数名词没有单复数的变化，前面也不能加a/an，或数词。但是我们可以用量词来表示不可数名词的数量，单复数表现在量词上，如：a piece of paper；two pieces of paper。 在有些情况下，不可数名词也可用a/an，表“一种”、“某种”的意思，如have a wonderful time，receive a good education，be made into a fine paper。 有时为了表示量大，不可数名词的后面也可加“s”，如sands，ashes，waters等。 但是我们在学习不可数名词的时候，特别要记住英语中有一些名词，它们无论在什么情况下，前面都不能用a/an，后面也不可加“s”，如weather，information，等。 3．有的名词既可是可数名词，也可是不可数名词 英语中有相当一部分的名词，既可以是可数，也可以是不可数，它们的意义有时略有不同，有时则完全不同。如：difficulty, success, time, work，paper，glass，等。 4．用于表示可数与不可数名词的数量“多”“少”的常用词和词组 跟可数名词连用的如：few, a few, many。 跟不可数名词连用的如：little, a little, much。 可数与不可数都能用的是：a lot of , plenty of。 二、主谓一致 1．通常被看作单数的主语部分 1）不定式、动名词和主语从句。 eg.. To see is to believe. Seeing is believing. What he said was different from what he did. 2）表示“时间”“距离”“金钱数量”的名词。 eg. Twenty years is quite a long time. 10 kilometers doesn’t seem to be a long distance to Mira. 300 dollars is too much for this old coin. 3）数学式子。 eg. Two plus five is seven. 4）书报杂志、国家、单位的名字。 eg. The Times is published daily. The United States is a big country. 5）前面用a kind of, a sort of或this kind of, this sort of等词组的名词。 eg. This kind of tree(s) often grows well in warm weather. 6）代词either, neither作主语。
中考英语语法笔记整理大全 2015.8 名词 表示人、事物、地方、现象或抽象概念等的名称的词。 知识梳理：提纲挈领，抓住重点和难点！ 、名词的分类 注：1. 加冠词。 2、有普通名词构成的专有名词前要用定冠词“ the”但它不大写。 3、有些不可数名词有时表示为具体的东西时，则变为可数名词，而且以四上也有了变化。eg. beer ----a beer 一杯啤酒，work--- a work 工厂，著作，glass---a glass 一个玻璃杯，room 空间---a room 一个房间 、名词的数：表示可以计算数目的人或物称为可数名词。 1、可数名词有单、复数两种形式：可数名词的单数形式要在名词前加“a或an”；复数形式是在名词 后加-s或-es
2. ①改变单数名词中的元音字母 eg. man--men, woma n—wome n, tooth —teeth, foot—feet, goose—geese, mouse--mice ②单复数同形eg. Chinese-Chinese, deer-deer, fish-fish, sheep-sheep,… ③由man和woman构成的合成词，每个名词都要变复数 eg. a man doctor—men doctors, a woma n teacher--wome n teachers 注意：有些名词表示一种物体具有不可分割的相同的两部分，在使用时只有复数形式 eg. trousers, clothes, glasses, shorts,scissors, etc有些名词从形式上看是复数, 实际上是单数(其后的谓语动词要用单数).eg. maths, phyiscs, politics, news 3. 不可数名词：表示不能计算数目的人或物，称为不可数名词。他们前面不能用a/an,没有复数形式。物质名词和抽象名词都属于不可数名词。不可数名词一般只有单数形式，但有其特殊用法： ⑴同一个词，变成复数形式，意义不同。eg. food食物---foods各种食物， time 时间---times 时代，green 绿色---greens 青菜 (2) 有些不可数名词用复数代指具体的事物 eg. hope ---hopes 希望hardship --- hardships 艰苦 (3) 物质名词在表示数量时，常用某个量词+of来表示 eg. a cup of tea, seve n pieces of bread, severalbags of rice, … 三、名词的所有格 名词的所有格是表示名词之间的所有关系，有两种表示形 式,一种是在名词后+';另一种疋用of,表示 …勺”。 1. (1) 一般词的所有格,直接在词尾+'。eg. Mr. Mott 's robot, children 's clothes (2)以s结尾的名词所有格只在词尾+ ' eg. teachers 'books (3)两人共有的物体，则在第二个名词后
Unit 4 关系代名词 关系代名词的功用........连接词+代名词 例如1. I have a friend. The friend lives in paris. 我有位朋友，这个朋友住在巴黎。 I have a friend and he lives in paris. 用and 连接 I have a friend who lives in paris. Who 不是谁的意思，是关系代名词。 住在巴黎的朋友英文是 a friend who lives in paris(这是形容词子句) 语言顺序为先行词＋关系代名词，但也有下列句子。 例如1. There was an old man in the apartment who was very rich. 那个公寓里过去住着一位非常富有的老人。也可以这样说There was an old rich man in the apartment . 例如2. I met two girls, one of whom is my cousin. 我遇见两个女孩，其中一个是我的表妹。口语中常用who 也可以I met two girls and one of them is my cousin. 所有格加名词。 动词的后面是受格，介系词后加受格。 人称代名词受格位置在后面； 关系代名词受格位置在前面。 格例句 主格＋动词the man who talked to me. 该男子和我说话 所有格＋名词the man whose car was stolen. 该男子的车被偷了 受格＋主词＋动词the man whom/who I met. 我所会见的人(口语中常用who) 主格的关系代名词 1. 主格Who-----先行词（人）＋主格关系代名词Who＋动词 例如1. The man is my father. The man(重复不要) wears sunglasses. 把这两句合并一句 The man who(做主词，做连接词) wears sunglasses is my father.带太阳镜的那个人是我的父亲 修饰名词形容词子句 例如2. I don’t like people. They get out of temper easily. 这两句合并一句。 I don’t like people who get out of temper easily.我不喜欢容易发脾气的那种人。 修饰名词形容词子句 2.主格Which-----先行词（事物；动物）＋主格关代Which＋动词 例如1. I live in the house. The house stands on the hill. 这两句合并一句。House Stands on 坐落于，位于 I live in the house which stands on the hill. 我住在那幢坐落在山丘上的房子里。 例如2. English is a language. It’s spoken all ove r the world. 这两句合并一句。 English is a language which is spoken all over the world. 英文是世界通用的语言。 Japanese is a language which is spoken in Japan. 日文是在日本说的语言。 3.主格关代That＋先行词（人,事,动物）＋主格关代名词That＋动词 例如1.帮医生照顾病人的人称为护士。Patient名词是病人，动词是有耐心 People who / that help doctors and look after patients are called nurses. 例如2.我喜欢这幢被吴先生设计出来的大楼。办公大楼the office building I like the building which/that was designed by Mr.Wu. 主格关代其后所接的动词须与先行词一致 例如1. Tom is one of the boys who are fond of sports. Tom是那些喜欢运动男孩中的其中之一 例如2. I know a child who is good at surfing. 我认识一位很会冲浪的小朋友。 Surfing 冲浪Surf the internet 上网，互联网 例如3. Adults don’t like children who tell lies. 大人不喜欢说谎话的孩子。
胡壮麟语言学重难点 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源 2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。 1. 语言的定义特征 1.1. 任意性 1.2. 二重性 1.3. 创造性 1.4. 移位性 1.5. 文化传递性 1.6. 互换性 2. 语言的功能 1.1. 信息功能 1.2. 人际功能 1.3. 施为功能 1.4. 感情功能 1.5. 寒暄功能 1.6. 娱乐功能 1.7. 元语言功能
3. 微观语言学 3.1. 语音学 3.2. 音系学 3.3. 形态学 3.4. 句法学 3.5. 语义学 3.6. 语用学 4. 宏观语言学 4.1. 心理语言学 4.2. 社会语言学 4.3. 应用语言学 4.4. 计算语言学 4.5. 神经语言学 5. 重要概念及其区分 5.1. 描写式&规定式 5.2. 共时&历时 5.3. 语言&言语 5.4. 语言能力&语言应用 5.5. 唯素的&唯位的 5.6. 传统语法&现代语法 5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为 Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法 2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。 1. 语音学及其三大领域 1.1. 语音学定义 1.2. 语音学三大领域 ①发音语音学 ②声学语音学 ③听觉语音学 2. 辅音 2.1. 辅音定义 发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。 2.2. 发音方式 发音方式是指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位的方式 2.3. 发音部位 发音部位是指声道的哪些部位发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍。 3. 元音
名词 的功用。当主语，补语，受词 1. 名词的种类 单数 / 复数 普通名词 book pencil. Dog. Spaceship 宇宙飞船、 集合名词 class, family, audience 听众。 例如 1. My family is large. 我家是一个大家庭。 My family are all early risers 专用名词 Bob, Smith, April, London. 下面的专用名词需要加上定冠词。 The united states . 美国 物质名词 glass wood paper butter fruit 数字 ＋ 容器（度量衡）＋ of ＋ 物质名词 A cup of coffee. 一杯咖啡。 A sheet of paper. 一张纸。 Two sheets of paper. 两张纸 A spoonful of sugar 一勺糖。 抽象名词 beauty 美丽 honesty 诚实 love 爱 patience 耐心 happiness 幸福 music 音乐。 2. 名词的数 单数 / 个数 2 以上是复数 名词字尾加 s 大多数 dog dogs book books girl girls 名词字尾为 s.sh.ch.x.o 加 es classes buses dishes benches boxes 名词字尾为子音加 o ,力口 es 女口 tomatoes 例夕卜photos pianos 名词字尾为＋ y 的复数名词要去 y ＋ ies baby-babies story-stories city-cities lady-ladies 名词字尾为 f 或 fe 去 f/fe ＋ ves 如 leaf-leaves knife-knives wife-wives 例外 handkerchiefs chiefs roofs 不规则变化的复数名 名词字尾加 en , 或 ren 如 Ox-oxen , child-children 改变母音 如 man-men woman-women goose-geese tooth-teeth mouse-mice 单复数同形 如 fish deer sheep chineses japanese One fish two fish （ 个 ） a kind of fish two kinds of fishes （种） 3. 名词的所有格 单数名词：名词 's 例如 The boy's schoolbag/ Joan's dress 复数名词：名词 s' 例如 a girls' school/ these students' teacher 字尾非 s 的复数名词 :名词 's 例如 children's playground 操场 特别注意的所有格用法 共同所有格：名词＋名词＋名词 's 个别所有格：名词's +名词's +名词's 1 Harry and Bill's father is a scientist 2. Harry's and Bill's fathers are scientists 无）生物 所有格： A 的 B B of A the legs of the table the door of the car the girl's name 有生命的东西可以这样用 the name of the girl 所有格之后的名词如在句中非常容易理解时可以省略 1. she's going to the dentist's 2． I met him at the barber's （shop ） 3. We like to eat lunch at McDonald's. 我们在麦当老吃午餐。 起早的人。 我家人都起的很早 专用名词前不能加冠词 不加 S The united Nations . 联合国。 a loaf of bread 一片面包。 Loaves of bread 很多面包
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 二、知识点 https://www.doczj.com/doc/1c7102367.html,nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。 ⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家 Sapir---language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall----language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. ⑷U.S.A Linguist Charles Hockett美国语言学家Charles Hockett 提出了语言的识别特征design features