Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学
知识点：
1.*Definition: pragmatics; context
2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning
3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory
4.Searle’s classification of speech acts
5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle
考核目标：
识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context
领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts
综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle
一、定义
1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。)
2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。
二、知识点
6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学
二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。
语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。两者都是对意义的研究。传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。
Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分
Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.
The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
6.1.3 context
Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study
of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。
（语境是交际双方共有的知识，它包括双方具有的语言知识以及有关客观世界的知识，而客观世界的知识又包括有关世界的常识性知识以及交际发生的实际情景知识。）(参考p79英p235-236中例子)
6.1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义与话语意义1）Sentence meaning句子意义---abstract抽象的, decontextualized脱离语境的
2）Utterance meaning话语意义---concrete具体的, contextualized依赖语境的，it’s based on sentence meaning, it’s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 话语的意义是基于句子意义之上的；它是一个句子的抽象意义在一个真实的交际场合，或仅在一个语境中的体现。
区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
句子是语法单位。当把句子用在实际交际中时，句子便成了话语。句子意义是抽象的，是句子的语义内容，它孤立于语境之外；话语意义是具体的，它基于句子意义与语境的结合，是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化，体现了说话人的意图和目的。由于话语语义是句子意义与语境结合的结果，话语语义要比句子的语义丰富得多。如：”You are a machine.”句子的意思是“你是机器。”，但是一旦与具体的语境相结合，就会产生不同的话语语义，如说话人可能是说听话人没有情感，或说听话人不知疲倦地工作，或者说听话人做事比较机械等。要如何理解它要视它所发生的语境和言者说这话的目的而定。
大部分话语在语法形式上与句子相吻合，但是也有一些话语在语法上是不完整的，有些甚至不能还原为完整的句子。如，语言使用者在特定的语境中可以使用话语” The door, please!”去行使关门的请求。像“Hi!” 和“Ouch!”这样的话语很难还原成语法完整的句子。
?区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。
While most utterances take the form of sentences, i.e. most utterances are complete sentences.
In terms of syn tax, some utterances are not, and some can’t even be restored to complete sentences
6.2 speech act theory言语行为理论
6.2.Austin’s model speech act 奥斯汀的言语行为模式
1.英国哲学家John Austin在20世纪50年代末提出了speech act theory言语行为理论。在他的言语行为理论中，奥斯汀区分了叙事话语(constative)和行事话语(performative)。P238中 e.g.
1）叙事话语是陈述之言，用于陈述或描述，其真值是可以检验的。
2）行事话语的话语不是以陈述或描述事实为目的的，是没有真值的。奥斯汀认为语言使用者在使用句子时并不总是为了去陈述或描述，而是为了实施一个言语行为。
2. 他又设立了另一个新模式，定义了言内行为locutionary act、言外行为illocutionary act,和perlocutionary act言后行为
奥斯汀认为人在说话时很可能同时实施三种言语行为，即言内行为（locutionary act）、言外行为(illocutionary act)和言后行为(perlocutionary act)。
1）言内行为指的是“说话”这一行为本身，如说出单词、短语和句子等。言内行为通过句法、词汇和语音传递一个字面语义。
2）言外行为是通过说话这一动作实施一种行为，体现了说话人的说话意图。人们通过说话可以达到各种目的，如传递信息，发出命令、作出承诺、提出建议等。
3）言后行为是指说话带来的后果，例如通过说话听话人受到了警告等。
e.g. You have left the door wide open.
1）Locutionary act: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. 表达了每个词的字面意义。
2）Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close the door. 表达了他说话的意图（即请某人把门关上，或者抱怨，视语境而定。）
3）Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed. 指话语的效果（即听者听到言者信息，明白并言者要他关门，并把门关上，这样就成功地实施了。）
※在这三种行为中，语言学家对illocutionary act言外行为最感兴趣
this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a speaker expresses his intention and also
how his intention is recognized by the hearer. 因为这种语言行为与言者的意图一致，而且在他们对语言交际的研究中，语言学家门最感兴趣的是言者是如何表达其意图，以及他的意图是如何为听者所识别。（它与说话人的真实意图相吻合。）
6.2.2 Searle’s classification of speech acts（Searle对语言行为的分类）
美国语言学家John Searle把illocutionary act言外行为分为五大类：the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.每一类中的具体行为都具有相同的言外之意，但是他们的力度有所不同。
1)representatives/assertives阐述类:阐述类的言外之意是说话人相信自己所说话的真实性。即说出言者认为正确的东西。（陈述，相信，发誓，假设）例如：
It’s going to rain.
（I swear） I have never heard it before.
（I state） The earth is globe.
2) directives指令类: 指令类的言外之意是说话人通过说话使听话人去做某件事的
企图,（邀请，建议，要求，忠告，警告，威胁，命令）如：
Come to me at 7 this evening!
Open the window!
You’d better go to the clinic!
Your money or your life!
Would you like to go to the picnic with us?
3) commissives承诺类:承诺类的言外之意是使说话人对某一未来的行为作出承诺，
说话的时候言者将自己置于某种义务之中（允诺，保证，发誓）如：
I promise to come.
I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
4)expressives表达类: 表达类的言外之意是对命题内容中表明的某种事态表达说话
人的某种心理状态，换句话说，说话人对某一事态表达自己的情感和态度，
(道歉，感谢，祝愿)如：
I am sorry to interrupt you.
Thank you very much for your kind help.
It’s really kind of you to have thought of me.
5)declarations宣告类: 宣告类的言外之意是使客观现实与所表达的命题内容立即相
一致(这种行为的成功执行会带来所说的话与现实之间的一致)如：
I now declare the meeting open.
I appoint you chairman of the committee.
I fire you!
属于同一类别的言外行为具有相同的言外之的，但是它们的言外之力可能会存在程度上的差别，如：（p241中）
I swear that he is innocent.
I guess that he is innocent.
I think that he is innocent.
6.2.3 indirect speech acts间接的语言行为
Indirect language: instead of using the imperative form祈使语气to make a request e.g. Do you mind closing the door?
The door is open!
Three basic sentences forms:1) the declarative sentence陈述句2)the imperative sentence祈使句3)the interrogative sentence.疑问句
e.g. Can you lend me your lecture notes?
The kitchen is in an awful mess.
Indirect speech act: aimed to explain indirect language in the light of speech act theory, two speech acts theory.
When a speaker is using indirecy language, he is performing two speech acts simultaneously:
1)the primary speech act: the speaker’s goal of communication.
2) the secondary speech act: means by which he achieves.
Student X：Let’s go to the movies tonight.
Student Y：I have to study for an exam. (间接回答no，表示拒绝)
6.3 principle of conversation会话原则
(the cooperative principle会话原则,简称CP，by Paul Grice )
英国哲学家Paul Grice提出的合作原则是指导有效交际的最高原则。合作原则的具体内容是：
.合作原则Cooperative Principle
It’s proposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. (每一个参加交际的人在交际过程中所说的话要符合为大家所接受的交际目标或方向。)
合作原则具体体现为以下四条准则：
1. the maxim of Quantity数量准则：
1）Make your contribution as informative as required你说的话应包含（当前交谈意图）所需要的信息。
2）Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 所说的话不应包含超出需要的信息。
2. the maxim of Quality质量准则：
1）Do not say what you believe to false. 不要说自知是假的话
2）Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence1。不要说缺乏足够证据的话。
3. the maxim of relation关联准则：
be relevant要有关联性
4. the maxim of manner方式准则：
1）Avoid obscurity of expression 避免表达晦涩
2）Avoid ambiguity避免歧义
3）Be brief（avoid unnecessary prolixity）要简练（避免不必要的冗繁）
4) Be orderly 要条理清晰
在交际中，虽然说话几乎总是遵循合作原则，但是他们并不一定始终如一地严格遵守合作原则以下的各条准则。当这些原则公然受到违反/鄙视(flout)时往往我们的言语变的间接，会话含义就有可能产生。
Mary: Do you know where Prof. Zhang lives?
John: Somewhere beyond the lake.
当Mary知道John是知道Prof. Zhang确切的住址，而且John也知道Mary是知道他知道Prof. Zhang的确切住址，这样一来，John公然违反了数量准则，提供的信息少于Mary所
需要的信息，因此John的话语就会产生会话含义，既：“我不愿意告诉你Prof. Zhang具体住在什么地方。”
Mary: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?
John: I'm afraid I have got a class on Sunday.
当Mary知道John今天不忙，而且John也知道Mary是知道他今天不忙，在这种情况下,John 的话语显然违反了质量准则，其会话含义是“我不想参加你们星期天的野炊。”
Mary: Our linguistics teacher is terrible. Don't you think?
John: It is getting c older and colder, isn’t it?
当Mary知道John是能够对语言学老师作出相关评论的，而且John也认为Mary是知道他能对语言学老师作出相关评论的，在这种情况下，John的话语公然违反了关联准则，产生的会话含义是“我不愿意与你讨论语言学老师的事。”
Mary: Shall we get something for the kids?
John: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.
Mary是知道John能够正确的读出ice-cream这个词，John也认为Mary是知道他能够正确读出ice-cream这个词，在这种情况下，John的话语显然公然违反了方式准则，因为他没有直截了当地发出ice-cream这个字，而是一个字母一个字母地把它拼了出来，其会话含义是“我不想让孩子知道我们在讨论ice-cream。”
合作原则的意义在于它能解释为什么说话人在交际中能够向听话人传递多于字面意义的意义.
实用标准文案 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general) 2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/172884460.html,nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors. i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say. 6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory 7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time 3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语） These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing) https://www.doczj.com/doc/172884460.html,ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate. 9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/172884460.html,petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language 11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky) traditional grammar and modern linguistics 1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive 2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer. 3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework. Functions of language. 精彩文档
语用学：语用学（pragmatics）是对人类有目的的行为所作的研究（广义），对有目的的语言活动的研究（狭义）。源起符号学（semiotics）。 符号学：符号学是系统地研究语言符号和非语言符号的学科。有三个分支——符号关系学、语义学、语用学。符号关系学（syntactics）研究符号之间的形式关系。语义学（semantics）研究符号与符号所代表的事物之间的关系。语用学（pragmatics）研究符号与符号解释者之间的关系。 语用学与语义学的联系和区别：语用学和语义学都是符号学的分支。语义学主要指狭义的语义学，即逻辑语义学，它研究句子和词语本身的意义，研究命题的真值条件。语用学研究言语使用上的意义，研究传递语言信息的适宜条件。语义学揭示的意义是二元关系的句子意义，解决“What does X mean?”的问题。语用学揭示的是三元关系的说话人意义，解决“What did you mean by X?”的问题。 语境（context）：最狭义的语境是指语言的上下文。语境还必须包括语言外的因素。语境因素包括语言知识、语言外知识；语言知识包括对所使用的语言的掌握、对语言交际上文的了解；语言外知识包括背景知识、情景知识、相互知识，背景知识包括百科全书式的知识（常识）、特定文化的社会规范、特定文化的会话规则，情景知识包括交际的时间、地点、交际的主题、交际的正是程度、交际参与者的相互关系。语境是一个动态的、发展的概念。交际本身就是一个动态的过程，在交际过程中，语境也随之而变。有些语境因素相对来说比较稳定，例如背景知识、交际的时间、地点等，但有些因素却会变化，特别重要的是相互知识这一因素，它在交际过程中不断扩大，原来不为双方所共有的知识完全可能在交际过程中变为相互知识，成为进一步交际的基础。交际过程也是语境的构建过程。 意义（sense）和所指（reference）：意义主要指词语的字面意义，词典中每个词语的意义就是这种字面意义。所指论（referential theory）——词的意义就是某个词所代表、所指示、所表示的世界上的实体，即所指对象（referent）。词即是事物的名称，比如“dog”这个词代表了属于这一类的实体。（柏拉图）最极端的“所指论”观点认为，词的意义就是它所指的事物，所指就是意义。上述看法显然是片面的。因果的、历史的所指理论——专有名
一、课程性质及其设置目的与要求 （一）课程性质和特点 《英语语言学概论》课程是我省高等教育自学考试英语专业（本科段）的一门重要的专业理论课程，其任务是培养应考者系统地学习英语语言学的基本知识，掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论，了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用，熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物；通过该课程的学习，考生可以从不同的角度了解语言（的性质），了解语言学习和语言教学，为日后进一步学习语言学、从事语言教学实践和语言学研究打下扎实基础。本课程的特点是：专业术语多，概念多，内容抽象，所以，考生最好在学习本课程之前先学习提高语言读写能力的课程，如高级英语、泛读（三）、写作等，这样可以减少语言障碍，有利于学好语言学的理论知识。 （二）本课程的基本要求 本课程共分为本书共分四编，计十三章。第一编（一至二章）介绍了语言和语言学；第二编（三至八章）介绍了语言学的主要分支—语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学；第三编（九至十二章）为跨学科领域与应用—话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学，以及语言学理论与外语教学；第四编（十三章）介绍了现代语言学流派。通过对本书的学习，要求应考者对英语语言学有一个全面和正确的了解。具体应达到以下要求： 1、掌握语言的性质、功能，以及语言学的研究范围、语言学的分支和重要的语言学概念； 2、掌握语言系统内部语言学各分支之间的关系和各分支的重要概念和基本理论； 3、了解语言学在其它学科领域的应用； 4、熟悉现代语言学重要的流派及其代表人物。 （三）本课程与相关课程的联系 英语语言学概论是一门基础理论课程，其含盖范围很广，既涉及语言系统内部的语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学，又涉及许多交叉学科，如话语分析、社会语言学、心理语言学、应用语用学（包括语言学理论与外语教学），以及本教程未涉及的神经认知语言学、计算机语言学、人工智能与机器翻译等。语言学的进一步研究甚至会涉及到哲学、逻辑学等领域。 在自考课程中，词汇学与语言学关系最为密切，词汇学的许多概念、理论和研究方法都来源于语言学。高级英语、泛读（三）、写作、翻译等课程则是学好语言学的基础。文学与语言学并非对立的关系，这两个领域的研究方法可以互相补充、互相借鉴，日后无论从事语言学还是文学研究，这两个领域都必须同时涉猎。 二、课程内容与考核目标
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学 1.What is pragmatics? 什么是语用学？ Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used. 语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。 由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。 2.Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学 Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics. 语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。 3.Context 语境 Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。 4.Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的抽象意义在特定语境中的具体体现，或简而言之，在一个语境中的具体化。 5.Speech act theory 言语行为理论 Speech act theory is an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50’s of the 20th century. 言语行为理论是语言语用研究中的一个重要理论。它最初是由英国哲学家约翰.奥斯汀在20世纪50年代提出的。 According to speech act theory, we are performing actions when we are speaking.
Chapter Three Morphology形态学 一、定义 1. Morphology形态学：t he study of the internal structure of words (内部研究), and the rules by which words are formed. 对单词的内部结构和单词构成规则的研究。 2. Morpheme 词素：The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. 最小的语言单位,携带信息的意义或功能。 二、知识点 3.2 Distinctions between open and close classes word 1. Open class words开放性词类: In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary. They are content words of a language.，which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly. 在英语中，名词、动词、 形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。他们是一门语言中的实义词，由于我们经常可以在这类词中加入新词，所以他们有时也称开放性词类。 2. Close classes word封闭性词类：Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added , therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words. 构成连词、介词、冠词和代词的词相对较少，通常不添加新词，所以被称为封闭性词类。
Chapter 4 Phonology(音位学) 4.1 phonetics and phonology:语音学与音位学的区分 Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech.语音学和音位学都士对语音的研究。 定义区别 -Phonetics is a study of the production, perception and physical properties of speech sounds. 语音学是研究语音的生产、感知和物理性质的。 -Phonology studies how speech sounds are combined，organized，and convey meanings in particular languages.研究语音如何在在特定的语言中结合、组织和表达含义。 ---Phonology is language-specific.it is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.音位学是特定于语言的。它的研究对象是自然语言中的声音是如何组织和使用的。 ---Phonetics is a study of speech sounds while phonology is a study of the sound syst em of a language.语音学是一个研究语音的然后音位学是研究一种语言的声音系统的学科。 4.2 Phonemes，phones and allophones 音位、音子、音位变体 Different languages have different phonological systems.不同的语言有不同的语音系统。 定义： ①Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment found in a stream of speech. 音子就是在连续的发音中可辨认的最小语音单位或片段。 ②Allophones are the phones which represent a phoneme in a language and cannot change word meaning by substituting any of the set for another.音位变体是指代表语言中音位的音子，即使以一个取代另一个也不改变词义。 ③Phonemes are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.音位是语言系统中最小的独特的单位。 Allophones are the realization of a particular phoneme while phones are the realizatio n of phonemes in general.音位变体是一个特定音素的认知而音子则是一般的音素。 4.3Minimal pairs 最小对立体 The phonologist is concerned with what difference are significant or technically speaki ng, distinctive. Minimal pair---a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound. Three conditions（情况）: 1）the two froms are different in meaning意义不同 2）the two forms are different in one sound segment声音片段不同 3）the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words.不同声音发生在两个单词的相同位置 Minimal set: a group of words can satisfy（满足）the three conditions . Minimal pairs help determine phonemes. 最小对立体用来定义音位。 4.4 identifying phonemes 识别音素 4.4.1 contrastive distribution，complementary distribution and free variation 对比分布，互补分布和自由变异 The distribution of a sound refers to the collective environments in which the sound concerned may appear.一个声音的分布是指其有关的声音可能出现的集体环境。 1）contrastive distribution对比分布 If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of on
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction 1.1 What is linguistics? Scientific study of language.
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Characteristics: ①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;
②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well; ③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound; Language is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;
比喻metaphor 表达类expressives 表述句constatives 不可分离性non-detachability 不可取消性non-cancellability 不确定性indeterminacy 承诺类commissives 代码模式code model 等级含意scalar implicatures 地点指示space deixis 调节性规则regulative rules 动态语用学dynamic pragmatics 断言类assertives 对方修正other-repair 二元关系dyadic relation 发展语用学developmental pragmatics 反讽/反语irony 方式准则manner maxim 非规约性non-conventionality 讽刺sarcasm 符号sign 符号关系学syntactics 符号学semiotics 负面礼貌策略negative politeness strategy 负面面子negative face 负向转移negative transfer 概念意义conceptual meaning 功能语言学functional linguistics 共知common knowledge 构成性规则constitutive rules 关联/关联性relevance 关联理论relevance theory 关系准则relevant maxim 规定语法prescriptive grammar 规约含意conventional implicature 规约性conventionality 规则rule 含混ambivalence 含意implicature 合适条件felicity condition 后指用法cataphoric use 互补性complementarity 互动语用学interactive pragmatics 互明mutual manifestness 互知mutual knowledge 互指co-referential 话轮turn-taking 话语utterance 话语分析discourse analysis 话语意义utterance meaning 话语指示discourse deixis 缓叙meiosis 会话分析conversation analysis 会话含意conversational implicature 会话结构conversational structure 会话修正conversational repair 会话原则conversational principle 或然性probability 记号symbol 间接言语行为indirect speech act 交际目的communicative goal/purpose 交际能力communicative competence 交际意图communicative intention 交际用意communicative force 交际原则communicative principle 近指proximal terms 经济原则principle of economy 旧信息old information 句法学syntax 句子意义sentence meaning 可接收性acceptability 可取消性cancellability 可推导性calculability 可行性feasibility 客观环境physical situation 夸张hyperbole 跨文化语用学cross-cultural pragmatics 离格deviance 礼貌politeness 礼貌策略politeness strategy 礼貌原则politeness principle 连贯coherence 两可性ambiguity 量准则quantity maxim 临床语用学clinical pragmatics 笼统性generality 论言有所为How to do things with words 逻辑语义学logical semantics 蒙塔古语法Montague grammar 面子face 1
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
Chapter 6 pragmatics 语用学 知识点： 1.*Definition: pragmatics; context 2.*sentence meaning vs utterance meaning 3.*Austin’s model of speech act theory 4.Searle’s classification of speech acts 5.*Grice’s Cooperative Principle 考核目标： 识记：*Definition: pragmatics; context 领会：Searle’s classification of speech acts 综合应用：sentence meaning vs utterance meaning；Austin’s model of speech act theory；Grice’s Cooperative Principle 一、定义 1. Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Pragmatic can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.语用学研究的是语言使用者是如何使用句子成功进行交际的。语用学也可以看作是一中意义研究。(它不是孤立地去研究语义，而是把语义置于使用语境中去研究的一门学科。) 2. Context 语境：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境这个概念对语言的语用研究来说是必不可少的。一般认为他是由言者和听者的共享知识所构成的。 二、知识点 6.1.2 pragmatics vs. semantics语用学与语义学 二十世纪初，Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics 一书的出版标志着现代语言学研究的开始，同时也为现代语言学奠定了基础调，即语言应该作为一个独立的，内在的系统来加以研究。 语用学和语义学既有相关性又有相异性。两者都是对意义的研究。传统语义学把语义看成是抽象的，内在的，是语言本身的特性，不受语境的影响。因此传统语义学只研究语义的内在特征，不把语义研究置于语境中来考察。语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。语用学家认为不把意义放在语境中来考虑就不可能对语义进行充分的描述，因此在研究语义时是否考虑语境便成了传统语义学和语用学的根本区别所在。 Semantics 和Pragmatics的区分 Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.
一、定义 1.语言学Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity多产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传递 ⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
Chapter 8 Language and society语言和社会 知识点： 1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation 2.Relatedness between language and society 3.*Varieties of language 4.*Halliday’s register theory 5.Degree of formality 6.Standard Dialect 7.# Pidgin and Creole 8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia 考核目标： 识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation 领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole 简单应用：Bilingualism vs. diglossia 综合应用：Halliday’s register theory 一、定义 1.Sociolinguistics 社会语言学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语言学是语言学中的一个次领域，它研究语言与社会的关系，以及语言的运用和语言使用者所在的社会结构之间的关系。 2.regional dialect地域方言：is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.地域方言是指生活在同一地理区域的人所使用的语言变体。 3.sociolect社会方言：has to do with separation brough about by different social comditions.社会方言是与由不同社会条件所造成的分离相关的。 4.idiolect个人方言：is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.个人方言是个体言者的个人方言，它结合了又关地域、社会、性别和年龄的变体成分。 5.received pronunciation（RP）标准发音: in British English, which had become characteristic of upper class speech throughout the country by the 19th century. 在十九世纪成为全国上层阶级的特点。