Linguistics
Chapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics
●What is language?
?Different definitions of language
◆Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in their
synchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)
◆[Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length
and constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)
◆Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily
produced symbols.
?Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence of
language, but all of them have left out something. We must see the
multi-faceted nature of language.
?As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as a
system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
●Features of human language
?Creativity
◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have never
been sent before and for understanding brand new messages.
◆The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences are
infinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.
?Duality
◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of
meanings.
◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.
◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequences
of speech sounds.
?Arbitrariness
◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.
◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.
?Displacement
◆There is no limit in time or space for language.
◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or
future.
?Cultural transmission
◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.
◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.
?Interchangeability
◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.
?Reflexivity
◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.
◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.
●Functions of language – three meta-functions
?The ideational function
◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.
?The interpersonal function
◆To get along in a community.
?The textual function
◆To form a text.
●Types of language
?Genetic classification
?Typological classification
◆Analytic language –no inflections or formal changes, grammatical
relationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese and
Vietnamese
◆Synthetic language –grammatical relationships are expressed by
changing the internal structure of the words, typically by changing the
inflectional endings, such as English and German
◆Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units,
with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such as
Japanese and Turkish
●The myth of language – language origin
?The Biblical account
◆Language was God’s gift to human beings.
?The bow-wow theory
◆Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of
animals, like quack, cuckoo.
?The pooh-pooh theory
◆Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or
joy.
?The yo-he-ho theory
◆Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in
joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.
?The evolution theory
◆Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of
social need.
●What is linguistics?
?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
◆Observing & questioning
◆Formulating hypotheses
◆Verifying the hypotheses
◆Proposing a theory
?Branches of linguistics
◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions
●Phonetics
●Phonology
●Morphology
●Syntax
●Semantics
◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions
●Pragmatics
●Psycholinguistics
●Sociolinguistics
●Applied linguistics
●Computational linguistics
●Neurolinguistics
?Features of linguistics
◆Descriptive
◆Dealing with spoken language
◆Synchronic
Chapter 2 Phonetics
●What is phonetics?
?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.
?Sub-branches of phonetics
◆Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds
◆Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds
◆Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds
●The speech organs
?Where does the air stream come from?
◆From the lung
?What is the function of vocal cords?
◆Controlling the air stream
?What are the cavities?
◆Oral cavity
◆Pharyngeal cavity
◆Nasal cavity
●Transcription of speech sounds
?Units of representation
◆Segments (the individual sounds)
?Phonetic symbols
◆The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is
the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
◆The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single
symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish
phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.
◆In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be
transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark
the finer distinctions.
●Description of speech sounds
?Description of English consonants
◆General feature: obstruction
◆Criteria of consonant description
●Places of articulation
●Manners of articulation
●V oicing of articulation
◆Places of articulation
●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to
produce a sound.
?Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]
?Labiodental: [f] [v]
?Interdental: [ ] [?]
?Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]
?Palatal: [?] [?] [t?] [d?] [j]
?Velar: [k] [g] [?]
?Glottal: [h]
◆Manners of articulation
●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is
completely blocked or partially obstructed.
?Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]
?Fricatives: [s] [z] [?] [?] [f] [v] [ ] [?] [h]
?Affricates: [t?] [d?]
?Liquids: [l] [r]
?Glides: [w] [j]
?Nasals: [m] [n] [?]
◆V oicing of articulation
●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are
produced.
?V oiced sounds
?V oiceless sounds
?Description of English vowels
◆General feature: without obstruction
◆Criteria of vowel description
●Part of the tongue that is raised
?Front
?Central
?Back
●Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate
?High
?Mid
?Low
●Kind of opening made at the lips
●Position of the soft palate
◆Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs
●Phonetic features and natural classes
?Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.
?Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel
boundary.
?Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of
sounds can be analyzed.
Chapter 3 Phonology
●What is phonology?
?Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.
?Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are
concerned with the study of speech sounds.
?Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.
◆What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in
a particular language?
◆What sounds vary in what ways in what context?
◆What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?
●Phonemes and allophones
? A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.
?The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.
?We use allophones to realize phonemes.
●Discovering phonemes
?Contrastive distribution – phonemes
◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in
contrastive distribution.
◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and
minimal sets.
● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound
in the same position.
●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one
segment in the same position.
◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented
by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.
◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.
However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.
Therefore, they are separate phonemes.
?Complementary distribution – allophones
◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be in
complementary distribution.
◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of
features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.
?Free variation
◆If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does
not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.
●Distinctive and non-distinctive features
?Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features
do not, non-distinctive features.
?Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.
●Phonological rules
?Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are
the actual pronunciations in speech.
?What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is
another major question in phonology.
?The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are
generalized and stated in phonology as rules.
?There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as
examples.
●[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_
●[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_
●Syllable structure
? A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.
?Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.
?The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset
and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.
●Sequence of phonemes
?Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put
together.
?Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are
called systematic gaps.
?Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.
?When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but they
will never fill systematic gaps.
●Suprasegmental features
?Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more
segments are called suprasegmental features.
?These features are distinctive features.
?Stress
◆Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over
others in a word.
◆Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more
syllables have stress.
◆If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a
secondary stress.
◆In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In
English, word stress is unpredictable.
?Intonation
◆When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.
◆Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.
◆The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express
different attitude of the speaker.
◆In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.
?Tone
◆Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.
◆The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with
different tones.
◆Chinese is a typical tone language.
Chapter 4 Morphology
●What is morphology?
?The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.
?Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with
meaning.
?Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and the
formation of words.
●Morphemes and allomorphs
?The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.
? A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.
?“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives
◆Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly,
some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these
two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which
there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.
◆Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In this
case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related
in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called
suppletives.
●Free and bound morphemes
?Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are
called free morphemes.
?Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They
are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These
morphemes are called bound morphemes.
?The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is
whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.
?Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the
affixes (prefixes and suffixes).
●Inflexional and derivational morphemes
?Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of
nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.
?Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to
construct new words.
◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.
◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into
other morphemes.
◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is
called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.
●Conclusion: classification of morphemes
?Morphemes
◆Free morphemes
◆Bound morphemes
●Inflexional
●Derivational: affixes
?Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s
?Suffixes
●Formation of new words
?Derivation
◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.
◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a
derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to
the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,
unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free
morpheme is termed complex derivation.
◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.
Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different
language origin.
◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.
◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.
?Compounding
◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the
combination of free morphemes.
◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from
the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three
classes.
◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of
the word.
◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the
components.
?Conversion
◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into
another class.
◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.
?Clipping
◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one
or more syllables.
◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal
occasions.
◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in
formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),
gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarely
used in their complete form.
?Blending
◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together
non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +
frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast
and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in
the textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of
machine that is like both a plane and a bike).
?Back-formation
◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real
or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from
television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix
tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix
–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the
word television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.
?Acronyms and abbreviations
◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initial
letters of all words in a phrase or title.
◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than
abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.
◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and
scientific terminology.
?Eponyms
◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or
places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating
from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices
of bread so that he could eat while gambling.
?Coinage
◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing
morphemes.
◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases where
industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and
Coca-cola.
Chapter 5 Syntax
●What is syntax?
?The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literally
means “arrangement” or “setting out together”.
?Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in
which words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to show
connexions of meaning within the sentence.
?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.
●What is a sentence?
?Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence of
words arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.
? A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of a
language know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and what
are ungrammatical.
●Knowledge of sentence structure
?Structural ambiguity
◆Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have more
than one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would come
yesterday can be interpreted in different ways.
?Word order
◆Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. For
example, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom loves
Mary or Mary loves Tom.
?Grammatical relations
◆Native speakers know what element relates to what other element
directly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough and
We don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to different
words in the two sentences.
?Recursion
◆The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. For
example, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you are
happy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.
?Sentence relatedness
◆Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.
?Syntactic categories
◆ A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute for
one another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider the
following sentences:
●The child found the knife.
● A policeman found the knife.
●The man who just left here found the knife.
●He found the knife.
◆All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called noun
phrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject.
The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.
●Traditional grammar
?In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which
are classified into parts of speech.
?Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects,
objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …
?Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, complement,
adverbial…
?Nouns: number, case, gender…
?Verbs: tense, aspect, voice…
?Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees
?Agreement in number/person/gender
?Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structure
●Structural grammar
?Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional
grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units.
In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent
grammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.
?Form class
◆Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.
◆Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in the
same form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every,etc. can be
placed before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into one
form class.
◆These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.
?Immediate constituent (IC) analysis
◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.
◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of the
sentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Each
section is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cut
into constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituent
analysis.
◆Examples:
●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women
●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.
◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but also
vertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity and
the hierarchy of sentence structure.
●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology
|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.
◆Two advantages of IC analysis:
●It can analyze some ambiguities.
●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.
●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar
?Background and the goal of TG grammar
◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.
●Adequacy of observation
●Adequacy of description
●Adequacy of explanation
◆Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrase
structure rules and transformation rules –which are followed by
speakers of the language.
◆TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.
?Syntactic categories
◆Noun Phrase (NP)
◆Verb Phrase (VP)
◆Sentence (S)
◆Determiner (Det)
◆Adjective (Adj)
◆Pronoun (Pro)
◆Verb (V)
◆Auxiliary Verb (Aux)
◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)
◆Adverb (Adv)
?Phrase structure (PS) rules
◆S → NP VP
(Det) (Adj) N
◆NP →{
Pro
◆VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)
◆PP → P NP
?Tree diagrams (omit)
?Recursion and the infinitude of language
◆S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NP
and PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on both
sides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive.
Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structure
can grow endlessly.
?Sub-categorization of the lexicon.
◆The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smaller
classes according to their syntactic characteristics is called
sub-categorization.
?Transformational rules (T-rules)
◆Particle movement T-rule
●John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.
◆Replacement T-rule
●John beat Tom. He beat Tom.
●The house needs repairing (to be repaired).
◆Insertion T-rule
● A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in the
pond.
◆Deletion T-rule
●They came in and (they) sat down.
◆Copying T-rule
●He is coming, isn’t he?
●He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?
◆Reflexivization T-rule
●I wash me (myself).
?TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.
●Systematic-functional grammar
?Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar
◆M. A. K. Halliday
●Language is a system of meaning potential and a network of
meaning as choices.
●Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realized
through forms.
●The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function and
meaning are realized through forms.
●The three meta-functions of language
?Ideational function
?Interpersonal function
?Textual function
?The transitivity system of language
◆Elements
●Process
●Participants
●Circumstances
◆Categorization of reality
●Doing – material process
?Processes involving physical actions: walking, running,
throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.
?Actor, goal and circumstance
●Being – relational process
?Processes representing a relation being set up between two
separate entities.
?Be (identifying), have (attributive)
?Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed
●Sensing – mental process
?Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving,
imagining, wanting, liking, etc.
?Senser and phenomenon
●Less central types of linguistic process
?Verbal processes – saying something
◆Sayer and receiver
?Behavioural processes – active conscious processes
◆Behaver and range
?Existential processes – existence of an entity
◆Existent
?Mood and modality
◆Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and serves for interpersonal
function. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and the
finite.
◆Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by the
grammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization and
modulation.
?Theme and rheme
◆Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.
◆Examples:
●John | is my friend.
●He | should have replied to my letter.
Chapter 6 Semantics
●What is semantics?
?Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the only
linguistic discipline that studies meaning.
?Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In other
words, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences out
of context.
●Reference and sense
?Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspects
of meaning.
?Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in
the world. But the referential theory fails to account for certain kinds of
linguistic expression.
◆Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the real
world, such as the words dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid.
◆It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such as
the words but, and, of, however, the, etc.
◆Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round triangle
although there is no such graph.
?Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mental
representation, the association with something in the speaker’s or hearer’s
mind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called the
representational approach.
●Classification of lexical meanings
?Referential meaning (denotative meaning) – central meaning of words, stable,
universal
?Associative meaning –meaning that hinges on referential meaning, less
stable, more culture-specific
◆Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has by
virtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent,
peripheral
◆Social meaning (stylistic meaning) – what is conveyed about the social
circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression
Quiz of Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. ( T) 2. Linguistics studies particular language, not language in general. ( F) 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. ( F ) 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. ( T ) 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. ( T) 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistics study. ( F) 7. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. ( F ) 8. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. ( T) 9. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. ( F ) 10. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by Saussure. ( F) II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given. 1. Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k nowledge of the rules of his language. 2. Langue refers to the a bstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 3. D uality is one of the desing features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units. 4. Language is a system of a rbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 5. P arole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. 6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such application is generally known as a pplied linguistics. 7. Language is p roductive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before. 8. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific study of language. 9. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d escriptive. 10. Modern linguistics regards the written language as s econdary . III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.
1. 商法是调整商事交易主体在其商行为中所形成的法律关系，即商事关系法律规范的总称。 2. 形式意义上的商法，是指奉行民商分立立法原则的国家在民法典之外制定的以“商法”命名的法典。 3. 实质意义上的商法是指一切调整商事关系的法律规范的总称。商法的形式包括各种有关商事的专门法规；法规范不仅仅存在于商法典之中，而且还大量地存在于民法、行政法以及其他法律、法规和判例之中。 其概念的理论理论着眼点为商事法律规范的性质、规范的作用、规范的构成、规范实施的方式等在理论上的有机统一。 4. 商法的原则是指集中体现商法的性质和宗旨，调整商事法律关系必须遵守的基本准则。它是制定商法典的根本出发点，更是适用商法的指导原则。 5. 商法的调整对象，是指商法作为特殊的法律规范体系对现实生活发生作用的范围. 5.商事法律关系，是指因商行为的实施而发生的权利义务关系。具体来说，它是指商主体及其他民事主体在实施商行为的过程中所形成的权利义务关系。 6. 商法的体系是指商法作为一个独立的法律部门，其内部具有逻辑联系的各项商事法律制度所组成的系统结构。 7. 商主体是指依照法律规定参与商事法律关系，能够以自己的名义从事商行为，享受权利和承担义务的人，包括个人和组织。 8. 固定商人，指以营利为目的，依法组织完整的机构，有计划地、反复连续地从事一种或多种商事行为，在经营中全部法律行为适用商法的商人。 9.拟制商人，指虽经商事登记，但仅从事小商人的业务或不从事商事行为的人，法律将其视为商人。 10.表见商人，是指虽非完全商人，也未在商事登记簿上注册登记，但已经以商人的表象从事了商行为，而应被视为商人的人。 11. .商法人是依法定的构成要件和程序设立的，拥有法人资格，参与商事法律关系，依法独立享有权利和承担义务的组织。 12. 国有商法人，由国家投资设立的从事生产经营的，具有独立权利能力和行为能力，并获得法人资格的企业或公司。 13.集体商法人，由公民和集体单位组合而成、从事生产和经营活动、具有独立权利能力和行为能力，能够独立承担法律责任并获得法人资格的集体商事组织。 14.合营或合资商法人，如果是不同投资主体共同投资组建的，可以是有限责任公司和股份有限公司。 15.私营商法人，由私人投资经营而取得法人资格，投资者以其出资额为限，商法人以全部财产对外承担责任的商事组织。 16.外商投资法人，外国投资者根据中国的法律规定，在中国境内投资设立的商业企业。 17. 商合伙，是指两个或两个以上的自然人、法人或其他组织按照法律和合伙协议的规定设立，普通合伙人对合伙经营所产生的债务承担无限连带责任，有限合伙人对合伙债务承担有限责任的商事组织。 注：商合伙作为商主体，具有从事商行为的权利能力和行为能力，但不具有完全责任能力。 18. 个人合伙是指两个以上自然人，按照合伙协议，各自提供资金、实物、技术等，合伙经营，共同劳动；投入的财产由个人所有，由合伙人同共使用，合伙经营积累的财产由合伙人共有；发生亏损由合伙人负连带清偿责任的商事组织。 19.合伙型联营是指企业事业单位之间依照联营合同组建的共同出资、共同经营、共享利润、共同承担无限连带责任的商事组织。 20.合伙企业，是指两个或两个以上的自然人、法人或其他组织按照法律和合伙协议的规定
第一章语言学导论 Chapter1 Invitations to Linguistics Linguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines. Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译 The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself. Definition of Linguistics How do you define linguistics? What is linguistics? ——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics? 1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics. 语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learning Saussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast. 尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的 依赖中解放出来。然而，随着时间的推移，语言学和其他学科的联系越来越密切。Psycholinguistics Psycholinguistics, as implied by the name, is the study of psychological aspects of language. It usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. 心理语言学，顾名思义，是对语言的心理方面的研究，它通常研究的是与语言使用相关的 心理状态和心理活动。比如语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成等等。(chapter 9/chapter11) Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics, as implied by the name, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguistics attempts to look at language structures by paying attention to language use in a social context and on the other hand tries to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 这就是社会与语言的关系，一方面通过社会语境中语言使用情况的调查了解语言结构的问 题，另一方面又通过语言现象的分析了解社会构成的问题。 Research Focus1 Cross-cultural Communication There exists a close relationship between language and culture. Language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. 语言是文化的载体，具有不可替代的重要性；文化通过语言得以凸现，其表现力得到充分展示。 心理学家罗杰斯(Rogers,1961), 真正的交流建立在理解基础上的倾听。 - 1 -
最重点的名词解释 1、商法：是以商事关系为调整对象的法律规范的总称。 2、商事关系：是指由商法所调整的商人从事市场经营活动所形成的社会关系，包括商事组织关系和商事交易关系。 3、营业自由是指在不违反法律的强制性规定和不违背公序良俗的前提下，任何人都享有组织营业的自由和从事营业活动的自由。 4、商主体：俗称为商人，是指依法取得商事主体资格，以自己的名义实施经营行为并能够独立享有和承担商事权利和义务的个人和组织。 5、商事能力包括商事权利能力和商事行为能力。 6、商事权利能力：是指据以充当商事主体，享有商事权利和承担商事义务的法律地位和法律资格，又称商事主体资格。 7、商事行为能力：是指商事主体据以独立参加商事法律关系、以自己的商事法律行为取得商事权利或承担商事义务的法律资格。 8、商业名称：又称商号，是商主体用以在营业商表示自己与其他商主体相区别的名称。 9、商事账簿：是指商主体为了表明其财产状况和经营状况而依法制作的用来记载其营业活动和资本运动状况的书面簿册。 10、商行为：又称商事行为，是指商主体所从事的以营利为目的的营业行为。 11、个人独资企业：指依法在中国境内设立的，由一个自然人投资，财产为投资个人所有，投资人以其个人财产对企业债务承担无限责任的经营实体。 12、合伙：是由合伙人共同约定出资，为了共同的目的，实行共同经营的联合体。 13、合伙企业：是两个以上的合伙人的集合，经过商事登记程序设立的经营性主体，具有团体的属性。 14、普通合伙企业：指由普通合伙人组成，合伙人对合伙企业债务承担无限连带责任的合伙企业。 15、合伙协议：是指两个以上合伙人为了设立合伙企业，实现共同的经济目的而达成的协议 16、入伙：指合伙企业成立后，合伙人之外的第三人加入合伙企业并取得合伙人资格或地位的法律关系。 17、退伙：指合伙人退出合伙企业，从而丧失其合伙人资格的法律行为。 18、法定退伙：指非依合伙人本人的意思，而依法律规定的条件进行的退伙。 19、除名退伙：是指某一合伙人因其行为，经其他合伙人一致要求而被强制退出合伙企业的退伙。 20、任意退伙：指声明退伙，是指依据合伙人自己的意思表示所进行的退伙。 21、特殊的普通合伙企业：是某种在债务承担方面存在特殊规则的普通合伙企业、 22、有限合伙：指由普通合伙和有限合伙依法设立的一种商业组织，其中普通合伙人对合伙组织的债务承担无限责任，有限合伙人仅以认缴的出资额危险对合伙组织的债务承担有限责任。 23、母公司：指拥有另一个公司的股权或资本达到实际控股程度，对其经营管理活动有控制权的公司。 24、子公司：指资本或股份的大部分为另一个公司所控制，且其经营管理活动受其制约的公司。子公司有其独立的财产和法人资格。 25、总公司：也称本公司，指从组织上、业务上管辖和控制其他公司的总机构。 26、分公司：指从业务上、组织上受其他公司管辖的分支机构，在法律上不具有法人资格。 27、公司法：是国家制定的调整公司在设立、组织、活动和终止过程中所发生的社会关系的法律规范的总和。 28、发起设立：也称单纯设立、共同设立，指公司的资本全部由发起人认购，不同发起人之外的任何人募集的设立方式。 29、募集设立：是指发起人只认购公司股份的一部分，其余部分向社会公开招募或者向特定对象募集的设立方式。 30、公司资本：也称公司的注册资本，指公司成立时由公司章程规定的、由股东出资形成的公司财产总额。
Language and Cognition Cognitive Linguistics What Is Cognitive Linguistics? Cognitive linguistics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s. It is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. Main Points in Cognitive Linguistics Construal and Construal Operations Categorization Image Schemas Metaphor Metonymy Blending Theory Construal and Construal Operations Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation, etc. Attention/ Salience Judgment/Comparison Perspective/Situatedness Construal and Construal Operations : Attention/ Salience The operation in salience have to do with our direction of attention towards sth. that is salient to us. In cognition, we direct our attention to the activation of conceptual structures. We use certain linguistic expressions to provoke certain patterns of activation. Construal and Construal Operations : Judgment/Comparison The construal operations of judgment/ comparison have to do with judging sth. by comparing it to sth. else. The figure-ground alignment apply to space, with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. Static and dynamic figure/ ground Trajector for a moving figure Landmark for the ground of a moving figure Categorization Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. There are three levels in categories. Basic level Super-ordinate level Subordinate level Metaphor Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is constructed in terms of another. It is often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. Lakoff and John classify conceptual metaphors into three categories Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Structural metaphors Orientational metaphors Three Categories of Metaphor Ontological metaphors Ontological metaphors means that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc. as entities and substances. Three Categories of Metaphor Structural metaphors Structural metaphors allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Three Categories of Metaphor Orientational metaphors Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation Metonymy Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain Two Conceptual Configurations Whole ICM and its part(s) Parts of an ICM Metonymy — Whole ICM and its part(s) Thing-and-Part ICM Scale ICM Constitution ICM Event ICM Category-and-Member ICM
第一编商法总论 四、名词解释 1、商 2、商法 3、商事关系 4、商事主体 5、商人 6、商合伙、7。商法人9、商号 10、公示原则11、1807年法国商法典12。美国统一商法典12、商行为14、商事代理 1、什么是商法？商法的主要特征有哪些？ 2、商法的法律渊源？ 3、什么是商法的基本原则，它的主要内容有哪些？ 4、代商法为实现交易便捷，主要采取了哪些措施？ 5、维护交易公平的意义何在？商法是如何体现这一原则 的？ 6、什么是交易安全原则？商法是如何体现这一原则的？ 7、强化企业组织原则主要体现哪些方面？ &简述商主体的特征。 9、中世纪商人法有何特点 10、什么是商人？其应具备的基本条件是什么？ 11、是否具备商人资格有什么法律意义？ 12、在我国取得商人这种特殊主体资格应具备什么基本的条件？ 13、在我国，具有商人性质的主体主要有几种形式？ 14、简述代理商、居间商、行纪商的异同。 15、商事合伙的种类？ 16、商人与商业辅助人的联系和区别？ 17、什么是商行为？广义的商行为包括哪些？ 18、简述商事行为的法律特征及其基本分类？ 19、什么是单方商行为？什么是双方商行为？ 20、单方商行为是否应当由商法调整？为什么？ 21、什么是绝对商行为，什么是附属商行为？ 22、什么是代理？商业代理的经济意义主要有哪些体现？ 23、代理与代表的区别？ 24、商事经营中不正当竞争行为的表现形态？ 25、简述商事登记的特征。 26、我国商事登记的种类。 27、简述商业登记的原则 28、简述商事登记的法律效力。 29、简述商号权的内容及特点。 30、简述商号限制的内容。 31、简述我国对商号的法律保护？ 32、简述商业名称权的法律特征： 33、简述商业名称与商标的区别。 3 4、什么事营业转让？营业转让中受让人有什么义务？ 35、什么是商业账簿？商业账簿有什么意义？ 36、商业账簿有哪些种类？设置商业账簿的基本原则有哪些？ 37、简述商事帐簿的设置原则。 六、论述题 1、试述商法的调整对象。 2、试论述商法与民法的关系 3、试述商法与经济法的关系。 4、论述商法的效益原则。 5、比较法国商法典与德国商法典的异同？ 6、分析美国商法体系的特点、体系以及优缺点。 7、比较大陆法系商法立法体例的不同模式？ 8、试述民商合一和民商分裂的立法体例的优劣？ 9、试述中世纪商人法的产生与特点。 10、请比较商事主体、企业、公司、商事组织之间的差异？ 11、试举出现实生活中的商事经纪组织，并简要描述其特征。 12、商事登记申请的审查方式有哪几种？请简要分析中国的商事登记的规定。 13、区别营业转让与公司合并的区别与联系。 14、请结合案例分析商业账簿制度的重要性和法律效力。 15、简述商事帐簿法律关系。 第二编企业与公司法 五、名词解释题 1 .企业2.个人独资企业 3. 合伙企业4、商事合 伙5、有限合伙6、隐名合伙 7。公司法8 。公司9 。一人公司10 .国有独 资公司11 。有限责任公司 12。股份有限公司13。两合公司14。人合公司15。资合公司16。上市公司 17。公司章程18、法定资本制19、许可资本制20、授权资本制21。注册资本22 。发起设立23。募集设立24 、股份25。股票26。股份转让27。股份回购28。股份收购29。股东30 。公司债券31。 公司债32。公司分立33。公司合并34。外国公司35。公积金 六、简答题 1、简述个人独资企业的概念、特征和设立条件。 2、简述个人独资企业和私营企业的异同。 3、合伙的特点及种类是什么？ 4、简述合伙企业的概念特征 5、简述合伙企业设立的条件 6、简述合伙企业和第三人的关系。 7、与公司相比较，合伙出资有什么特殊之处？ 8、简述合伙财产的性质 9、合伙企业的事务执行法律是如何规定的？ 10、合伙人在合伙事务的执行中有什么权利，承担什么义 务？ 11、请简要说明合伙企业与合伙人在债务清偿方面的相互关 系。 12、合伙人入伙，享受什么权利，承担什么义务？ 13、合伙人退伙的原因有哪些？ 14、简述一人公司和个人独资企业的异同 15、简述公司组织机构的设置原则 16、合伙企业的利润分配法律是如何规定的？ 17、合伙人的连带清偿责任是什么？ 18、合伙人的债务清偿与合伙企业的关系有哪些？ 19、入伙的条件和程序是什么？ 20、新合伙人的权利和责任是什么？ 21、退伙的原因有哪些，其效果是什么样的 22、合伙人出资份额转让有哪些相关规定？
---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------ 语言学Linguistics笔记 Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。 4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send. ⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacemen t Language can be used 1/ 38
Linguistics 1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language) phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning. pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication. Some distinctions in linguistics: 1)Prescriptive & descriptive Prescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)
A AcS (actor Subject), ReS (Receptor Subject) and DaS (dative vesubject) P85 Active deposit 活性沉积P393 adaptability制宜原则P39 adjustment 调整P135 AdjMr：Ajective Modifier 定语修饰语P19 Affixing morpheme of fixed position 定位性附加语素P342 Affixation 缀合法P29 All encompassing 无所不包P ix Aphasic 失语症患者P386 ApoP 同位短语式P188 Approximative system 近似体系P58 arbitrariness任意性; selectiveness 选择性P181 Aspect 体（tentative尝试体, inchoative开始体, successive继续体, perfect完成体, progressive 进行体）P114 Autonomy 自主权P53 B backshift后移P370/372 bilingualism 双语学P522 Blending 拼缀法P29 Bottom-up perception自下而上的感知，top-down perception自上而下的感知P493 C Cart Fames1980 对比分析P x circulativeness 周遍性P86 categorization范畴化, grouping 归为类P487 category word 范畴词P418/474/513 cleft sentence 分裂句P230 cognate equivalence同源对应P134/468，词根对应P478 cognitive schema认知图示P386 Cohesion 粘着性P62 Cohesion and coherence接应与连贯P74 Cohesive tie 联结关系接应词，additive 增补连接词，adversative 对比连接词，causal conjunction因果连接词，temporal conjunction 时间连接词P436 Combination (虚词功能)组合P452 Total combination完全结合，formal combination形式结合P464 Common value （语言）共同价值；special value 特征价值P47 Complement 补语P126Composition 合成法P29 Compactness of meaningful morpheme有义语素结合紧密度P299 Compressed predicate 紧缩式谓语P120 Compound （汉语）合成词P443 Conversion 转化法P29 Constant 常数（ie. tertium comparationis中间比较项）；variable变数；tertium 中间项P50
Linguistics What is Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavours to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language (ie., do not split infinitives). Linguists are not required to know many languages and linguists are not interpreters. The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language. That is, what are the common elements of all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language. Linguistics is a social science that shares common ground with other social sciences such as psychology, anthropology, sociology and archaeology. It also may influence other disciplines such as english, communication studies and computer science. Linguistics for the most part though can be considered a cognitive science. Along with psychology, philosophy and computer science (AI), linguistics is ultimately concerned with how the human brain functions. Below are several different disciplines within linguistics. The fields of phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and language acquisition are considered the core fields of study and a firm knowledge of each is necessary in order to tackle more advanced subjects. Phonetics Phonetics is the study of the production and perception of speech sounds. It is concerned with the sounds of languge, how these sounds are articulated and how the hearer percieves them. Phonetics is related to the science of acoustics in that it uses much the same techniques in the analysis of sound that acoustics does. There are three sub-disciplines of phonetics: ?Articulatory Phonetics: the production of speech sounds. ?Acousitc Phonetics: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds. ?Auditory Phonetics: the study of the perception of speech sounds. Phonology Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are organized in a language. Phonolgy examines what occurs to speech sounds when they are combined to form a word and how these speech sounds interact with each other. It endeavors to explain what these phonological processes are in terms of formal rules. Morphology