当前位置:文档之家› A Hybrid Decomposition Parallel Implementation of the Car-Parrinello Method

A Hybrid Decomposition Parallel Implementation of the Car-Parrinello Method

A Hybrid Decomposition Parallel Implementation of the Car-Parrinello Method
A Hybrid Decomposition Parallel Implementation of the Car-Parrinello Method

a r

X

i

v

:c h

e

m -

p

h

/

9

4

1

1

9

v

1

1

4

N o

v

1

9

9

4

A Hybrid Decomposition Parallel Implementation of the Car-Parrinello Method James Wiggs and Hannes J′o nsson ?Department of Chemistry,BG-10University of Washington Seattle,WA 98195(February 5,2008)Computer Physics Communications (in Press)Abstract We have developed a ?exible hybrid decomposition parallel implementa-tion of the ?rst-principles molecular dynamics algorithm of Car and Parrinello.The code allows the problem to be decomposed either spatially,over the elec-tronic orbitals,or any combination of the two.Performance statistics for 32,64,128and 512Si atom runs on the Touchstone Delta and Intel Paragon par-

allel supercomputers and comparison with the performance of an optimized

code running the smaller systems on the Cray Y-MP and C90are presented.

Typeset using REVT E X

I.INTRODUCTION

The ab-initio molecular dynamics technique of Car and Parrinello[1,2]has become a valuable method for studying condensed matter structure and dynamics,in particular liquids [3–6],surfaces[7–9],and clusters[10–12].In a Car-Parrinello(CP)simulation the electron density of the ground electronic state is calculated within the Local Density Approximation (LDA)of Density Functional Theory(DFT),and is used to calculate the forces acting on the ions.The electronic orbitals are expanded in a plane-wave basis set;a classical Lagrangian linking the ionic coordinates with the expansion coe?cients is then used to generate a coupled set of equations of motion describing the extended electron-ion system. The motion of the electrons can be often adjusted so that they follow the motion of the ions adiabatically,remaining close to the Born-Oppenheimer ground state as the system evolves. Thus the ions move according to ab-initio forces determined directly from the electronic ground state at each time step,rather than from an empirical potential.As such,the CP algorithm overcomes many of the limitations of standard empirical-potential approaches, such as transferability of potentials and,furthermore,provides direct information about the electronic structure.However,CP simulations are computationally demanding and systems larger than~100atoms can not be simulated in a reasonable amount of time on traditional vector supercomputers.Furthermore,the memory requirements for simulations of large systems easily exceed the available memory on shared-memory supercomputers.

Many systems of interest require simulations of103atoms as is commonly done in molec-ular dynamics simulations with empirical potentials.In order to study larger systems with the CP approach it is necessary to take advantage of the computing power and memory available on parallel supercomputers.A parallel supercomputer can o?er a considerable in-crease in performance over traditional vector supercomputers by replacing the small number of processors sharing a single memory space(e.g.the Cray C-90)with a large number of computing nodes,each consisting of a slower–but much less expensive–processor with its own memory.The nodes have some means of communicating data with one another to work

cooperatively when solving the problem.An e?cient use of parallel computers requires that a signi?cant fraction of the computation can be done in an arbitrary order,such that tasks can be done simultaneously on the individual nodes without excessive data communication between the nodes.

Several groups have implemented the CP algorithm[13–16]or similar plane-wave electronic-structure calculations[17]on parallel supercomputers.A large fraction of the com-putation in such calculations involves fast Fourier transforms(FFT).Most groups[13–15,17] have used a spatial decomposition of the problem where each node was made responsible for calculations on a subset of the plane-wave coe?cients used to describe each orbital,basically implementing a parallel FFT.This allows e?cient implementation of calculations involving several di?erent orbitals,most importantly the orthonormalization of the orbitals and the non-local portion of the Hamiltonian.However,it is quite di?cult to implement domain-decomposition multi-dimensional FFTs e?ciently,particularly on parallel computers with low degrees of connectivity such as the mesh-connection[18–20]due to the communication requirements.This seriously reduces the e?ciency when calculating the electronic density and the action of the local part of the Hamiltonian.Alternatively,we chose an orbital de-composition where each node was made responsible for all the expansion coe?cients for a subset of the orbitals[16].This approach has advantages and disadvantages when compared with the spatial decomposition.Much of the computation involves independent operations on the orbitals such as the FFT,and the orbital decomposition makes it possible to do them fully in parallel without any communication between nodes.One disadvantage of the orbital decomposition is that the orthonormalization requires extensive communication between nodes;another disadvantage of the orbital decomposition when applied to large problems is the requirement that each node set aside memory for the entire3-dimensional FFT lattice, rather than storing only a small portion of it.

As more and more nodes are applied to the calculation,a point of diminishing returns is reached in both cases.There are irreducible minimum amounts of communication,re-dundant computation done on each node to avoid communication,synchronization,and

load-balancing problems which all act together to limit the e?ciency of any parallel imple-mentation.In order to apply the CP algorithm to large problems,and to make optimal use of parallel computers,we have developed a code which can use a combination of the orbital and spatial decomposition.This relieves the memory limitations of the orbital decomposi-tion,and makes it possible to balance out the losses in e?ciency for di?erent parts of the computation so as to get optimal speedup for a given number of nodes.We present here results of tests on this code on di?erent sized problems.We?nd that the optimal decom-position in every case we studied was neither purely spatial nor purely orbital,but rather a combination of the two.

II.THE CP ALGORITHM

The CP algorithm describes a system of interacting ions and electronic orbitals with the classical Lagrangian[1–3]

L= N nμf n ?d r|˙ψn( r)|2+1

μ¨ψn ( r ,t )=?

1δψ?n ( r ,t )+ m Λnm ψm ( r ,t )(2.3)

and M I ¨ R

I =??E

2

?2 ψn ( r )+ d r V ext ( r )ρ( r )+1

| r ? r ′|+E xc [ρ]+1| R I ? R J |(2.5)

where ρ( r )is the electron density at r ,E xc [ρ]is the LDA of the exchange-correlation energy for electronic density ρ,f n is the occupation number of orbital ψn ,Z I is the valence charge of atom I ,and V ext ( r )is a sum of ionic pseudopotentials.We use the angular-momentum dependent,norm-conserving pseudopotentials of Bachelet,Hamann,and Schl¨u ter (BHS)[23]in the factorized form of Kleinman and Bylander [24]for the nonlocal parts.The electron density ρ( r )is expressed in terms of the N orbitals ψn

ρ( r )=N n f n |ψn ( r )|2(2.6)

If the functional E [{ R

I },{ψn }]is minimized with respect to the electronic orbitals for ?xed ionic positions,the BO potential surface for the ions,Φ[{ R

I }],is obtained.The equa-tions of motion derived from Eq.(2.1)make it possible to optimize simultaneously the electronic and ionic degrees of freedom using,for example,Steepest Descent (SD)minimiza-tion.Furthermore,they allow one to perform ?nite-temperature molecular dynamics on the BO potential surface once the electronic degrees of freedom have been minimized.Under favorable conditions the value of μcan be chosen such that the electronic orbitals can re-main close to the BO surface as the ionic coordinates evolve according to Eq.(2.4).When doing ?nite-temperature simulations of metallic systems,it is often necessary to periodically re-quench the electronic orbitals to the BO surface by holding the ions ?xed and performing SD or Conjugate Gradient (CG)minimization on the electrons according to Eq.(2.3).The temperature of the ions can be controlled by any convenient thermostat,such as velocity scaling,stochastic collisions [25],or the Nos′e -Hoover thermostat [26,27].

III.NUMERICAL IMPLEMENTATION

The CP algorithm is most easily applied by expanding the electronic orbitals in sums of plane waves:

ψn,k( r)=e i k· r g c n g e i g· r(3.1) where the g’s are reciprocal lattice vectors of the simulation cell:

g=n x 2π

a y

?y+n z

2

| g|2is less than some energy cuto?E cut;a larger value of E cut increases the accuracy of the expansion.The number of such g is hereafter referred to as M.A typical value of E cut for a simulation of silicon is about12.0Rydbergs(?163eV).In principle,several k vectors need to be included to sample the?rst Brillouin zone;however, this becomes less and less important as the size of the simulation cell is increased.Since we were primarily interested in simulating large systems with our parallel code the only k-point included is(0,0,0),theΓpoint.This choice of basis set forces the orbitals to have the same periodicity as the simulation cell when periodic boundary conditions are applied.It has the additional bene?t of making the phase of the wavefunction arbitrary;we can therefore choose it to be real,which is equivalent to stating that c? g=c? g,which reduces the required storage for the expansion coe?cients by a factor of two.

The plane wave expansion has the added bene?t that certain parts of the Hamiltonian are very easily calculated in terms of the g’s,i.e.in reciprocal space.While other parts of the calculation are more e?ciently carried out in real space,the plane wave basis makes it

possible to switch quickly from reciprocal space to real space and back using FFTs.This reduces the work required to calculate the functional derivatives in Eq.(2.3)from O(NM2) to O(NMlogM),making the most computationally expensive portion of the calculation the imposition of orthonormality and the Kleinman-Bylander nonlocal pseudopotentials,which require O(N2M)computation.Any parallel implementation of the algorithm will have to perform these parts of the calculation e?ciently to achieve good speedup.

A.The pseudopotential calculation

Introduction of pseudopotentials not only reduces the number of electrons included in the calculation by allowing us to treat only the valence electrons,it also greatly reduces the size of the basis set required to accurately describe the wavefunctions and the electron density and potential since it is not necessary to reproduce the?ne structure in the regions of space near the nuclei.The Kleinman-Bylander factorized form of the pseudopotentials ?rst describes the interaction of the valence electrons with the ionic cores as a sum of ionic pseudopotentials

V( r)= I v ps( r? R I)(3.3) then breaks these pseudopotentials down further into sums of angular-momentum dependent

potentials

v ps( r)=

l=0

v l(r)?P l(3.4)

where?P l projects out the l-th angular momentum.The assumption is made that for some l>lmax,v l(r)=v lmax(r).For most elements,this approximation is good for lmax=1or2. Since?P l is a complete set,Eq.(3.4)can be written as:

v ps( r)=v loc( r)+lmax?1

l=0

δv l(r)?P l(3.5)

with

δv l(r)=v l(r)?v lmax(r)(3.6) The Kleinman-Bylander formalism then replaces the sum in Eq.(3.5)with a fully non-local potential:

?v nl(r)= l,m|δv lΦ0l,m><Φ0l,mδv l|

(2l+1)P l(cos(θ g, g′))

? l

=2 I e?i g· R I u l( g)F In l

?c n

g

B.The orthonormalization

The orthonormality of the electronic orbitals may be maintained in two ways:either by a straightforward technique like Gram-Schmidt(GS)orthonormalization or by an iterative technique as given by Car and Parrinello[2]based upon the more general method for im-posing holonomic constraints described by Ryckaert et.al.[28].Both techniques have been implemented in our code,but the iterative technique is preferred when doing ionic dynamics.

Applying the functional derivatives in Eq.(2.3)to the{ψn},produces a new,non-orthonormal set{ˉψn}.This set can be brought to orthonormality using the real symmetric matrix X=(δt)2

(I?A)(3.15)

2

and iterating

1

X(k)=

<ψn|ψm>=1

Rhoofr involves calculation of the total electronic densityρ( r)in the simulation cell (Eq.2.6).

Vofrho uses the total electronic density generated by rhoofr to determine the total local electronic potential as a function ofρ( r)throughout the simulation cell,including the contribution of the electron exchange-correlation potential and Hartree interactions(Eq.

2.5),and the local portion of the pseudopotential(Eq.

3.5).The pseudopotential and the Hartree interactions are determined in reciprocal space;the exchange-correlation potential in real space.

Nonlocal determines the portion of the unconstrained functional derivatives of the elec-tronic coe?cients due to the nonlocal portion of the pseudopotential,using the Kleinman-Bylander factorized form(Eq.3.11).In addition,when doing ionic dynamics,it calculates the force exerted on the ions by the electrons,interacting through the nonlocal pseudopo-tential.

Local determines the portion of the unconstrained functional derivatives of the electronic coe?cients due to the total local potential calculated in vofrho.

Loop updates the sets of electronic coe?cients according to these unconstrained func-tional derivatives:

ˉc n g(t+δt)=?c n g(t?δt)+2c n g(t)?(δt)2

?c n

g

(3.23)

whereˉc n g(t+δt)are the new set of expansion coe?cients before application of the constraint forces.

Orthonormalization is carried out either in ortho via calculation and application of constraint forces,or in gram via the simple Gram-Schmidt procedure.

IV.PARALLEL IMPLEMENTATION

Table I gives a schematic representation of the CP algorithm.It suggests two approaches to the parallel implementation.It is noted that the work on each electronic orbitalψn is

largely independent of the work done on the other electronic orbitals;this implies that dividing the orbitals up among the nodes,an orbital decomposition,may be successful,and in fact this proves to be the case[16].This type of parallelism is often referred to as coarse-grain or macro-tasking parallelism;the amount of work assigned to each node is quite large, and the number of nodes which can be applied to the problem is limited.Closer examination suggests that the work done on each expansion coe?cient c n g is also independent of the work done on the other coe?cients.For example loop,the second and third subtask of nonlocal, and the second subtask in vofrho.This implies that we might divide up the coe?cients among the nodes,an example of?ne-grain or micro-tasking parallelism,the approach usually favored by parallelizing compilers.The number of nodes which can be applied to the problem in this manner is theoretically limited only by the number of coe?cients,but e?ectively the limit is much smaller due to load balancing and communications requirements in some parts of the code.This spatial decomposition approach has been utilized by several groups [13–15,17].

Each approach has advantages and drawbacks.Figure1shows the time spent doing vari-ous tasks in the algorithm for a32atom Si calculation,using the pure orbital decomposition. It shows excellent speedup for rhoofr and application of the local part of the potential to the wavefunctions,due to the fact that the FFTs are done with no communication,completely in each processors local memory–inspection of the actual timing?gures shows essentially 100%e?ciency.Speedup of the non-local part of the computation is not as good due to some redundant computation carried out on each node.Unfortunately,since each node must do the calculations for all g,most of the work in vofrho must be carried out redundantly on each node,so that there is minimal speedup;however,since vofrho never requires more than about10%of the CPU time,this is not a major handicap.The greatest challenge in the orbital decomposition is the parallel implementation of ortho.Good speedup is achieved only for small numbers of processors;the time required for ortho quickly approaches a minimum due to communication required when doing the parallel matrix multiplications.

A pure spatial decomposition,on the other hand,shows good e?ciencies for those parts of

the code which involve computations strictly in real space or strictly in reciprocal space,but is much less e?cient when transforming back and forth between the two(Figure2).The ine?ciencies seen in those parts of the computation carried out purely in reciprocal space, such as the second subtask of vofrho,the second and third subtasks of nonlocal,and the sums over g in nonlocal and ortho,are due to load balancing problems;the decomposition of the FFT lattice results in an uneven division of the coe?cients for very large numbers of processors,to the point where one node may have more than twice as many as some others; the nodes receiving a larger number of coe?cients then become a bottleneck.

Thus both approaches begin to lose e?ciency when the number of processors becomes large enough,but for di?erent reasons.The spatial decomposition begins to su?er from load-balancing problems,and more importantly,it loses speed in the FFTs due to communication overhead.The orbital decomposition,on the other hand,reaches a bottleneck due to the communications when orthonormalizing the electronic orbitals.The orbital decomposition is somewhat faster for a given number of nodes,but it limits the number of nodes which can be applied to the problem to no more than half the number of orbitals–and it requires more memory due to redundant storage on di?erent nodes.By combining the two approaches,it is possible to balance the decomposition so as take maximum advantage of the strong points of each approach.This hybrid parallel Car-Parrinello(HPCP)algorithm makes it possible to tune the decomposition for a given problem and a given number of nodes to get the maximum speedup.If the number of nodes available is limited,an optimal decomposition can be determined and used to minimize computational time.When the maximum number of nodes under orbital decomposition has been applied,it is possible to add spatial decomposition to apply an arbitrary number of nodes.We have found that,in fact,the optimal decomposition is usually not purely spatial or purely orbital,but a combination of the two.

A.The hybrid decomposition

The HPCP technique divides the computing nodes into groups;each group is assigned a subset of the electronic orbitals,and the computations on these orbitals are further sub-divided spatially among the nodes within the group.The groups are chosen in such a way that the members can communicate with each other during the computation without interfering with the communications among members of other groups;they are compart-mentalized to eliminate message contention during most of the computation.In addition, the nodes are arranged so that equivalent nodes–that is,nodes which have been assigned equivalent subsets of the expansion coe?cients–in di?erent groups can be mapped into a set of independent rings with as few shared communications links as possible.In this paper,we concern ourselves only with the details of implementation on the Intel Paragon and the Touchstone Delta,two multiple instruction,multiple dataset(MIMD)architectures with a mesh interconnect communication network.Implementation on other architectures with higher dimensional communication networks such as the T3D,which uses a3-D toroid communication interconnect,or on the iPSC/860or nCUBE/2,which use the hypercube interconnect,is straightforward.For instance,the subgroups chosen on the T3D might be ”planes”of processors within the3-D lattice.

With the mesh interconnect,the computer is viewed as a2-dimensional set of nodes,each with a connection to4neighbors on the North,East,West,and South,with the exception of those nodes on the edges of the mesh.For the purpose of mapping HPCP onto the nodes, the mesh is viewed as a2-D mesh of2-D submeshes.Figure3gives a schematic picture of the three types of decomposition on a mesh computer for an example problem involving 32orbitals;a purely orbital decomposition on the left,with each node responsible for all computations on two orbitals,a purely spatial decomposition on the right,where each node is responsible for approximately one sixteenth of the work on all32orbitals,and in the center a hybrid decomposition where the4×4mesh is decomposed into a2×2set of2×2 submeshes,each submesh is responsible for8orbitals,and each subnode is responsible for

approximately one fourth of the coe?cients for those8orbitals.The operations which were carried out on a single node in the pure orbital decomposition are now carried out within the submesh by all the subnodes working in https://www.doczj.com/doc/0216616658.html,munications which originally took place between individual nodes now pass between equivalent nodes within the submeshes. This has the e?ect of reducing communication time in the orthonormalization procedure considerably.

The next question,then,is how the coe?cients will be assigned to the various subnodes within each submesh.Since the calculations for each plane-wave are identical,with the ex-ception of the g= 0,it is not particularly important which node contains which coe?cients. Also,it is not important which parts of the real-space simulation cell are assigned to each node.However,there are several other considerations.First:the partition must be chosen so that the parallel FFTs can be done in an e?cient manner.Second:the number of coef-?cients assigned to each subnode should be roughly equal to balance the load.Third,and most important:since we have chosen to include only theΓpoint,the coe?cients c n? g are ac-tually just the complex conjugates of c n g,reducing the amount of storage required by half;in order to maintain this advantage,the partition must be chosen so that it is not necessary for di?erent nodes to maintain consistent values of the coe?cient for a given positive/negative plane-wave pair;that is,the elements of the FFT array in reciprocal space corresponding to the positive and negative plane-waves must reside in the same node’s memory.

While it is certainly possible to implement true3-D parallel FFTs,in the case of a multi-dimensional FFT it is simpler and usually more e?cient[18–20]to implement the3-D FFT as a series of1-D FFTs in the x,y,and z directions combined with data transpositions (Figure4).We have chosen to partition the data so that in reciprocal space,the entries for the z dimension are stored contiguously in local memory,and the x and y dimensions are decomposed across the nodes;thus,each node has a set of one-dimensional columns on which to work when doing the one-dimensional FFTs.The exact nature of this decomposition is determined by the second and third requirements mentioned above.A straightforward partitioning on a4x4submesh might be done as in Figure5(a);this would make data

transpositions quite simple,but would lead to major load-imbalance problems due to the fact that most of the entries in the FFT array in reciprocal space are actually zero.Only those plane-waves within the cuto?energy are actually used in the calculation;they?ll only a relatively small region(Figure6)within the actual FFT array.It is this sphere of active plane waves within the FFT array which must be evenly divided,if the computations in reciprocal space are to be evenly divided among nodes.So the simple partition is discarded in favor of an interleaved partition(Figure5(b)),which results in a roughly equal division of the active plane-waves among the subnodes.

When doing a standard one-dimensional FFT of an array f with length L indexed from f0to f L?1,the values of f n in the array in real space correspond to values of some function f for equally-spaced values of some variable x,arranged in ascending order.When the array is transformed into reciprocal space,we are left with a new array F whose entries F n correspond to the intensities of various frequencies nωin a Fourier expansion of the function f.They are not,however,arranged in simple ascending order;rather,F0=F(0),

≤n

2

frequency?mωmaps to array location F L?m.We must account for the fact that this will be the case in all three dimensions of our FFT array;positive plane wave(n x,n y,n z)will map to negative plane wave(m x,m y,m z)in a rather complicated manner depending upon the signs and values of n x,n y,and n z;for instance if we use the simple interleaved partition suggested in Figure5(b),plane wave(1,2,3)would be stored in the local memory of node 9,but its negative(?1,?2,?3)would map to(15,14,13)and end up in the local memory of node eleven.Either it is necessary to double the storage for coe?cients and determine a way to maintain coe?cients for positive and negative plane waves as complex conjugates, or it is necessary to choose the data decomposition so that they are both stored in the same node’s memory.The problem is simpli?ed considerably if one looks at it in terms of the values of the plane waves rather than the partitioning of the FFT array itself.If node p is at location(i,j)in an R×C submesh,then those plane waves with|n x|mod C=j and |n y|mod R=i should be assigned to p.Assigning coe?cients to nodes according to the

absolute value of n x and n y forces the decomposition to satisfy the third condition,since all values in the z dimension are known to be in local memory already.A simple example of the?nal decomposition is shown in Figure5(c).

B.The FFT calculations

Once the partition has been made,the FFT is straightforward.For simplicity,we consider only the transform from reciprocal space to real space;the reverse is analogous.Each node in the submesh begins with a subset of columns in the z dimension;it performs the one dimensional FFTs on these,then begins preparing to transpose the data so that it will have a subset of columns in the y dimension.The data is packed into a set of contiguous bu?ers so that the data which will remain on the node is placed in the”?rst”bu?er,the data which needs to be transmitted to the node immediately”beneath”it goes in the next bu?er,the data for the node”beneath”that one goes in still the next bu?er,and so on;when the ”bottom”of the mesh is reached,it wraps back to the top row in a toroid-fashion.Once the data is packed,a series of messages are passed along each column of subnodes;after the ?rst message,each node has the data it requires from the node directly above it,as well as the data which was already in local memory.Each node retains the bu?er which was meant for it,passes on the bu?ers which were meant for the nodes”below”it,and receives a new set of bu?ers from the node”above”it.After all the bu?ers have been sent,each node will have the data necessary to reconstruct the FFT array,with a subset of the columns in the y dimension in local memory.

This procedure is shown schematically in Figure7.The bu?ers B ij are contiguous in memory so that the messages,once packed,may be sent without any further data movement. Bu?er B ij is the data on node i which must be transmitted to node j.At each iteration,only the shaded bu?ers are transmitted to the next node.We use this store-and-forward technique because the software”bandwidth”on the Touchstone Delta,i.e.the amount of data which can be transferred from local memory out to the message network per unit time,is su?ciently

close to the hardware bandwidth that it is possible to swamp the message backplane and degrade communications.The store-and-forward technique reduces all communications to near-neighbor messages,eliminating this possibility.On the Paragon,however,the hardware bandwidth is almost an order of magnitude greater than the speed with which any particular node can move data from its local memory out onto the network,so it is almost impossible to swamp the backplane;it may be that direct messages will be faster under these conditions.

Once the FFT array is reassembled,each node performs the appropriate one dimensional FFTs on the subset of the columns in the y dimension in its local memory.When these are done,the nodes again pack a set of message bu?ers,but this time the messages will be passed horizontally along each row of the submesh in order to transpose the y and x coordinates; when the messages have been passed and the bu?ers unpacked,each node will have a subset of the columns in the x dimension in local memory.Appropriate FFTs are performed,and the three dimensional parallel FFT is complete.The FFT back to reciprocal space simply performs the same operations in reverse order,doing the x FFTs?rst,transposing x and y, doing the y FFTs,transposing y and z,and?nally doing the z FFTs.An overall schematic of the FFT showing the data?ow during the transpose operations is shown in Figure8.

C.Global summations

Global summation is a parallel operation whereby the sum of the values stored in some variable or variables on di?erent nodes is calculated.

In the HPCP code,three di?erent global summations are needed.Referring to the hybrid decomposition diagram in Figure3,those are:(1)a standard global summation,where all the nodes,zero through?fteen,contribute to the sum;(2)a global summation over all nodes within a submesh,for instance,only summing up values of the variable stored on nodes two, three,six,and seven;and(3)a global summation over equivalent nodes in all the submeshes, for instance over nodes?ve,seven,thirteen,and?fteen.

Standard library calls on most parallel computers can do the?rst type of summation.

The other two types of sums need to be specially coded.We have used as a basis for our global summations the technique suggested by Little?eld and van de Geijn[31],modi?ed for the speci?c circumstances.The general technique involves independent sums along the rows(or columns)of the mesh,leaving the?rst node in the row(or column)with the sum of the values along the row(or column).Then a summation is done along the?rst column(or row),leaving the node in the(0,0)position with the result.The communications pattern is then reversed,as the result is broadcast out along the?rst column(or row)and then independently along each row(or column).If properly done,there is no message contention and the time required for completion scales as log2P,with P the number of nodes.Doing this within a submesh is straightforward;there is no possibility of message contention,since no node within the submesh ever needs to send a message outside the boundaries of the submesh.

Doing summations over equivalent nodes,however,presents a problem;there will in-evitably be message contention for large enough numbers of processors.It can be minimized, however,by taking advantage of the fact that it is arbitrary whether the?rst phase of the summation is done along the rows or the columns.If all sets of equivalent nodes do their summations with identical ordering of messages,a great deal of contention will be introduced (Figure9(a)).If,on the other hand,every other set,selected according to a”checkerboard”coloring,does the?rst stage along the rows,message contention is reduced by half(Figure 9(b)).

D.Matrix multiplication

In order to perform the iterative orthonormalization e?ciently,it is necessary to have an e?cient parallel matrix multiplication routine.The matrix multiplication used for the pure orbital decomposition can be extended to make e?cient use of the hybrid node layout, increasing the e?ective bandwidth by roughly the square root of the number of nodes in each submesh.To illustrate this,it is necessary to review the way in which the matrix

multiplication was implemented in the earlier,pure orbital decomposition code[16].

First,a”ring”was mapped into the underlying communication topology so that each node had a”neighbor”on its”left”and its”right,”to which it had a direct,unshared communications link.The coe?cient array was divided up among the members of this ring so that each node had an equal number of rows.Doing the large matrix multiplications when evaluating Eqs.(3.19)and(3.20)required that each node use the rows of the coe?cient matrices stored in its local memory to calculate a subblock of the result matrix,pass its rows along to the next node in the ring,and receive the next set of rows from the previous node in the ring.The algorithm was described in more detail,with schematics,in[16].

This parallel matrix multiply was free of contention and maintained load balancing,but its e?ciency was greatly limited by the available bandwidth between nodes.Its performance dropped o?rapidly as the number of nodes increased,due to time spent waiting for the messages to get around the ring.As an example,results of calculations on a64Si atom system on the Paragon and the Delta are shown in Figure10.The time for each is well described by the relation t=a+b

Web性能测试方案

Web性能测试方案 1测试目的 此处阐述本次性能测试的目的,包括必要性分析与扩展性描述。 性能测试最主要的目的是检验当前系统所处的性能水平,验证其性能是否能满足未来应用的需求,并进一步找出系统设计上的瓶颈,以期改善系统性能,达到用户的要求。 2测试范围 此处主要描述本次性能测试的技术及业务背景,以及性能测试的特点。 编写此方案的目的是为云应用产品提供web性能测试的方法,因此方案内容主要包括测试环境、测试工具、测试策略、测试指标与测试执行等。 2.1测试背景 以云采业务为例,要满足用户在互联网集中采购的要求,实际业务中通过云采平台询报价、下单的频率较高,因此云采平台的性能直接决定了业务处理的效率,并能够支撑业务并发的压力。 例如:支撑100家企业用户的集中访问,以及业务处理要求。 2.2性能度量指标 响应时间(TTLB) 即“time to last byte”,指的是从客户端发起的一个请求开始,到客户端接收到从服务器端返回的响应结束,这个过程所耗费的时间,响应时间的单位一般为“秒”或者“毫秒”。响应时间=网络响应时间+应用程序响应时间。 响应时间标准:

事务能力TPS(transaction per second) 服务器每秒处理的事务数; 一个事务是指一个客户机向服务器发送请求然后服务器做出反应的过程。 客户机在发送请求时开始计时,收到服务器响应后结束计时,一次来计算使用的时间和完成的事务个数。它是衡量系统处理能力的重要指标。 并发用户数 同一时刻与服务器进行交互的在线用户数量。 吞吐率(Throughput) 单位时间内网络上传输的数据量,也可指单位时间内处理的客户端请求数量,是衡量网络性能的重要指标。 吞吐率=吞吐量/传输时间 资源利用率 这里主要指CPU利用率(CPU utilization),内存占用率。 3测试内容 此处对性能测试整体计划进行描述,包括测试内容以及关注的性能指标。Web性能测试内容包含:压力测试、负载测试、前端连接测试。 3.1负载测试 负载测试是为了测量Web系统在某一负载级别上的性能,以保证Web系统在需求范围内能正常工作。负载级别可以是某个时刻同时访问Web系统的用户数量,也可以是在线数据处理的数量。例如:Web应用系统能允许多少个用户同时在线?如果超过了这个数量,会出现什么现象?Web应用系统能否处理大

计算机原理试题与答案

全国2004年4月高等教育自学考试 计算机原理试题 课程代码:02384 第一部分选择题(共25分) 一、单项选择题(本大题共25小题,每小题1分,共25分) 在每小题列出的四个选项中只有一个选项是符合题目要求的,请将其代码填写在题后的括号内。错选、多选或未选均无分。 1.计算机中一次处理的最大二进制位数即为() A.位B.字节 C.字长D.代码 2.下列算式中属于逻辑运算的是() A.1+1=2 B.1-1=0 C.1+1=10 D.1+1=1 3.下图所示的门电路,它的逻辑表达式是() A.F=CD AB B.F=ABCD C.F=AB+CD D.F=ABCD 4.八进制数中的1位对应于二进制数的() A.2位B.3位 C.4位D.5位 5.下列叙述正确的是() A.原码是表示无符号数的编码方法 B.对一个数据的原码的各位取反而且在末位再加1就可以得到这个数据的补码

C.定点数表示的是整数 D.二进制数据表示在计算机中容易实现 6.浮点数0.00100011B×2-1的规格化表示是() A.0.1000110B×2-11B B.0.0100011B×2-10B C.0.0100011B×20B D.0.1000110B×21B 7.两个定点数作补码加法运算,对相加后最高位出现进位1的处理是() A.判为溢出B.AC中不保留 C.寄存在AC中D.循环加到末位 8.运算器中通用寄存器的长度一般取() A.8位B.16位 C.32位D.等于计算机字长 9.目前在大多数微型机上广泛使用宽度为32/64位的高速总线是() A.ISA B.EISA C.PCI D.VESA 10.某计算机指令的操作码有8个二进位,这种计算机的指令系统中的指令条数至多为 ()A.8 B.64 C.128 D.256 11.间接访内指令LDA @Ad的指令周期包含CPU周期至少有() A.一个B.二个 C.三个D.四个 12.在程序中,可用转移指令实现跳过后续的3条指令继续执行。这种指令的寻址方式是() A.变址寻址方式B.相对寻址方式

h3c端口镜像配置及实例

1 配置本地端口镜像 2 1.2.1 配置任务简介 本地端口镜像的配置需要在同一台设备上进行。 首先创建一个本地镜像组,然后为该镜像组配置源端口和目的端口。 表1-1 本地端口镜像配置任务简介 ●一个端口只能加入到一个镜像组。 ●源端口不能再被用作本镜像组或其它镜像组的出端口或目的端口。 3 1.2.2 创建本地镜像组 表1-2 创建本地镜像组 配置源端口目的端口后,本地镜像组才能生效。 4 1.2.3 配置源端口 可以在系统视图下为指定镜像组配置一个或多个源端口,也可以在端口视图下将当前端口配置为指定镜像组的源端口,二者的配置效果相同。 1. 在系统视图下配置源端口 表1-3 在系统视图下配置源端口

2. 在端口视图下配置源端口 表1-4 在端口视图下配置源端口 一个镜像组内可以配置多个源端口。 5 1.2.4 配置源CPU 表1-5 配置源CPU 一个镜像组内可以配置多个源CPU。 6 1.2.5 配置目的端口 可以在系统视图下为指定镜像组配置目的端口,也可以在端口视图下将当前端口配置为指定镜像组的目的端口,二者的配置效果相同。

1. 在系统视图下配置目的端口 表1-6 在系统视图下配置目的端口 2. 在端口视图下配置目的端口 表1-7 在端口视图下配置目的端口 ●一个镜像组内只能配置一个目的端口。 ●请不要在目的端口上使能STP、MSTP和RSTP,否则会影响镜像功能的正常使 用。 ●目的端口收到的报文包括复制自源端口的报文和来自其它端口的正常转发报文。 为了保证数据监测设备只对源端口的报文进行分析,请将目的端口只用于端口镜 像,不作其它用途。 ●镜像组的目的端口不能配置为已经接入RRPP环的端口。 7 1.3 配置二层远程端口镜像 8 1.3.1 配置任务简介 二层远程端口镜像的配置需要分别在源设备和目的设备上进行。 ●一个端口只能加入到一个镜像组。 ●源端口不能再被用作本镜像组或其它镜像组的出端口或目的端口。 ●如果用户在设备上启用了GVRP(GARP VLAN Registration Protocol,GARP VLAN注册协议)功能,GVRP可能将远程镜像VLAN注册到不希望的端口上, 此时在目的端口就会收到很多不必要的报文。有关GVRP的详细介绍,请参见“配 置指导/03-接入/GVRP配置”。

品质体系框架图.

品质体系框架图 图中各缩写词含义如下: QC:Quality Control 品质控制 QA:Quality Assurance 品质保证 QE:Quality Engineering 品质工程 IQC:Incoming Quality Control 来料品质控制 LQC:Line Quality Control 生产线品质控制 IPQC:In Process Quality Control 制程品质控制 FQC:Final Quality Control 最终品质控制 SQA:Source (Supplier) Quality Assurance 供应商品质控制 DCC:Document Control Center 文控中心 PQA:Process Quality Assurance 制程品质保证 FQA:Final Quality Assurance 最终品质保证 DAS:Defects Analysis System 缺陷分析系统 FA:Failure Analysis 坏品分析 CPI:Continuous Process Improvement 连续工序改善 CS:Customer Service 客户服务 TRAINNING:培训 一供应商品质保证(SQA) 1.SQA概念 SQA即供应商品质保证,识通过在供应商处设立专人进行抽样检验,并定期对供应商进行审核、评价而从最源头实施品质保证的一种方法。是以预防为主思想的体现。

2.SQA组织结构 3.主要职责 1)对从来料品质控制(IQC)/生产及其他渠道所获取的信息进行分析、综合,把结果反馈给供应商,并要求改善。 2)耕具派驻检验远提供的品质情报对供应商品质进行跟踪。 3)定期对供应商进行审核,及时发现品质隐患。 4)根据实际不定期给供应商导入先进的品质管理手法及检验手段,推动其品质保证能力的提升。 5)根据公司的生产反馈情况、派驻人员检验结果、对投宿反应速度及态度对供应商进行排序,为公司对供应商的取舍提供依据。 4.供应商品质管理的主要办法 1)派驻检验员 把IQC移至供应商,使得及早发现问题,便于供应商及时返工,降低供应商的品质成本,便于本公司快速反应,对本公司的品质保证有利。同时可以根据本公司的实际使用情况及IQC的检验情况,专门严加检查问题项目,针对性强。 2)定期审核 通过组织各方面的专家对供应商进行审核,有利于全面把握供应商的综合能力,及时发现薄弱环节并要求改善,从而从体系上保证供货品质定期排序,此结果亦为供应商进行排序提供依据。 一般审核项目包含以下几个方面 A.品质。 B.生产支持。 C.技术能力及新产品导入。 D.一般事务. 具体内容请看“供应商调查确认表”. 3)定期排序 排序的主要目的是评估供应商的品质及综合能力,以及为是否保留、更换供应商提供决策依据.排序主要依据以下几个方面的内容: A.SQA批通过率:一般要求不低于95%。 B.IQC批合格率:一般要求不低于95%。

天线分集技术的原理

天线分集技术的原理 最初,许多设计者可能会担心区域规范的复杂性问题,因为在全世界范围内,不同区域规范也各异。然而,只要多加研究便能了解并符合不同区域的法规,因为在每一个地区,通常都会有一个政府单位负责颁布相关文件,以说明“符合特定目的的发射端相关的规则。 无线电通信中更难于理解的部分在于无线电通信链路质量与多种外部因素相关,多种可变因素交织在一起产生了复杂的传输环境,而这种传输环境通常很难解释清楚。然而,掌握基本概念往往有助于理解多变的无线电通信链接品质,一旦理解了这些基本概念,其中许多问题可以通过一种低成本、易实现的被称作天线分集(antenna diversity)的技术来实现。 环境因素的考虑 影响无线电通信链路持续稳定的首要环境因素是被称为多径/衰落和天线极化/分集的现象。这些现象对于链路质量的影响要么是建设性的要么是破坏性的,这取决于不同的特定环境。可能发生的情况太多了,于是,当我们试着要了解特定的环境条件在某个时间点对无线电通信链接的作用,以及会造成何种链接质量时,这无疑是非常困难的。 天线极化/分集 这种被称为天线极化的现象是由给定天线的方向属性引起的,虽然有时候把天线极化解释为在某些无线电通信链路质量上的衰减,但是一些无线电通信设计者经常利用这一特性来调整天线,通过限制收发信号在限定的方向范围之内达其所需。这是可行的,因为天线在各个方向上的辐射不均衡,并且利用这一特性能够屏蔽其他(方向)来源的射频噪声。 简单的说,天线分为全向和定向两种。全向天线收发信号时,在各个方向的强度相同,而定向天线的收发信号被限定在一个方向范围之内。若要打造高度稳固的链接,首先就要从了解此应用开始。例如:如果一个链路上的信号仅来自于特定的方向,那么选择定向天线获

性能测试流程规范

目录 1前言 (2) 1.1 文档目的 (2) 1.2 适用对象 (2) 2性能测试目的 (2) 3性能测试所处的位置及相关人员 (3) 3.1 性能测试所处的位置及其基本流程 (3) 3.2 性能测试工作内容 (4) 3.3 性能测试涉及的人员角色 (5) 4性能测试实施规范 (5) 4.1 确定性能测试需求 (5) 4.1.1 分析应用系统,剥离出需测试的性能点 (5) 4.1.2 分析需求点制定单元测试用例 (6) 4.1.3 性能测试需求评审 (6) 4.1.4 性能测试需求归档 (6) 4.2 性能测试具体实施规范 (6) 4.2.1 性能测试起始时间 (6) 4.2.2 制定和编写性能测试计划、方案以及测试用例 (7) 4.2.3 测试环境搭建 (7) 4.2.4 验证测试环境 (8) 4.2.5 编写测试用例脚本 (8) 4.2.6 调试测试用例脚本 (8) 4.2.7 预测试 (9) 4.2.8 正式测试 (9) 4.2.9 测试数据分析 (9) 4.2.10 调整系统环境和修改程序 (10) 4.2.11 回归测试 (10) 4.2.12 测试评估报告 (10) 4.2.13 测试分析报告 (10) 5测试脚本和测试用例管理 (11) 6性能测试归档管理 (11) 7性能测试工作总结 (11) 8附录:............................................................................................. 错误!未定义书签。

1前言 1.1 文档目的 本文档的目的在于明确性能测试流程规范,以便于相关人员的使用,保证性能测试脚本的可用性和可维护性,提高测试工作的自动化程度,增加测试的可靠性、重用性和客观性。 1.2 适用对象 本文档适用于部门内测试组成员、项目相关人员、QA及高级经理阅读。 2性能测试目的 性能测试到底能做些什么,能解决哪些问题呢?系统开发人员,维护人员及测试人员在工作中都可能遇到如下的问题 1.硬件选型,我们的系统快上线了,我们应该购置什么样硬件配置的电脑作为 服务器呢? 2.我们的系统刚上线,正处在试运行阶段,用户要求提供符合当初提出性能要 求的报告才能验收通过,我们该如何做? 3.我们的系统已经运行了一段时间,为了保证系统在运行过程中一直能够提供 给用户良好的体验(良好的性能),我们该怎么办? 4.明年这个系统的用户数将会大幅度增加,到时我们的系统是否还能支持这么 多的用户访问,是否通过调整软件可以实现,是增加硬件还是软件,哪种方式最有效? 5.我们的系统存在问题,达不到预期的性能要求,这是什么原因引起的,我们 应该进行怎样的调整? 6.在测试或者系统试点试运行阶段我们的系统一直表现得很好,但产品正式上 线后,在用户实际环境下,总是会出现这样那样莫名其妙的问题,例如系统运行一段时间后变慢,某些应用自动退出,出现应用挂死现象,导致用户对我们的产品不满意,这些问题是否能避免,提早发现? 7.系统即将上线,应该如何部署效果会更好呢? 并发性能测试的目的注要体现在三个方面:以真实的业务为依据,选择有代表性的、关键的业务操作设计测试案例,以评价系统的当前性能;当扩展应用程序的功能或者新的应用程序将要被部署时,负载测试会帮助确定系统是否还能够处理期望的用户负载,以预测系统的未来性能;通过模拟成百上千个用户,重复执行和运行测试,可以确认性能瓶颈并优化和调整应用,目的在于寻找到瓶颈问题。

计算机组成原理试题及答案

二、填空题 1 字符信息是符号数据,属于处理(非数值)领域的问题,国际上采用的字符系统是七单位的(ASCII)码。P23 2 按IEEE754标准,一个32位浮点数由符号位S(1位)、阶码E(8位)、尾数M(23位)三个域组成。其中阶码E的值等于指数的真值(e)加上一个固定的偏移值(127)。P17 3 双端口存储器和多模块交叉存储器属于并行存储器结构,其中前者采用(空间)并行技术,后者采用(时间)并行技术。P86 4 衡量总线性能的重要指标是(总线带宽),它定义为总线本身所能达到的最高传输速率,单位是(MB/s)。P185 5 在计算机术语中,将ALU控制器和()存储器合在一起称为()。 6 数的真值变成机器码可采用原码表示法,反码表示法,(补码)表示法,(移码)表示法。P19-P21 7 广泛使用的(SRAM)和(DRAM)都是半导体随机读写存储器。前者的速度比后者快,但集成度不如后者高。P67 8 反映主存速度指标的三个术语是存取时间、(存储周期)和(存储器带宽)。P67 9 形成指令地址的方法称为指令寻址,通常是(顺序)寻址,遇到转移指令时(跳跃)寻址。P112 10 CPU从(主存中)取出一条指令并执行这条指令的时间和称为(指令周期)。 11 定点32位字长的字,采用2的补码形式表示时,一个字所能表示

的整数范围是(-2的31次方到2的31次方减1 )。P20 12 IEEE754标准规定的64位浮点数格式中,符号位为1位,阶码为11位,尾数为52位,则它能表示的最大规格化正数为(+[1+(1-2 )]×2 )。 13 浮点加、减法运算的步骤是(0操作处理)、(比较阶码大小并完成对阶)、(尾数进行加或减运算)、(结果规格化并进行舍入处理)、(溢出处理)。P54 14 某计算机字长32位,其存储容量为64MB,若按字编址,它的存储系统的地址线至少需要(14)条。64×1024KB=2048KB(寻址范32围)=2048×8(化为字的形式)=214 15一个组相联映射的Cache,有128块,每组4块,主存共有16384块,每块64个字,则主存地址共(20)位,其中主存字块标记应为(9)位,组地址应为(5)位,Cache地址共(13)位。 16 CPU存取出一条指令并执行该指令的时间叫(指令周期),它通常包含若干个(CPU周期),而后者又包含若干个(时钟周期)。P131 17 计算机系统的层次结构从下至上可分为五级,即微程序设计级(或逻辑电路级)、一般机器级、操作系统级、(汇编语言)级、(高级语言)级。P13 18十进制数在计算机内有两种表示形式:(字符串)形式和(压缩的十进制数串)形式。前者主要用在非数值计算的应用领域,后者用于直接完成十进制数的算术运算。P19 19一个定点数由符号位和数值域两部分组成。按小数点位置不同,

华为交换机端口镜像配置举例

华为交换机端口镜像配置举例 配置实例 文章出处:https://www.doczj.com/doc/0216616658.html, 端口镜像是将指定端口的报文复制到镜像目的端口,镜像目的端口会接入数据监测设备,用户利用这些设备分析目的端口接收到的报文,进行网络监控和故障排除。本文介绍一个在华为交换机上通过配置端口镜像实现对数据监测的应用案例,详细的组网结构及配置步骤请查看以下内容。 某公司内部通过交换机实现各部门之间的互连,网络环境描述如下: 1)研发部通过端口Ethernet 1/0/1接入Switch C;λ 2)市场部通过端口Ethernet 1/0/2接入Switch C;λ 3)数据监测设备连接在Switch C的Ethernet 1/0/3端口上。λ 网络管理员希望通过数据监测设备对研发部和市场部收发的报文进行监控。 使用本地端口镜像功能实现该需求,在Switch C上进行如下配置: 1)端口Ethernet 1/0/1和Ethernet 1/0/2为镜像源端口;λ 2)连接数据监测设备的端口Ethernet 1/0/3为镜像目的端口。λ 配置步骤 配置Switch C: # 创建本地镜像组。

system-view [SwitchC] mirroring-group 1 local # 为本地镜像组配置源端口和目的端口。 [SwitchC] mirroring-group 1 mirroring-port Ethernet 1/0/1 Ethernet 1/0/2 both [SwitchC] mirroring-group 1 monitor-port Ethernet 1/0/3 # 显示所有镜像组的配置信息。 [SwitchC] display mirroring-group all mirroring-group 1: type: local status: active mirroring port: Ethernet1/0/1 both Ethernet1/0/2 both monitor port: Ethernet1/0/3 配置完成后,用户就可以在Server上监控部门1和部门2收发的所有报文。 相关文章:端口镜像技术简介远程端口镜像配置举例

计算机组成原理参考答案汇总

红色标记为找到了的参考答案,问答题比较全,绿色标记为个人做的,仅供参考!第一章计算机系统概述 1. 目前的计算机中,代码形式是______。 A.指令以二进制形式存放,数据以十进制形式存放 B.指令以十进制形式存放,数据以二进制形式存放 C.指令和数据都以二进制形式存放 D.指令和数据都以十进制形式存放 2. 完整的计算机系统应包括______。 A. 运算器、存储器、控制器 B. 外部设备和主机 C. 主机和实用程序 D. 配套的硬件设备和软件系统 3. 目前我们所说的个人台式商用机属于______。 A.巨型机 B.中型机 C.小型机 D.微型机 4. Intel80486是32位微处理器,Pentium是______位微处理器。 A.16B.32C.48D.64 5. 下列______属于应用软件。 A. 操作系统 B. 编译系统 C. 连接程序 D.文本处理 6. 目前的计算机,从原理上讲______。 A.指令以二进制形式存放,数据以十进制形式存放 B.指令以十进制形式存放,数据以二进制形式存放 C.指令和数据都以二进制形式存放 D.指令和数据都以十进制形式存放 7. 计算机问世至今,新型机器不断推陈出新,不管怎样更新,依然保有“存储程序”的概念,最早提出这种概念的是______。 A.巴贝奇 B.冯. 诺依曼 C.帕斯卡 D.贝尔 8.通常划分计算机发展时代是以()为标准 A.所用的电子器件 B.运算速度 C.计算机结构 D.所有语言 9.到目前为止,计算机中所有的信息任以二进制方式表示的理由是() A.节约原件 B.运算速度快 C.由物理器件的性能决定 D.信息处理方便 10.冯.诺依曼计算机中指令和数据均以二进制形式存放在存储器中,CPU区分它们的依据是() A.指令操作码的译码结果 B.指令和数据的寻址方式 C.指令周期的不同阶段 D.指令和数据所在的存储单元 11.计算机系统层次结构通常分为微程序机器层、机器语言层、操作系统层、汇编语言机器层和高级语言机器层。层次之间的依存关系为() A.上下层都无关 B.上一层实现对下一层的功能扩展,而下一层与上一层无关 C.上一层实现对下一层的功能扩展,而下一层是实现上一层的基础

浅析发射分集与接收分集技术

浅析发射分集与接收分集技术 1 概述 1.1 多天线信息论简介 近年来,多天线系统(也称为MIMO系统)引起了人们很大的研究兴趣,多天线系统原理如图1所示,它可以增加系统的容量,改进误比特率(BER).然而,获得这些增益的代价是硬件的复杂度提高,无线系统前端复杂度、体积和价格随着天线数目的增加而增加。使用天线选择技术,就可以在获得MIMO系统优势的同时降低成本。 图1 MIMO系统原理 有两种改进无线通信的方法:分集方法、复用方法。分集方法可以提高通信系统的鲁棒性,利用发送和接收天线之间的多条路径,改善系统的BER。在接收端,这种分集与RAKE接收提供的类似。分集也可以通过使用多根发射天线来得到,但是必须面对发送时带来的相互干扰。这一类主要是空时编码技术。 另外一类MIMO技术是空间复用,来自于这样一个事实:在一个具有丰富散射的环境中,接收机可以解析同时从多根天线发送的信号,因此,可以发送并行独立的数据流,使得总的系统容量随着min( , )线性增长,其中

和 是接收和发送天线的数目。 1.2 空时处理技术 空时处理始终是通信理论界的一个活跃领域。在早期研究中,学者们主要注重空间信号传播特性和信号处理,对空间处理的信息论本质探讨不多。上世纪九十年代中期,由于移动通信爆炸式发展,对于无线链路传输速率提出了越来越高的要求,传统的时频域信号设计很难满足这些需求。工业界的实际需求推动了理论界的深入探索。 在MIMO技术的发展,可以将空时编码的研究分为三大方向:空间复用、空间分集与空时预编码技术,如图2所示。 图2 MIMO技术的发展

1.3 空间分集研究 多天线分集接收是抗衰落的传统技术手段,但对于多天线发送分集,长久以来学术界并没有统一认识。1995年Telatarp[3]首先得到了高斯信道下多天线发送系统的信道容量和差错指数函数。他假定各个通道之间的衰落是相互独立的。几乎同时, Foschini和Gans在[4]得到了在准静态衰落信道条件下的截止信道容量(Outage Capacity)。此处的准静态是指信道衰落在一个长周期内保持不变,而周期之间的衰落相互独立,也称这种信道为块衰落信道(Block Fading)。 Foschini和Gans的工作,以及Telatar的工作是多天线信息论研究的开创 性文献。在这些著作中,他们指出,在一定条件下,采用多个天线发送、多个天线接收(MIMO)系统可以成倍提高系统容量,信道容量的增长与天线数目成线性关系 1.4 空时块编码 (STBC) 本文我们主要介绍一类高性能的空时编码方法——空时块编码( STBC: Space Time Block Code)。 STBC编码最先是由Alamouti[1]在1998年引入的,采用了简单的两天线发分集编码的方式。这种STBC编码最大的优势在于,采用简单的最大似然译码准则,可以获得完全的天线增益。 Tarokh[5]进一步将2天线STBC编码推广到多天线形式,提出了通用的正交设计准则。 2 MIMO原理及方案

金蝶ERP性能测试经验分享

ERP性能测试总结分享

1分享 (3) 1.1测试环境搭建 (3) 1.2并发量计算及场景设计 (3) 1.3测试框架搭建 (4) 1.4测试脚本开发/调试 (5) 1.5场景调试/执行 (5) 1.6性能监控分析 (6) 1.7结果报告 (7) 2展望 (8) 2.1业务调研及场景确定 (8) 2.2场景监控与分析 (8)

1分享 1.1 测试环境搭建 在我们进行性能测试之前,通常需要搭建一个供测试用的环境,使用这个环境来录制脚本,根据在这个环境下执行测试的结果,得出最终的测试结论。 有些时候,测试环境就是生产环境,例如:一个新的项目上线前进行的性能测试,通常就是在未来的生产环境下进行的。在这种情况下,可以排除测试环境与生产环境差异带来影响,测试结果相对比较准确。 反之,如果测试环境与生产环境不是同一环境,这个时候,为了保证测试结果的准确性,需要对生产环境进行调研。在搭建测试环境时,尽量保证搭建的测试环境和生成环境保持一致(环境主体框架相同,服务器硬件配置相近,数据库数据相近等)。 另外,最好输出一个测试环境搭建方案,召集各方参加评审确认。同时,在测试方案、测试报告中,对测试环境进行必要的阐述。 1.2 并发量计算及场景设计 首先,在确定场景及并发量之前,需要对业务进行调研,调研的对象最好是业务部门,也可以通过数据库中心查询数据,进行辅助。 场景选取一般包括:登陆场景、操作频繁的核心业务场景、涉及重要信息(如:资金等)业务场景、有提出明确测试需求的业务场景、组合场景等。 每个场景的并发量,需要根据业务调研的结果进行计算。可以采用并发量计算公式:C=nL / T 进行计算(其中C是平均的并发用户数,n是平均每天访问用户数,L是一天内用户从登录到退出的平均时间(操作平均时间),T是考察时间长度(一天内多长时间有用户使用系统))。 每个场景的思考时间,也可以通过业务调研获得。 另外,也可以采用模拟生产业务场景TPS(每秒通过事务数)的方式,来确定场景。相比上一种方式,模拟生产业务场景TPS,能更加准确模拟生产压力。本次ERP性能测试采用的就是这种方式:首先,通过调研确定业务高峰时段,各核心业务TPS量及产生业务单据量。然后,通过调整组合场景中,各单场景的Vusr(虚拟用户数)和Thinktime(思考时间),使每个场景的TPS接近业务调研所得到的TPS量,每个场景相同时间(即高峰时间段长度)通过事务数接近调研业务单据量,从而确定一个,可以模拟生成环境压力的基准场景。最后,通

计算机组成原理试题及答案

《计算机组成原理》试题 一、(共30分) 1.(10分) (1)将十进制数+107/128化成二进制数、八进制数和十六进制数(3分) (2)请回答什么是二--十进制编码?什么是有权码、什么是无权码、各举一个你熟悉的有权码和无权码的例子?(7分) 2.已知X=0.1101,Y=-0.0101,用原码一位乘法计算X*Y=?要求写出计算过程。(10分) 3.说明海明码能实现检错纠错的基本原理?为什么能发现并改正一位错、也能发现二位错,校验位和数据位在位数上应满足什么条件?(5分) 4.举例说明运算器中的ALU通常可以提供的至少5种运算功能?运算器中使用多累加器的好处是什么?乘商寄存器的基本功能是什么?(5分) 二、(共30分) 1.在设计指令系统时,通常应从哪4个方面考虑?(每个2分,共8分) 2.简要说明减法指令SUB R3,R2和子程序调用指令的执行步骤(每个4分,共8分) 3.在微程序的控制器中,通常有哪5种得到下一条指令地址的方式。(第个2分,共10分) 4.简要地说明组合逻辑控制器应由哪几个功能部件组成?(4分) 三、(共22分) 1.静态存储器和动态存储器器件的特性有哪些主要区别?各自主要应用在什么地方?(7分) 2.CACHE有哪3种基本映象方式,各自的主要特点是什么?衡量高速缓冲存储器(CACHE)性能的最重要的指标是什么?(10分) 3.使用阵列磁盘的目的是什么?阵列磁盘中的RAID0、RAID1、RAID4、RAID5各有什么样的容错能力?(5分) 四、(共18分) 1.比较程序控制方式、程序中断方式、直接存储器访问方式,在完成输入/输出操作时的优缺点。(9分) 2.比较针式、喷墨式、激光3类打印机各自的优缺点和主要应用场所。(9分) 答案 一、(共30分) 1.(10分) (1) (+107/128)10 = (+1101011/10000000)2 = (+0.1101011)2 = (+0.153)8 = (+6B)16 (2) 二-十进制码即8421码,即4个基2码位的权从高到低分别为8、4、2、1,使用基码的0000,0001,0010,……,1001这十种组合分别表示0至9这十个值。4位基二码之间满足二进制的规则,而十进制数位之间则满足十进制规则。 1

端口镜像典型配置举例

端口镜像典型配置举例 1.5.1 本地端口镜像配置举例 1. 组网需求 某公司内部通过交换机实现各部门之间的互连,网络环境描述如下: ●研发部通过端口GigabitEthernet 1/0/1接入Switch C; ●市场部通过端口GigabitEthernet 1/0/2接入Switch C; ●数据监测设备连接在Switch C的GigabitEthernet 1/0/3端口上。 网络管理员希望通过数据监测设备对研发部和市场部收发的报文进行监控。 使用本地端口镜像功能实现该需求,在Switch C上进行如下配置: ●端口GigabitEthernet 1/0/1和GigabitEthernet 1/0/2为镜像源端口; ●连接数据监测设备的端口GigabitEthernet 1/0/3为镜像目的端口。 2. 组网图 图1-3 配置本地端口镜像组网图 3. 配置步骤 配置Switch C: # 创建本地镜像组。

system-view [SwitchC] mirroring-group 1 local # 为本地镜像组配置源端口和目的端口。 [SwitchC] mirroring-group 1 mirroring-port GigabitEthernet 1/0/1 GigabitEthernet 1/0/2 both [SwitchC] mirroring-group 1 monitor-port GigabitEthernet 1/0/3 # 显示所有镜像组的配置信息。 [SwitchC] display mirroring-group all mirroring-group 1: type: local status: active mirroring port: GigabitEthernet1/0/1 both GigabitEthernet1/0/2 both monitor port: GigabitEthernet1/0/3 配置完成后,用户就可以在数据监测设备上监控研发部和市场部收发的所有报文。

计算机原理 试题及答案

计算机组成原理试卷A 一、选择题(每小题2分,共30分) 1.下列数中最小的数是______。 A.(100100)2 B.(43)8 C.(110010)BCD D.(25)16 2.计算机经历了从器件角度划分的四代发展历程,但从系统结构上来看,至今绝大多数计算机仍属于______型计算机。 A.实时处理 B.智能化 C.并行 D.冯.诺依曼 3.存储器是计算机系统中的记忆设备,它主要用来______。 A.存放数据 B.存放程序 C.存放微程序 D.存放数据和程序 4.以下四种类型指令中,执行时间最长的是______。 A.RR型指令 B.RS型指令 C.SS型指令 D.程序控制指令 5. 计算机的外围设备是指______。 A.输入/输出设备 B.外存储器 C.远程通信设备 D.除了CPU和内存以外的其它设备 6.堆栈寻址方式中,设A为通用寄存器,SP为堆栈指示器,M SP为SP指示器的栈顶单元,如果操作动作是:(A)→M SP,(SP)-1→SP,那么出栈操作的动作应为______。 A.(M SP)→A,(SP)+1→SP B.(SP)+1→SP,(M SP)→A C.(SP)-1→SP,(M SP)→A D.(M SP)→A,(SP)-1→SP 7.某寄存器中的值有时是地址,因此只有计算机的______才能识别它。 A.译码器 B.判别程序 C.指令 D.时序信号 8. 寄存器间接寻址方式中,操作数处在______。 A.通用寄存器 B.主存单元 C.程序计数器 D.堆栈 9. 假定下列字符码中有奇偶校验位,但没有数据错误,采用偶校验的字符码是______。 A.11001011 B.11010110 C.11000001 D.1100101 10.不是发生中断请求的条件是______。 A.一条指令执行结束 B.一次I/O操作结束 C.机器内部发生故障 D.一次DMA操作结束 11.指令系统中采用不同寻址方式的目的主要是______。 A实现存贮程序和程序控制B缩短指令长度,扩大寻址空间,提高编程灵活性C可以直接访问外存D提供扩展操作码的可能并降低指令译码难度 12.某SRAM芯片,其容量为512×8位,除电源和接地端外,该芯片引出线的最小数目应 是______。 A 23 B 25 C 50 D 19 13.算术右移指令执行的操作是______。 A 符号位填0,并顺次右移1位,最低位移至进位标志位;

端口镜像配置

的需要,也迫切需要

例如,模块1中端口1和端口2同属VLAN1,端口3在VLAN2,端口4和5在VLAN2,端口2监听端口1和3、4、5, set span 1/1,1/3-5 1/2 2950/3550/3750 格式如下: #monitor session number source interface mod_number/port_number both #monitor session number destination interface mod_mnumber/port_number //rx-->指明是进端口得流量,tx-->出端口得流量 both 进出得流量 for example: 第一条镜像,将第一模块中的源端口为1-10的镜像到端口12上面; #monitor session 1 source interface 1/1-10 both #monitor session 1 destination interface 1/12 第二条镜像,将第二模块中的源端口为13-20的镜像到端口24上面; #monitor session 2 source interface 2/13-20 both #monitor session 2 destination interface 2/24 当有多条镜像、多个模块时改变其中的参数即可。 Catalyst 2950 3550不支持port monitor C2950#configure terminal C2950(config)# C2950(config)#monitor session 1 source interface fastEthernet 0/2 !--- Interface fa 0/2 is configured as source port. C2950(config)#monitor session 1 destination interface fastEthernet 0/3 !--- Interface fa0/3 is configured as destination port. 4配置命令 1. 指定分析口 feature rovingAnalysis add,或缩写 f r a, 例如: Select menu option: feature rovingAn alysis add Select analysis slot: 1?& nbsp; Select analysis port: 2 2. 指定监听口并启动端口监听 feature rovingAnalysis start,或缩写 f r sta, 例如: Select menu option: feature rovingAn alysis start Select slot to monitor ?(1-12): 1 Select port to monitor&nb sp;?(1-8): 3

CS架构性能测试

C/S测试 通常,客户/ 服务器软件测试发生在三个不同的层次: 1.个体的客户端应用以“ 分离的” 模式被测试——不考虑服务器和底层网络的运行; 2.客户端软件和关联的服务器端应用被一起测试,但网络运行不被明显的考虑; 3.完整的 C/S 体系结构,包括网络运行和性能,被测试。 下面的测试方法是 C/S 应用中经常用到的: 应用功能测试客户端应用被独立地执行,以揭示在其运行中的错误。 服务器测试——测试服务器的协调和数据管理功能,也考虑服务器性能(整体反映时间和数据吞吐量)。 数据库测试——测试服务器存储的数据的精确性和完整性,检查客户端应用提交的事务,以保证数据被正确地存储、更新和检索。 事务测试——创建一系列的测试以保证每类事务被按照需求处理。测试着重于处理的正确性,也关注性能问题。 网络通信测试——这些测试验证网络节点间的通信正常地发生,并且消息传递、事务和相关的网络交通无错的发生。 C/S结构与B/S结构的特点分析 为了区别于传统的C/S模式,才特意将其称为B/S模式。认识到这些结构的特征,对于系统的选型而言是很关键的。 1、系统的性能 在系统的性能方面,B/S占有优势的是其异地浏览和信息采集的灵活性。任何时间、任何地点、任何系统,只要可以使用浏览器上网,就可以使用B/S系统的终端。 不过,采用B/S结构,客户端只能完成浏览、查询、数据输入等简单功能,绝大部分工作由服务器承担,这使得服务器的负担很重。采用C/S结构时,客户端和服务器端都能够处理任务,这虽然对客户机的要求较高,但因此可以减轻服务器的压力。而且,由于客户端使用浏览器,使得网上发布的信息必须是以HTML 格式为主,其它格式文件多半是以附件的形式存放。而HTML格式文件(也就是Web页面)不便于编辑修改,给文件管理带来了许多不便。

计算机原理-答案

《计算机原理》答案 一、填空题 1、1024 1024 1024 2、运算器、控制器、存储器、输入设备、输出设备 1、内存储器外存储器 2、打字键区_、功能键区、游标/控制键区__、数字键区_ 3、处理器、文件、存储器、作业、 4、多任务、图形界面 5、您的计算机进入睡眠状态、关闭计算机、重新启动计算机和重新启动计算机并切换到 MS___DOS方式(M)。 6、两 7、三 8、用户的帐号 9、不同性质的概念 二、简答题 1、简述计算机的工作原理。 计算机仅有硬件,计算机只有运算的可能性,如果计算机进行计算、控制等功能的话,计算机还必须配有必要的软件。所谓软件就是指使用计算机的各种程序。(1)指令和程序的概念指令就是让计算机完成某个操作所发出的指令或命令,即计算机完成某个操作的依据。 一条指令通常有两个部分组成,前面是操作码部分,后面是操作数部分。操作码是指该指令要完成的操作,操作数是指参加运算的数或者数所在的单元地址。一台计算机的所有指令的集合,称为该计算机的指令系统。 使用者根据解决某一问题的步骤,选用一条条指令进行有许的排列。计算机执行了这一指令序列,便可完成预定的任务。这一指令序列就称为程序。显然,程序中的每一条指令必须是所用计算机的指令系统中的指令,因此指令系统是系统提供给使用者编制程序的基本依据。指令系统反映了计算机的基本功能,不同的计算机其指令系统也不相同。 (2)计算机执行指令的过程 计算机执行指令一般分为两个阶段:第一阶段,将要执行的指令从内存取到CPU内;第二阶段,CPU对屈辱的该指令进行分析译码,判断该条指令要完成的操作,然后向各部件发出完成该操作的控制信号,完成该指令的功能。当一条指令执行完后就进入下一条指令的取指操作。一般将第一阶段取指令的操作称为取指周期,将第二阶段称为执行周期。 (3)程序的执行过程 程序是一系列指令的有序集合构成,计算机执行程序就是、执行这系列指令。CPU从内存读出一条指令到CPU执行,该指令执行完,再从内存读出下一条指令到CPU内执行。CPU 不断取指令,执行指令,这就是程序的执行过程。 2、计算机有哪些应用领域? 目前,电子计算机已经在工业、农业、财贸、经济、国防、科技及社会生活的各个领域中得到极其广泛的应用。归纳起来分以下几个方面。科学计算数据处理自动控制计算机辅助工程人工智能 3、什么是操作系统? 操作系统是计算机软件系统的核心和基础,它提供了软件开发和运行的环境。有了操作系统,计算机的各个部件才得以协调工作,得到有效管理。 4、文档是如何创建、关闭和打开的?其内容是如何进行复制、删除和移动的? 创建;在WORD窗口中选择文件菜单中的新建,即可新建一个文档 关闭:所谓关闭文档,即对当前文档存盘并退出对该文档的处理,只需要在文件菜单中选择关闭命令,或者用鼠标单击文档窗口右上角的关闭按钮。如果关闭文档之前尚未保存文档,则系统会给出提示,询问是否保存对该文档的修改。 打开;(1)在WINDOWS的资源管理器中或我的电脑窗口中找到需要打开的WORD文档,然后

沙发性能测试

1. 作用 家具性能测试是一种加速使用的疲劳和强度承受能力的测试方法,可以用来评估产品能否达到预期的设计要求。 2.GSA沙发性能测试 2.1 测试方法 GSA性能测试基于循环递增加载模式(图1)。测试开始时先给沙发加一个起始载荷,这个载荷以20次/分的频率循环加力25000/次。循环结束后,载荷增加一定量,然后再循环25000次。当载荷达到所需求的水平,或沙发框架或部件破环时测试才结束。 2.2测度设备 GSA沙发性能测试是在一套特别设计的汽缸-管道支架系统上进行的(如照片所示)。气缸在压缩空气机的推动下,以20次/分的循环频率对被测沙发加载。加载循环次数是由一个可编程逻辑控制器和可重置电子记数系统进行记录的。当沙发框架或部件破坏时,限制开关被激活并停止测试。 2.3主要的测试类型 图2所示是沙发的基本框架图,沙发框架可以分成3个部分:坐基框架系统、侧边扶手框架系统和后靠框架系统。根据沙发通常的受力状态,可以进行以下几种测试: 3 测试数据的讨论 3.1垂直坐力测试(seat foundation load test)(图3), 在垂直坐力作用下,主要的座位支撑框架部位承受很大的应力,如果其中任何一个部件破坏,整个沙发也就很快破坏了。 前横档和后横档破坏的主要原因是其尺寸大小,不过实木横档上有太多交叉纹理和太大太多的节疤刀会引起横档破坏。横档底部的节疤破坏性最大,因为这里所受的拉应力最大,如果支撑框架部件主要是由木榫钉为主要连接件,横档破坏常常起于横档上用于连接座位撑档的榫钉孔处,然后扩大到整个横档截面上。另外在测试中,前横档和前支柱的接头也经常是破坏发生的地方,既有在垂直面的破坏,也有前后方向的破坏。这些破坏的接头大多是由于没有加用涂胶支撑木块来加强连接,而

相关主题
文本预览
相关文档 最新文档